(LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ) Politeness strategies employed in salary negotiation by Vietnamese and Anglophone females in multi cultural workplace in Vietnam

INTRODUCTION

Rationale of the study

In recent years, the integration of women into the workforce has significantly expanded, with women increasingly taking on roles that demand advanced professional, analytical, and managerial skills, previously dominated by men (Rizzo, A.M & Mendez, C., 1990) Despite this progress, the challenges women face in the workplace have not been extensively studied, indicating a gap in academic research that merits further exploration.

Skepticism about women's capabilities in managerial roles has persisted since their entry into corporate hierarchies (Portello & Long, 1994) Researchers aim to challenge the outdated belief that women are inherently less skilled than men in negotiation, a notion that has hindered women's advancement in management Additionally, some theorists have investigated whether women communicate differently than men during negotiations, influenced by traditional cultural stereotypes and feminist theories (Korabik, Baril, & Watson, 1993).

The researcher, initially intrigued by the topic of female participation in the workplace, conducted an extensive search for relevant documents from various sources, including books, articles, magazines, and previous studies found in the University Library and online.

Negotiation in the workplace is a widely discussed topic among scholars, yet salary negotiation remains underexplored in academic research Furthermore, the specific roles and skills of women in workplace negotiations have not been thoroughly examined.

The connection between achieving sustainable development (SN) outcomes and the implementation of strategies such as negotiation, persuasion, and politeness has not been clearly established in existing literature.

The researcher, motivated by a personal interest in the dynamics between politeness strategies (PSs) and social norms (SN), is currently employed in a multicultural environment predominantly featuring female colleagues from Vietnamese and Anglo-Saxon backgrounds Leveraging the existing network within this workplace, the researcher aims to connect with a sufficient number of Vietnamese and Anglophone females in the field This unique context, coupled with the lack of previous studies on this topic at the university, has inspired the researcher to pursue a Master’s thesis titled “Politeness Strategies Employed in Salary Negotiation by Vietnamese and Anglophone Females in a Multicultural Workplace in Vietnam.”

Significance of the study

This study aims to provide practical insights for women in multicultural workplaces and the broader workforce, serving as a valuable reference for those interested in the application of problem-solving strategies (PSs) in professional settings If executed effectively, it will introduce a novel research area at the University, contributing significantly to existing literature on communication and negotiation skills.

Scope and scale of the study

This study investigates the use of politeness strategies (PSs) by Vietnamese and Anglophone females in multicultural workplaces, specifically within NGOs and foreign-aided projects in Hanoi, Vietnam The research focuses on the unique working conditions of the participants, highlighting the regular interactions among individuals from diverse nationalities in these environments.

The research is launched in order to investigate the utilization of PSs in typical situations of

SN by Vietnamese and Anglophone females in their multi-cultural workplace in Vietnam Specifically, the study aims at finding answers to the research questions:

1 What are Vietnamese and Anglophone females‟ general understanding and common habits in SN?

2 What are the PSs employed by Vietnamese and Anglophone females in SN in Vietnam multi-cultural workplace?

3 Are there any differences in the choice of PSs in SN between Vietnamese and Anglophone females? If yes, what may be the core reasons and implications?

4 What are the recommendations for both Vietnamese and Anglophone females to better attain their expectations in SN?

To address those questions above, the following hypotheses are made before the study is conducted:

- Vietnamese females may not have sound understanding and greatly appropriate habits in

Anglophone females with overseas work experience may be more adept at addressing specific challenges, yet there are still limitations present, highlighting the need for targeted suggestions to facilitate meaningful change.

Cultural differences between Vietnamese and Anglophone females significantly influence their use of politeness strategies (PSs) in the workplace While both groups share certain characteristics, Vietnamese women are more likely to employ positive and indirect strategies, whereas Anglophone women tend to favor negative strategies This divergence in approach leads to varying outcomes in their social negotiations (SN), shaped by these cultural distinctions and other related factors.

