Rationale
Nonverbal cues play a crucial role in communication, often conveying emotions and attitudes more effectively than words However, these cues vary significantly across cultures, leading to potential misunderstandings when individuals from diverse backgrounds interact Misinterpretations of nonverbal signals can create confusion and hinder effective communication.
In class, teachers of English interact with their students in the ways thought as
Cultural factors significantly influence the interaction between teachers and students, as educators communicate through both verbal and nonverbal means The perception of nonverbal cues can lead to varying interpretations, with teachers appearing either encouraging or discouraging based on students' responses This study aims to investigate the frequency and nature of nonverbal cues used in classrooms at Vietnam Maritime University and Haiphong Private University, as well as how these cues are perceived by students.
Objectives of the study and research questions
This study aims to investigate the use of specific nonverbal cues by American and Vietnamese English teachers in the classroom Additionally, it seeks to compare the application of these nonverbal cues between the two groups of educators.
From those objectives, the following research questions are raised:
1- How often are selected nonverbal cues used by American and Vietnamese teachers of English in class?
2- To what extent are the American teachers of English different from the Vietnamese teachers of English in using the selected nonverbal cues in the particular situations in class?
3- What are the students‟ attitudes to their teachers‟ nonverbal cues?
Scope of the study
This study focuses on the three primary types of nonverbal cues used by American and Vietnamese English teachers in the classroom: eye contact, hand gestures, and facial expressions It also highlights the comparison of the frequency with which these nonverbal cues are employed by the selected teachers from both cultures.
The study is conducted in areas of classroom interaction between American and Vietnamese teachers of English with their Vietnamese students at Vietnam Maritime University and Haiphong Private University.
Methodology
This research utilizes a mixed methods approach, primarily employing survey questionnaires to gather data from participants, while also incorporating observational techniques to enhance the data collection process.
A study was conducted involving 200 students across 10 English classes at Vietnam Maritime University and Haiphong Private University The classes were taught by a combination of 10 native English teachers from the United States and 10 Vietnamese teachers, providing a diverse learning experience for the students.
Step 1: giving the teachers questionnaires about their nonverbal behaviors in teaching to identify some main nonverbal cues they often use in class
Step 2: giving the students questionnaires about their attitudes to these common nonverbal cues
Step 3: conducting observations The participants are observed in classroom by recording videos
The observations are conducted during a usual teaching period (45 minutes) and cover the following situations:
(1) The teacher is teaching/ giving instructions
(2) Students are making noise/ doing private things
(4) Students are answering teacher’s questions
Observations are conducted with minimal disruption to classroom activities and schedules, focusing on identifying any discrepancies between the responses of teachers and students.
Structure of the study
The study is structured as follows Part A: Introduction
2 Objectives of the study and research questions
LITERATURE REVIEW
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
Communication and culture are intricately linked, capturing the interest of many researchers Essentially, communication serves as a vital tool that connects individuals and nations, showcasing their unique cultures through the exchange of messages It is crucial to clearly define this concept to fully understand its implications.
Communication is a multifaceted process where individuals exchange information, ideas, and emotions through various means, including spoken and written words, body language, personal mannerisms, and contextual elements that enhance the message's significance This comprehensive definition encapsulates both the methods and content of communication.
In terms of communication components, Nguyen Quang (2008:44) develops a flowchart of communication that is well appreciated and widely cited.
Figure 3 Nguyen Quang’s flowchart of communication
Communication is made up of various elements According to Hybels and Weaver (1992: 6) they are: senders and receivers, messages, channels, noise, feedback, and setting
Communication is a two-way process involving the sending and receiving of messages Senders utilize both verbal and nonverbal techniques to craft their messages, while receivers interpret and respond to these messages through verbal and nonverbal means.
A message represents the senders‟ ideas traveling to the receivers A message can be composed in many different forms, such as an oral presentation, a written document, an advertisement or just a comment
Communication involves the transmission of messages from a sender to a receiver through various channels These channels can include spoken words, radio, television, websites, or written forms such as letters and magazines In face-to-face interactions, the main channels utilized are sound and sight, allowing individuals to listen and observe one another.
Feedback refers to the receiver's reaction to the sender's message, conveyed through various verbal and nonverbal responses It plays a crucial role in helping the sender understand the receiver's interpretation of the message and identify areas for improvement.
Setting The setting is where the communication occurs Settings, formal or informal, can be a significant influence on communication
Noise is interference that keeps a message from being understood or accurately interpreted Noise occurs between sender – receivers, and it comes in three forms: external, internal, and semantic.
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Students who study cultures and cross-cultural communication are to various degrees, aware of three terms of culture- related communication:
- Intra-cultural communication is communication between people who live in the same country and come from the same cultural background
- Intercultural communication is communication between people who live in the same country but come from different cultural backgrounds
- Cross-cultural communication is communication between people who live in different countries and come from different cultural back grounds.
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATON
Verbal communication expresses messages through spoken words, while nonverbal communication conveys meaning beyond language Research shows that nonverbal cues are often more trustworthy than verbal ones, making them essential for audiences to accurately grasp the speaker's intent.
Levine and Adelman (1993: 100) describe nonverbal communication as a "silent language" that encompasses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, and conversational distances However, their perspective appears limited, as it does not fully capture the complexity of nonverbal communication beyond merely being "silent."
Nguyen Quang (2008: 61) has given his definition of nonverbal communication:
Nonverbal communication encompasses all elements of a message that are not expressed verbally but are conveyed through vocal and non-vocal means It includes paralinguistic factors, such as tone and volume, as well as extralinguistic factors like body language (gestures, postures, and facial expressions), object language (clothing and jewelry), and environmental language (proxemics and setting).
1.4.2 The importance of nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication plays a crucial role in our interactions, accounting for approximately 60% of communication, as noted by Hall (1959) It is often considered more trustworthy than verbal expressions, especially when nonverbal and verbal cues conflict, leading people to rely more on actions than words Many individuals are largely unaware of their own postures, gestures, and facial expressions Birdwhistell (1970), as referenced by Nguyen Quang (2008: 63), highlights that the average person only speaks for about ten or eleven minutes daily, with each sentence lasting around 2.5 seconds In face-to-face conversations, verbal communication constitutes just 35%, while a significant 65% is attributed to nonverbal behavior.
Nonverbal cues are important because:
- People more easily remember what they see than what they hear
- Nonverbal communication occurs more often than verbal communication
- People can easily be cheated by verbal cues but much harder by nonverbal ones
According to Nguyen Quang (2008: 49), nonverbal communication has 4 main functions:
Nonverbal behavior enhances verbal communication, making compliments more impactful For instance, saying "You are beautiful" without accompanying facial expressions can come across as dull or even negative By incorporating nonverbal cues such as a smile and warm eye contact, your words gain emotional depth, transforming the compliment into a more powerful and genuine expression.
Nonverbal behavior can often contradict verbal communication For instance, if a teacher frowns while telling a student, “Good” after they receive a bad mark, the negative expression undermines the positive word, creating confusion about the intended message.
Nonverbal behavior plays a crucial role in managing verbal interactions, as it helps speakers recognize when to pause or end their conversation Key nonverbal cues, such as eye contact, gestures, and facial expressions, signal the appropriate moments to adjust communication For example, if I notice my friend looking away or giving a thumbs down while I’m speaking, I instantly understand it's time to stop talking.
Nonverbal behavior often serves as a substitute for verbal communication, with many individuals favoring nonverbal cues over words For instance, when greeting friends, people may choose gestures or facial expressions instead of verbal greetings.
“Hi” to them, I just smile or show a V gesture My friends not only understand my greeting to them, but also know how glad I feel when meeting them
Nguyen Quang (2007, 83) presents a flowchart illustrating nonverbal communication, which, unlike verbal communication characterized by intra-language, is expressed through paralanguage and extra-language This dissertation focuses on body language, specifically examining eye contact, gestures, and facial expressions, which are key components of extra-language A detailed discussion of these elements will be provided in the following chapter.
Figure 4: Nguyen Quang’s flowchart of nonverbal communication
NONVERBAL CUES
EYE CONTACT
2.1.1 Nature and importance of eye contact
Eye contact, or eye gaze, refers to the act of looking directly into someone's eyes during conversation It plays a crucial role in effective communication, as our eyes convey a multitude of emotions through their movements Recognized for its significant impact, eye contact is often studied as a unique element of interpersonal interaction, even though it is part of the broader facial expression.