The research will be conducted in seek of the answers to the above-mentioned factors and to prove the hypotheses developed in advance

This study employs a combination of deductive and inductive methods to explore the research issue The deductive approach starts with a general concept and leads to specific conclusions, while the inductive method uses observations to formulate general principles A theoretical framework is established through a literature review, and the inductive method is applied to validate the initial hypotheses The research incorporates both quantitative and qualitative methods, utilizing questionnaires as the primary tool, supplemented by notes from discussions with informants Personal observations and insights from experienced professionals in the field significantly enhance the analysis and interpretation of the survey results.

The study is structured into three key sections: Part 1 - Introduction, Part 2 - Development, and Part 3 - Conclusions and Recommendations Part 1 outlines the rationale, significance, scope, objectives, and methodology of the research Part 2 is divided into three chapters: the first chapter reviews literature on speech acts theories and workplace negotiation, integrating scholarly viewpoints and previous findings Chapter 2 details the research methodology, including approaches and data collection instruments, while Chapter 3 presents and discusses the collected data Finally, Part 3 summarizes the major findings, conclusions, and recommendations, along with suggestions for future research, and includes references and annexes with relevant documents.

Organization of the study

The study is structured into three main sections: Part 1 - Introduction, Part 2 - Development, and Part 3 - Conclusions and Recommendations Part 1 outlines the rationale, significance, scope, objectives, and methodology of the research Part 2 is divided into three chapters: the first chapter reviews relevant literature on speech act theories and workplace negotiation, integrating scholarly perspectives and findings from previous studies Chapter 2 details the research methodology, including the approaches and data collection instruments used, while Chapter 3 presents and discusses the collected data Part 3 summarizes the key findings, conclusions, and recommendations, along with suggestions for future research The paper concludes with references and annexes containing the questionnaire and other pertinent documents.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction of speech acts: definition & classification

The philosopher J.L Austin (1911-1960) who first introduced and used the term “speech acts” claims that many utterances (things people say) are equivalent to actions When someone says:

The utterances "I name this ship Titanic" and "I now pronounce you husband and wife" exemplify how certain statements create new social or psychological realities These expressions encompass not only grammatical and lexical elements but also perform actions, highlighting that speaking is an act in itself (Austin, 1962) Such communicative actions, known as speech acts, have been extensively studied by philosophers and linguists, including Grice, Hymes, Searle, Levinson, Brown, Jule, Mey, and Thomas, since J.L Austin introduced the concept.

Speech acts play a crucial role in everyday communication, encompassing various functions such as thanking, congratulating, and requesting (Verschueren, 1977) In daily interactions, sentences often convey meanings that extend beyond their literal lexical and grammatical interpretations For example, when Vietnamese people greet friends with "How are you?", it is typically understood as a friendly greeting rather than a genuine inquiry about one's health This highlights the importance of context in understanding speech acts (Richards, 1985).

Speech acts are inherently actions rather than mere sentences, meaning that a single utterance can serve multiple functions For instance, the phrase "I'm thirsty" can simultaneously act as both a statement of need and a request for something to drink.

According to Austin, every utterance involves three interconnected acts: the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, and the perlocutionary act These acts are essential for meaningful communication, as they illustrate the dynamic between the speaker and the hearer In this context, the speaker (S) conveys a message to the hearer (H), engages in an action through that message, and ultimately influences the hearer’s response (Harnish, R.M., 2001).

- Locutionary acts are simply the speech acts that have taken place They are the physical acts of producing well-formed and meaningful utterances

Illocutionary acts are the genuine actions performed through utterances, where saying something equates to doing it, as seen in contexts like betting, making promises, welcoming, or warning Essentially, an illocutionary act embodies the speaker's or writer's intention behind their words It involves making statements, promises, threats, and other communicative expressions, all defined by the conventional force tied to the utterance People engage in these acts to convey statements, offers, complaints, and various other communicative purposes, collectively referred to as illocutionary force.

Perlocutionary acts refer to the impact that an utterance has on the listener, such as accepting a bet or a marriage proposal, feeling welcomed, or receiving a warning These acts involve influencing the audience's state of mind, knowledge, or attitude through spoken or written communication.