In Western cultures, such as those of Americans, English, and Australians, direct eye contact is often seen as a sign of trust and engagement during communication Conversely, in Eastern cultures, particularly in Vietnam, maintaining less eye contact is considered polite, especially in interactions involving different social statuses or genders This cultural distinction suggests that Americans may be more inclined to use direct eye contact, while Vietnamese individuals may adopt a more reserved approach Therefore, it can be hypothesized that American teachers tend to utilize more direct eye contact with their students compared to their Vietnamese counterparts.
Eye contact can be classified in various ways, but according to Nguyen Quang (2008: 126), it is primarily divided into two categories: direct and indirect eye contact.
Direct eye-contact consists of three sub-types:
- Soft, warm eye contact: it often expresses truthfulness, sincerity, interest, enjoyment
- Staring: it often conveys anger, conceit …
- Wide eyes: it often reveals confusion, surprise, fear …
Indirect eye-contact/ eye-contact avoidance, consists of the following sub-types:
- Looking upward: it often expresses conceit, evasion, uncertainty …
- Looking downward: it often shows shyness, embarrassment, shame, telling lies
- Looking sideway: it often conveys untruthfulness, I-don‟t-care attitude…
Eye contact can be categorized into four primary types: intimate gaze, business gaze, social gaze, and public gaze (Nguyen Quang, 2008: 126) This thesis specifically explores how English teachers utilize both direct and indirect eye contact to engage with their students during class.
HAND GESTURES
2.2.1 Nature and importance of hand gestures
Hand gestures play a crucial role in communication, often used both consciously and unconsciously to enhance meaning For example, people commonly wave their hands to say goodbye or clap to show appreciation and encouragement Thus, incorporating hand gestures makes interactions more expressive and impactful.
As Verderber (1990: 87) defines that: “Hand gestures are all movements of palms, arms and fingers We use hand gestures consciously to describe or emphasize.”
Gestures encompass a broad range of conscious and unconscious movements, serving as vital forms of expression Webster’s Dictionary defines gestures as bodily motions that convey ideas, sentiments, or attitudes In alignment with this, Nguyen Quang (2003) elaborates that gestures involve the independent or combined movements of hands, legs, and body in communication, aiming to emphasize or substitute words to express or conceal attitudes and articulate the speaker's thoughts.
Gestures play a crucial role in human communication and can be classified in various ways Axtell (1988) identifies three main categories: Instinctive, Coded, and Acquired gestures In this thesis, the focus is primarily on Acquired gestures, which are integral to social interactions and often reflect specific cultural nuances, potentially leading to culture shocks in cross-cultural communication Acquired gestures are further divided into three types: Adaptors, which are natural and meaningless hand movements; Symbolic gestures, which serve as a specialized vocabulary with communicative significance; and Conversational gestures, which are hand movements that complement verbal communication.
Following are some specific hand gestures which appear for analysis in the thesis: a The OK sign
- The OK sign (or the ring gesture) usually means OK, good, fine, all correct… originally coming from America
- In France, besides, it is understood as “Zero”, or “Unvalued”
- In Vietnam, according to Nguyen Quang (2008:161),
21/ 60 people understand this sign in the same way as American; the rest believe that means “Nothing” or „Zero” due to its suggestive appearance b The V-gesture
- It is commonly known as the sign of “Victory” or
- However, if the palm is reversed, it carries the negative meaning - “Up yours”
- Many Vietnamese cannot realize the difference between the palm out and in Besides, some Vietnamese use this sign as “Number 2” or
“Cuckold” c The thumb-up and thumb-down gesture
- The thumb-up gesture means paying someone a compliment Many Vietnamese know it although they seldom use it Moreover, the thumb-up sign is used as “hitchhiking” in North America
- The thumb-down has opposite meaning to the thumb-up, it means bad or disparagement d Pointing
- The most active gestures belong to the movements of thumbs and index fingers The use of index fingers pointing at partners may convey the speaker‟s anger, superiority, assertiveness, …
- Sometimes, Vietnamese use this sign to call others, usually from superiors to inferiors e Beckoning gesture
- In some European, Latin-American and Asian countries the beckoning gestures are usually performed by giving hand forward, palm down, all fingers are moved forward and backward
- In Vietnam, this gesture should not be used to communicate with superiors or the old It does not show a high respect to a partner
- In the U.S, people beckon with the palm up while in Vietnam, most of people beckon with the palm down and fingers moving toward the body f Clapping hands
- This gesture shows approval, praise, encouragement, agreement,…
METHODOLOGY
Participants
The study gathers data from a sample of 10 American and 10 Vietnamese English teachers at Vietnam Maritime University and Haiphong Private University in Haiphong city, along with feedback from 200 students taught by both groups Notably, the researcher does not factor in the teachers' gender or marital status in her thesis.
Data collection instruments
To achieve the objectives of the study, both qualitative and quantitative methods are employed to make the study more valid and reliable
According to Mason, as referenced in Mackey & Gass (2005:175), the observation method is a research technique where the researcher immerses themselves in a specific setting to systematically observe various dimensions, interactions, relationships, and events This approach serves as a valuable tool for investigating behavioral and social actions.
Before observations are recorded, a list of different nonverbal cues and situations has been given for the researcher to take notes and follow more easily
To minimize the observer's impact on the classroom environment, the researcher adopts a non-participant role, positioning herself discreetly at the back of the room Additionally, a camera is placed in the same area to prevent drawing attention from the students.
The data collected from observations is used to answer the question: How often do the teachers of English use nonverbal cues in their class when interacting with students?
A questionnaire is a written tool that presents respondents with a series of questions or statements for them to answer, either by writing their responses or selecting from provided options (Brown, 2001) Utilizing survey questionnaires is an efficient and cost-effective method for researchers conducting studies.
The direct questionnaire method was selected for data collection due to its effectiveness in providing clear and comprehensive responses from participants This approach allows researchers to seek clarification and additional details, ensuring a thorough understanding of the participants' answers.
The study utilizes tailored questionnaires for three participant groups: American English teachers, Vietnamese English teachers, and Vietnamese students taught by both The teachers' questionnaires are structured into three sections, reflecting the main types of nonverbal communication identified in the literature review, and consist of six questions aimed at assessing the frequency of nonverbal cue usage in the classroom Similarly, the student questionnaire, also featuring six questions, explores how often they perceive their teachers using nonverbal cues during interactions and identifies their preferences While the majority of questions are closed-ended, some open-ended questions allow participants to express their thoughts more freely.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
EYE CONTACT
Always Frequently Sometimes Rarely Never
Table 1: Frequencies of using eye contact by American and Vietnamese teachers of English
Both American and Vietnamese teachers exhibit similarities in their use of direct eye contact, favoring soft, warm interactions while avoiding staring Research indicates that 100% of American teachers consistently maintain this type of eye contact, surpassing Vietnamese teachers by 20% This approach is likely linked to its positive impact on student encouragement While only 10% of both groups report never using staring, it remains largely avoided in classroom settings Notably, 50% of American teachers occasionally use staring, nearly double the 30% of their Vietnamese counterparts, highlighting a difference in frequency of this behavior.
Wide eyes serve as a notable contrast between American and Vietnamese teachers, with none of the American educators avoiding this behavior, while 60% frequently use wide eyes, a rate six times higher than their Vietnamese counterparts Consequently, American teachers maintain a significantly higher frequency of direct eye contact with their students compared to Vietnamese teachers.
Both American and Vietnamese informants exhibit notable similarities in their use of indirect eye contact, which is not consistently maintained by either group However, American informants tend to avoid indirect eye contact more frequently Teachers with over four years of experience in Vietnam are more likely to use indirect eye contact compared to their less experienced counterparts, with one informant often looking sideways and nearly half occasionally employing these behaviors, while the remainder does so rarely In contrast, Vietnamese teachers utilize indirect eye contact more frequently, with nearly half frequently or sometimes using these cues, while only 10%-20% report using them rarely.
Figure 5: Eye contact by American teachers of English in specific situations
Figure 6: Eye contact by Vietnamese teachers of English in specific situations
(S1): The teacher is teaching/ giving instructions (S2): Students are making noise/ doing private things (S3): Students are raising questions
(S4): Students are answering teacher‟s questions
Soft, warm Staring Wide eyes Looking upward
Soft, warm Staring Wide eyes Looking upward
The data indicates that both informants predominantly utilize soft, warm eye contact, making it their preferred eye behavior in various situations.