When we say, "It is so cold in this room," we are performing a locutionary act that conveys a specific meaning However, this statement may also serve as an illocutionary act, expressing our intention to complain or request action Consequently, the perlocutionary act may prompt someone to close the window or raise the room temperature.

A single locution can convey various illocutionary forces depending on the context For instance, the utterance "Don't you know that this is a non-smoking department?" can express different meanings, highlighting the complexity of communication in varying situations.

- A real question: S just wants to question whether or not H notices the fact that they are in a non-smoking department;

- A complaint: S is annoyed because H is smoking in a place where smoking is not allowed;

Undoubtedly, context proves its crucial role in interpreting such utterances

According to Yule (1996), illocutionary force is the most extensively analyzed type of speech act, often being the primary focus of the term "speech act." He highlights that this interpretation is typically narrow, centering on the illocutionary aspect of utterances Yule also provides a classification table for different types of speech acts.

Speech act type Direction of fit S=Speaker; X=Situation

Declarations Words change the world S causes X

Representatives Make words fit the world S believes X Expressives Make words fit the world S feels X

Directives Make the world fit words S wants X

Commissives Make the world fit words S intends X

Table 1: Speech acts classification proposed by Yule, G (1996)

In his 1990 work, J.R Searle expands on Yule's classification of speech acts by introducing the concept of the illocutionary point, which signifies the intended purpose behind an utterance Searle categorizes illocutionary acts into five distinct types: representatives, directives, commissives, expressives, and declarations, each serving a unique communicative function.

Representatives, also known as assertives, are speech acts where a speaker asserts a proposition to be true, utilizing verbs such as affirm, believe, conclude, deny, and report Essentially, representatives convey information about how things are or what they entail For example, a statement like "I believe that he will accept our pay rise request" exemplifies this type of speech act, as it communicates the speaker's belief regarding a specific situation.

- Directives: S tries to make H do something, with such words as: ask, beg, challenge, command, dare, invite, insist, request Eg.: Could you please turn down the volume a little bit?

Commissives are statements where an individual commits to a future action, utilizing verbs such as guarantee, pledge, promise, swear, vow, undertake, and warrant For example, a commitment might be expressed as, "I promise you a 10% salary increase at the beginning of next year if you successfully implement the three modules of the Middle Management Course in Kontum."

Expressives convey attitudes toward situations using verbs like apologize, appreciate, congratulate, deplore, detest, regret, thank, and welcome For instance, one might express a desire to increase a salary as a form of encouragement but ultimately regret that budget constraints prevent any raise.

Declarations are powerful utterances that change the external status or condition of an object or situation For example, phrases like "I now pronounce you man and wife," "I sentence you to be hanged by the neck until you be dead," and "I name this ship Titanic" illustrate how a simple statement can effect significant change.

Yule categorizes speech acts into five types and further distinguishes them into direct and indirect forms by integrating three structural forms—declarative, interrogative, and imperative—with three general communicative functions: statement, question, and command/request.

- In direct speech acts, S says what he/she means and there exists a direct relationship between a structure and function Eg “Please increase the temperature in this room a little bit.”

Speech acts in salary negotiation

Negotiation is a collaborative discussion between two or more parties aimed at resolving a conflict or reaching a mutually beneficial agreement This process can occur at various levels, including personal, corporate, or international contexts Parties engage in negotiation to create new solutions or address disputes that they cannot resolve independently Recognizing their conflicting interests, they seek to influence the outcome for a better deal rather than accepting what is offered Ultimately, they prioritize finding common ground over open conflict, yielding, or severing ties (Lax & Sebenius, 2006).

Negotiation often involves a give-and-take dynamic, as parties typically have interlocking goals that cannot be achieved independently, yet they may not desire the same outcomes This interdependence can result in either win-lose or win-win scenarios, influencing the appropriate negotiation approach Disputants may seek to compel compliance, modify positions for compromise, or create solutions that satisfy all parties The nature of their interdependence significantly affects their relationship, negotiation methods, and the eventual results of the discussions.