In a study comparing classroom management techniques, it was found that 80% of American teachers and 60-70% of Vietnamese teachers allow their students to take control of the classroom Conversely, staring is primarily used to address problematic behavior, with American teachers employing this tactic 10% less than their Vietnamese counterparts Additionally, 30% of American teachers utilize staring when students respond to questions, likely as a means of demonstrating attentiveness.
In Vietnam, only a few teachers utilize wide eye contact, employing it infrequently (10-30%) in specific situations In contrast, American educators favor wide eyes as a means of demonstrating attentiveness, using it 40% of the time during lectures, 10% when students are noisy, and over 50% when actively listening to their students.
In a comparative analysis of indirect eye contact between Vietnamese and American teachers, it is noted that while Vietnamese teachers exhibit higher rates of eye contact, both groups display similar patterns Both cultures utilize upward and downward glances infrequently, with Americans at 10% and Vietnamese at around 20% However, sideway glances are the most common, particularly among Vietnamese teachers during lectures and student interactions, where they reach 30-40% In contrast, American teachers predominantly look away in situations where they struggle to manage their students, with this behavior peaking at 40%.
Data analysis reveals that American teachers favor direct eye contact over indirect eye contact, exhibiting significantly more direct engagement compared to their Vietnamese counterparts In contrast, Vietnamese teachers tend to utilize indirect eye contact more frequently than American teachers.
However, the American teachers teaching in Vietnam more than 4, 5 years tend to employ their indirect eye contact in a similar way to their Vietnamese counterparts
Figure 7: Students’ attitudes to their teachers’ eye contact
According to the chart, soft, warm eye contact is favored by 85% of students, while staring is universally disliked Students appreciate warm eye contact from their teachers, as it fosters a positive learning environment and strengthens rapport Conversely, only 30% of students feel comfortable with staring, which is often associated with being reprimanded for mistakes or distractions.
Soft,warm Staring Wide eyes Looking upward
A survey revealed that the majority of students have a positive perception of wide eyes, with 10% expressing strong approval, 30% liking it, and 35% feeling neutral Conversely, nearly 25% of participants find wide eyes unappealing, citing their strangeness and amusement as reasons Additionally, some students recall their teachers' warnings regarding this expression.
In contrast to the American cultural norm that associates eye contact with trustworthiness, Vietnamese people view indirect eye contact as acceptable during conversations This is exemplified by the fact that over 80% of students are comfortable with their teachers' indirect gaze, with many expressing strong approval for this behavior.
HAND GESTURES
Always Frequently Sometimes Rarely Never
Table 2: Frequencies of using hand gestures by American and Vietnamese teachers of
The data reveals that hand gestures are not consistently utilized by teachers in the classroom, with the "V" gesture being notably underused—90% of Vietnamese teachers and 70% of American teachers have never employed it Additionally, the OK sign, which was anticipated to be frequently used, is absent from the communication of 40% of American teachers and 60% of Vietnamese teachers.
A study on classroom gestures reveals that both American and Vietnamese teachers commonly use pointing and clapping hands, with 60% of American teachers frequently pointing compared to 30% of Vietnamese teachers Pointing is typically directed at visual aids or objects rather than students Clapping is notably more prevalent among Americans, with 60% engaging in this behavior, while only 20% of Vietnamese teachers do so Additionally, gestures such as the OK sign and thumbs up are utilized by both groups, but American teachers exceed their Vietnamese counterparts by over 10% Notably, 30% of American teachers use beckoning gestures, whereas none of the Vietnamese teachers report using this gesture regularly The remaining gestures are employed occasionally or rarely by both groups.
Research indicates that American teachers favor using hand gestures during vocabulary instruction, unlike their Vietnamese counterparts In observations of three classes, it was noted that American educators actively demonstrated vocabulary through actions, while Vietnamese teachers typically relied on dictionary references and verbal explanations.
Figure 8: Gestures by American teachers of English in specific situations
Figure 9: Gestures by Vietnamese teachers of English in specific situations
The OK sign The V gesture The thumb up/down
The OK sign The V gesture The thumb up/down
(S1): The teacher is teaching/ giving instructions (S2): Students are making noise/ doing private things (S3): Students are raising questions
(S4): Students are answering teacher‟s questions
As can be inferred from these above charts, hand gestures are frequently employed in most of the situations by the American teachers Among them, the most used are the
The use of gestures in educational settings varies significantly between Vietnamese and American teachers While gestures like the OK sign, thumbs up, and clapping hands are commonly used to encourage students and express positive attitudes, Vietnamese teachers primarily rely on pointing Both groups show limited use of the OK sign and V gesture, but American teachers utilize thumbs up and down more frequently, with 50% usage compared to only 20% among Vietnamese teachers Clapping hands is also less common among Vietnamese informants, with only 10% using it to acknowledge student responses, whereas American teachers employ it in all situations Interestingly, 30% of American teachers use clapping hands to regain control of their classrooms, aiming to capture students' attention rather than to encourage disruptive behavior.
In situation number 2, Vietnamese teachers exhibit a more restrained use of hand gestures during conversations, while they employ pointing more frequently to address students' problematic behavior, nearly twice as often as their American counterparts Conversely, in situations number 1 and 3, Americans utilize pointing significantly more than Vietnamese teachers This suggests that pointing is a habitual practice for Americans, whereas for Vietnamese teachers, it serves primarily as a tool for managing classroom disruptions.
Moreover, the Vietnamese informants also encourage their students through their
OK sign, thumb up, and clapping hands but the percentage is smaller than the Americans‟ owing to the distinction between these two cultures
Figure 10: Students’ attitudes to their teachers’ hand gestures
Most students have a strong preference for positive hand gestures, with approximately 80-90% favoring the OK sign, thumbs up, and clapping hands, while none oppose these gestures Although they appreciate the V gesture, it is rarely used by teachers Conversely, the thumbs down gesture, which has a negative connotation, is largely rejected by students, with only 10% accepting it, while 75% dislike it and 15% express outright hatred.
Some students feel unpleasant when their teachers use the thumb down, pointing and beckoning with palm upward They may be claimed as the negative gestures, whereas
In America, pointing and beckoning typically hold a neutral connotation, often used by seniors to address those in lower positions While students may reject beckoning with an upward palm, they generally accept it with a downward palm, reflecting their unique cultural beliefs Teachers with over four years of experience in Vietnam adapt their beckoning gestures to align with their students' cultural preferences by using a downward palm.
Many students find it challenging to fully understand their native teachers without the aid of gestures, which they believe enhance comprehension They express a greater interest in lectures that incorporate gestures, viewing these hand movements as valuable tools for lesson explanation, positive engagement, and effective classroom management.
Suggestions for further study
Ferrando , cited in Nguyen Quang ( 2008: 27), believes that “Culture is everything that people have, think and do as a member of a society”
Figure 1 Ferrando’s definition of culture
Levine and Adelman's iceberg of culture metaphor illustrates that culture has both visible and hidden elements, with much of its influence being subtle yet profound While the observable aspects of culture may not lead to cross-cultural misunderstandings, it is the underlying, less visible components that significantly shape individual behavior and interpersonal interactions.
Figure 2 Levine and Adelman’s definition of culture
According to UNESCO's definition from the 1982 World Conference on Cultural Policies in Mexico City, culture encompasses the intricate blend of spiritual, material, intellectual, and emotional attributes that define a society or social group This broad concept includes not only the arts and literature but also lifestyle practices, fundamental human rights, value systems, traditions, and beliefs.
Nguyen Quang (2008) defines culture as a comprehensive blend of tangible and intangible expressions shaped by a society or social group, highlighting how these elements influence behaviors and reactions in various situations This definition underscores the uniqueness of each society or group, not only through the presence of these cultural expressions but also in their proportionality and visibility, which differentiates one group from another.
The relationship between communication and culture has garnered significant interest among researchers, as communication serves as a vital link connecting individuals and nations while showcasing their unique cultural identities through the exchange of messages However, it is essential to provide clear definitions of this concept to fully understand its implications.
According to Saundra Hybels and Richard L Weaver H (1992:5), communication encompasses the process through which individuals exchange information, ideas, and emotions, incorporating not just spoken and written language but also body language, personal mannerisms, and contextual elements that enhance the meaning of a message This definition effectively addresses both the methods and the substance of communication.
In terms of communication components, Nguyen Quang (2008:44) develops a flowchart of communication that is well appreciated and widely cited.