Mutual adjustment is a crucial factor in negotiations, as highlighted by Lax and Sebenius (2006) Both parties recognize their ability to influence each other's outcomes, leading to a dynamic process where they adjust their positions based on mutual interactions Effective negotiators focus on understanding these adjustments and the anticipated actions of the opposing side Successful negotiations require an exchange of information and a willingness to influence one another As negotiations progress, both parties propose changes to their positions, engaging in a necessary give-and-take process to reach a settlement If one party's proposals are consistently rejected without counteroffers, they may choose to terminate negotiations Ultimately, parties are reluctant to make significant concessions unless they perceive a willingness to compromise from the other side.

Negotiation is a key process for individuals to either transform unsatisfactory relationships or create new ones, as highlighted by Moore, C.W (1996) This area of study is known as negotiation theory, and professionals in this field are referred to as negotiators These experts often specialize in various domains, including union negotiations, leveraged buyouts, peace talks, and hostage situations, and may also hold titles such as diplomats, legislators, or brokers.

In his analysis of negotiation, Moore, C.W emphasizes that successful negotiations require a clear understanding of the problems at hand and the desires of each party involved He highlights the importance of distinguishing between issues, positions, interests, and settlement options when defining negotiation goals to ensure positive outcomes for all parties.

An issue refers to a matter or question that parties disagree on, often framed as a problem For instance, a pertinent issue might be, "How can benefit sharing be fairly divided among stakeholders in community forest harvesting in Tul village?" Issues can be categorized as substantive, involving aspects like money, time, or compensation; procedural, relating to the handling of disputes; or psychological, concerning the impact of proposed actions.

Positions are declarations made by a party regarding the management or resolution of an issue, often proposing a specific solution A disputant chooses a position that aligns with their interests or fulfills certain needs.

Interests are the essential needs, conditions, or benefits that must be fulfilled in an agreement for it to be deemed satisfactory These interests can encompass various aspects, including the content of the agreement, specific procedural requirements, and psychological needs of the parties involved.

• Settlement Options are possible solutions which address one or more party's interests

Negotiation encompasses three fundamental elements: process, behavior, and substance The process involves the context, parties, tactics, and the sequence of negotiations Behavior focuses on the relationships, communication styles, and interactions between the parties Lastly, substance pertains to the core issues being negotiated, including the agenda, positions, interests, options, and the final agreements reached.

In negotiation, choosing a general approach is crucial, with the two most prevalent methods being Positional Bargaining and Interest-based Bargaining These approaches, detailed by Fisher, Ury, and Patton in their influential book "Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In," provide essential frameworks for effective negotiation strategies.

Positional Bargaining is a negotiation strategy where a negotiator presents a series of ordered positions or alternative solutions to address specific interests or needs, aiming to reach an agreement with another party The initial position reflects the maximum desired outcome, while each following position demands less from the opponent, leading to reduced benefits for the advocate A successful agreement occurs when the negotiators' positions align within an acceptable settlement range.

Positional Bargaining occurs when resources are limited, such as time, money, or psychological benefits, and a party aims to maximize their share of a fixed payoff This approach is typically employed when the interests of the negotiating parties are contradictory or mutually exclusive, and when maintaining current or future relationships is less important than achieving immediate gains The process involves several key steps that guide negotiators toward their desired outcomes.

1 Set your target point solution that would meet all your interests and result in complete success for you

2 Make target point into opening position

3 Set your bottom line or resistance point - the solution that is the least you are willing to accept and still reach agreement

4 Consider possible targets and bottom lines of other negotiators

5 Consider a range of positions between your target point and bottom line which are:

- Fallback position (yellow light that indicates you are close to bottom line)

6 Decide if any of your positions meets the interests or needs of the other negotiators

7 Decide when you will move from one position to another

8 Order the issues to be negotiated into a logical and beneficial sequence

9 Open with an easy issue

10 Open with a position close to your target point

11 Allow other side to explain their opening position

12 If appropriate, move to other positions that offer other negotiator(s) more benefits

13 Look for a settlement or bargaining range spectrum of possible settlement alternatives any one of which is preferable to impasse or no settlement

14 Compromise on benefits and losses where appropriate

15 Look for how positions can be modified to meet all negotiators' interests

Interest-based bargaining is a collaborative negotiation strategy where parties work together to address each other's needs and mutual interests Instead of focusing on opposing positions, negotiators identify their underlying interests before proposing solutions These interests can be categorized into three types: substantive interests, which pertain to tangible needs like money or resources; procedural interests, which involve the desired methods or behaviors in the negotiation process; and relational interests, which emphasize the importance of maintaining positive relationships.

Interest-Based Bargaining focuses on understanding the psychological and relational needs of negotiators, emphasizing how individuals feel and are treated within the context of ongoing relationships Once these interests are identified, parties collaboratively explore various settlement options that can satisfy all involved, rather than adhering to rigid positions This cooperative approach, known as integrated bargaining, aims to expand options and achieve mutually beneficial outcomes It is particularly useful when negotiators' interests are interdependent, the nature of the issue is unclear, future relationships are prioritized, and a tailored solution is sought without compromising core principles The process involves a series of steps designed to foster cooperative problem-solving over competitive tactics.

1 Clearly identify the substantive, procedural and relationship interest/needs that you expect to be satisfied as a result of negotiations

2 Speculate on the substantive, procedural and relationship interests that might be important to the other negotiators

3 Begin negotiations by educating each other about your respective interests, make sure all interests are understood

4 Frame the problem in a way that it is solvable by a win/win solution

5 Identify general criteria that must be present in an acceptable settlement

6 Generate multiple options for settlement; make sure that more than two options are on the table at any given time

7 Utilize integrative option generating techniques

8 Separate the option generation process from the evaluation process

9 Work towards agreement: -Start with a problem solving rather than competitive approach; Provide benefits above and beyond the call of duty; Listen and convey to other negotiators that they have been heard and understood; Listen and restate content to demonstrate understanding; Listen and restate feelings to demonstrate acceptance (not necessarily agreement) and understanding of intensity

10 Identify areas of agreement, restate them, and write them down

METHODOLOGY

Overview of the research methods

This study employs a combination of deductive and inductive methods to explore the research issue The deductive approach starts with a general concept and narrows down to specific conclusions, while the inductive method uses observations to formulate general principles A theoretical framework is established through a review of relevant literature, and the inductive method is applied to validate pre-research hypotheses The research incorporates both quantitative and qualitative techniques, utilizing questionnaires as the primary tool, supplemented by notes from discussions with informants, personal observations, and insights from experienced professionals in the field.

The quantitative method is a formal and systematic approach that utilizes numerical data to gather information (Burns & Grove, 1991) As outlined by Dornyei (2003), this type of study begins with the researcher defining categories and hypotheses, followed by data collection to explore relationships between these categories The objective nature of quantitative research allows researchers to remain detached during the analysis and interpretation of data For this study, a survey questionnaire was chosen as the primary method, with the expectation that it will yield significant insights into the use of pedagogical strategies in specific contexts over time.

While quantitative methods efficiently gather large amounts of data quickly, they may lack depth (Dornyei, 2003, p.9), necessitating the use of qualitative approaches According to Maykut & Morehouse (1994), qualitative methods involve closely examining participants' words and actions in a narrative manner that accurately reflects their experiences Qualitative studies utilize observations, semi-structured interviews, and field data records, offering numerous advantages as highlighted by McDonough & McDonough (1997) A key strength of qualitative research lies in its focus on the rigor and quality of data, ensuring reliable results derived from both quantity and quality Therefore, alongside survey questionnaires, insights from discussions, personal observations, and expert consultations provide a comprehensive understanding of the data collected.

The research analysis and discussions are primarily derived from synthesized data, including findings from paper research, survey questionnaire responses, and notes from discussions with informants The study employs both statistical and descriptive methods to effectively present and discuss the survey data.

Design of the study

The study involved 80 informants working in foreign-aided projects and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), chosen to ensure a diverse and objective range of responses while remaining manageable for the researcher Although a larger participant pool could enhance data reliability, it would complicate management The selection of respondents from projects and NGOs aligns with the study's rationale and scope outlined in the Introduction.