Figure 3 Nguyen Quang’s flowchart of communication
Communication is made up of various elements According to Hybels and Weaver (1992: 6) they are: senders and receivers, messages, channels, noise, feedback, and setting
Communication is a two-way process involving both sending and receiving messages Senders utilize verbal and nonverbal techniques to craft their messages, while receivers interpret these messages and respond in kind, employing both verbal and nonverbal responses.
A message represents the senders‟ ideas traveling to the receivers A message can be composed in many different forms, such as an oral presentation, a written document, an advertisement or just a comment
Communication occurs through various channels that connect the sender and receiver These channels can include spoken words, radio, television, websites, or written forms like letters and magazines In face-to-face interactions, the main channels are sound and sight, as we engage by listening and observing one another.
Feedback is the response of the receiver to the sender's message, conveyed through various verbal and nonverbal cues It enables the sender to understand the receiver's interpretation of the message and identify areas for improvement.
Setting The setting is where the communication occurs Settings, formal or informal, can be a significant influence on communication
Noise is interference that keeps a message from being understood or accurately interpreted Noise occurs between sender – receivers, and it comes in three forms: external, internal, and semantic
Students who study cultures and cross-cultural communication are to various degrees, aware of three terms of culture- related communication:
- Intra-cultural communication is communication between people who live in the same country and come from the same cultural background
- Intercultural communication is communication between people who live in the same country but come from different cultural backgrounds
- Cross-cultural communication is communication between people who live in different countries and come from different cultural back grounds
Verbal communication relies on spoken words to convey messages, whereas nonverbal communication expresses meaning beyond words Research shows that nonverbal cues are often more trustworthy than verbal expressions, making them crucial for audiences to accurately interpret a speaker's intent.
Levine and Adelman (1993) describe nonverbal communication as a "silent language" that encompasses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, and conversational distances However, their perspective highlights only certain aspects of nonverbal communication, suggesting that it is not a fully comprehensive view and cannot be solely defined as "silent language."
Nguyen Quang (2008: 61) has given his definition of nonverbal communication:
Nonverbal communication encompasses all elements of a message that are conveyed without words, utilizing both vocal and non-vocal channels It includes paralinguistic factors, such as rate and volume of speech, as well as extralinguistic factors like body language—gestures, postures, and facial expressions Additionally, it involves object language, which refers to clothing and jewelry, and environmental language, which includes aspects like proxemics and the overall setting.
1.4.2 The importance of nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication plays a crucial role in human interaction, accounting for approximately 60% of all communication, as highlighted by Hall (1959) It is often considered more trustworthy than verbal expressions, especially when verbal and nonverbal cues conflict, leading people to rely more on actions than words Many individuals remain largely unaware of their own postures, gestures, and facial expressions Birdwhistell (1970), as referenced by Nguyen Quang (2008: 63), notes that the average person speaks for only about ten or eleven minutes each day, with individual sentences lasting around 2.5 seconds In face-to-face conversations, verbal communication constitutes just 35%, while a significant 65% is attributed to nonverbal behavior.
Nonverbal cues are important because:
- People more easily remember what they see than what they hear
- Nonverbal communication occurs more often than verbal communication
- People can easily be cheated by verbal cues but much harder by nonverbal ones
According to Nguyen Quang (2008: 49), nonverbal communication has 4 main functions:
Nonverbal behavior enhances verbal communication, as it adds emotional depth to spoken words For instance, simply saying "You are beautiful" without accompanying facial expressions can come across as dull or even convey unintended negative connotations By incorporating nonverbal cues like a genuine smile and warm eye contact, the compliment becomes more impactful and sincere, effectively conveying the intended message.
Nonverbal behavior can often contradict verbal communication, leading to confusion For instance, when a teacher frowns and tells a student who received a bad mark, "Good," the positive word is undermined by the negative expression, illustrating how body language can alter the interpretation of spoken words.
Nonverbal behavior plays a crucial role in managing verbal communication, as it helps speakers recognize when to pause or end their conversation Key nonverbal cues, such as eye contact, gestures, and facial expressions, can signal the appropriate timing for a speaker to stop For example, if a friend looks away or gives a thumbs down during a conversation, it prompts an immediate halt in the dialogue.