- WSP (the Water and Sanitation Program) administered by the World Bank: an international partnership to help poor people gain sustained access to improved water and sanitation services

- CARE in Vietnam: a Non-Government Organization (NGO) representing the CARE International network - a leading humanitarian organization fighting global poverty

- UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund): an agency of the United Nations responsible for programs to aid education and the health of children and mothers

- FP (Forestry Program): a three-time project launched by the Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development, GTZ & GFA cosulting group

- GTZ: a German organization working in technical cooperation field for sustainable development with worldwide operations

- GFTN – VFTN (Global Forest & Trade Network – Vietnam Forest & Trade Network)

- DANIDA (Danish International Development Agency)

- PAR in MARD (UNDP project in Public Administration Reform in the Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development)

- HELVETAS (The Swiss Association for International Cooperation)

- SC (Save the Children): an international children's charity which supports both emergency and long-term relief and development projects

- ActionAid: an international development agency founded in the United Kingdom aiming at fighting poverty worldwide

- Pro Poor Partnerships for Agroforestry Development: a project funded by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)

- VPPP (Vietnam Promotion of Potato Production): a project funded by German government

& Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development

- ENV (Education for Nature-Vietnam): non-governmental organization focused on conservation of nature and the environment

To ensure the compatibility of the survey results, the questionnaires were given to the selected Vietnamese & Anglophone females on the equal ratio of 40 Vietnamese and 40 Anglophone

An Anglophone is defined as an individual who speaks English either natively or by adoption, encompassing a broader cultural identity linked to the English language This term specifically highlights individuals whose cultural backgrounds are predominantly associated with English, irrespective of their ethnic and geographical origins The research focuses on Anglophone females from countries where English is either the primary language for a significant population or widely adopted The selected informants represent diverse nationalities, including Australian, English, Canadian, American, Indian, Irish, New Zealander, Singaporean, and Scottish.

The study includes informants with job titles ranging from project assistants to technical experts/advisors, aged between 24 and 41 Vietnamese females demonstrate English proficiency from upper-intermediate to fluent, comparable to native speakers, while Anglophone females face minimal communication challenges This research focuses on English linguistics, selecting Vietnamese informants from projects and NGOs based on their job titles, which typically reflect their English proficiency Further details about the informants will be provided in the upcoming chapter on data presentation and discussion.

In seek of the answers to the following research questions:

1 What are Vietnamese and Anglophone females‟ general understanding and common

2 What are the PSs employed by Vietnamese and Anglophone females in SN?

3 Are there any differences in the choice of PSs in SN between Vietnamese and Anglophone females? If yes, what may be the core reasons and implications?

4 What are the recommendations for both Vietnamese and Anglophone females to better attain their expectations in SN? the survey questionnaire was designed to collect relevant information from a large enough number of respondents As viewed by Dornyei (2003), questionnaire aims at gathering reliable information from a large population with much less time than the other methods This is an indispensable method in the research because questionnaire is "easy to construct, extremely versatile and uniquely capable of gathering a large amount of information quickly in a form that is readily processable" (Dornyei, 2003) Though the focus of the questionnaire is to elicit the PSs employed in Vietnamese & Anglophone females‟ SN, other related aspects are also included in the questionnaire in order to fully prove the research hypotheses posed at the beginning of the study More specifically, the questionnaire is divided into two main parts: General information (Part 1) and PSs employed in your SN experience (Part 2) While Part 2 consists of the questions that elicit the PSs used (or may be used) for typical situations of SN, Part 1, besides personal information such as name, age, job title, English level, etc., focuses on the informants‟ general opinion and common applied habit in SN Also in this part, the information of the informants‟ most recent SN is required Though it looks a little long for the first glance, the questionnaire is believed to bring enough information needed for the data discussion and analysis in the next chapter

This questionnaire primarily utilizes close-ended questions, which offer a limited set of responses for respondents to choose from, including an "other" option that allows for additional input This design enables participants to provide relevant answers that may not be listed, enhancing the questionnaire's comprehensiveness The advantages of close-ended questions include ease of standardization and suitability for statistical analysis (Fink, 1995) However, crafting these questions can be challenging, as it requires the evaluator to anticipate and include all possible responses Various sub-types of close-ended questions are incorporated in this questionnaire to ensure diverse and accurate data collection.

Numerical questions in the questionnaire require respondents to provide precise figures, such as their age, work duration, job changes, and job titles These responses are crucial for gathering foundational data that will aid in the subsequent data analysis Relevant questions in this category include 1.1.1, 1.1.4, 1.1.5, 1.1.6, 1.1.7, and 1.3.1.

A Likert Scale question is a survey tool that enables respondents to express their opinions on various statements by selecting a response that best aligns with their feelings This scale typically ranges from "strongly disagree" at one end to "strongly agree" at the other, allowing for nuanced feedback Alternative descriptors may include terms like "least satisfied" to "most satisfied" or "not close" to "very close." In the provided questionnaire, questions 1.1.8 and 1.3.2 utilize this format to gather insights.

Multiple-choice questions (MCQs) allow respondents to select the best answer from various options, offering a quick and objective scoring method In addition to numerical and Likert Scale questions, the remaining questions in the questionnaire fall under the MCQ category Notably, these MCQs incorporate an "open" factor, where respondents are prompted not only to choose an option but also to provide precise responses reflecting their actual thoughts or statements.

In this study, the Discourse Completion Task (DCT) serves as the primary instrument for data collection in Part 2 of the questionnaire A DCT is utilized in pragmatics to assess how individuals execute speech acts in specific contexts, prompting respondents to react to various scenarios, such as making apologies The responses provide insights into their intended actions or statements in those situations Golato (2003) highlights the benefits of DCTs, including efficient data collection from large samples, the ability to control multiple variables, and straightforward statistical comparisons between native and nonnative speakers However, she notes a limitation, stating that the data from DCTs may not always reflect natural speech patterns Despite this critique, DCTs are deemed the most effective tool for gathering sensitive responses in this research area, as alternative methods like real-life observation are impractical.

The responses from the informants to essential questions were meticulously recorded for subsequent data analysis and discussion For additional details, a sample of the questionnaire can be found in the annex section.

2.2.2.3 Data collection and processing procedure

The questionnaire was developed based on research hypotheses, objectives, relevant literature, and input from a supervisor and experienced teachers After piloting the first draft with select respondents, adjustments were made to enhance its quality The final questionnaires were distributed to 100 informants from foreign-aided projects and NGOs in Vietnam, ensuring an equal representation of 50 Vietnamese and 50 Anglophone females, all with suitable job titles for English proficiency Out of the 100 distributed, 86 were returned, but only 80 were fully completed and relevant, comprising 40 from each group To ensure data relevance, the researcher engaged in face-to-face discussions with informants, although the final six questionnaires were submitted via email due to time constraints While some responses were similar and lacked depth, key explanations from informants were noted for further analysis.

To accurately process the collected data, the methodology outlined by Zoltan Dornyei (2003) was employed, which involved coding and visualizing questionnaire statistics using pie and bar charts in Excel for clear interpretation The primary visualization method was bar charts comparing responses from Vietnamese and Anglophone females Data were presented either as percentages or numerical values, depending on the illustration needs Notably, the second part of the questionnaire, particularly the responses to Discourse Completion Tasks (DCTs), highlighted the pragmatic strategies (PSs) utilized by respondents in typical negotiation scenarios (SN), which are central to this study The first part of the questionnaire provided insights into the strategies employed, respondents' salary satisfaction, and factors influencing their negotiation outcomes The theoretical framework encompasses two main subjects: SN and PSs, with negotiation concepts based on Roger Fisher and William Ury's (1981) theories, and PS analysis grounded in Brown and Levinson's (1978) Face-Threatening Acts strategies, alongside Blum-Kulka's (1990) strategies.

In this chapter, we reviewed the primary research methods and instruments employed in the study While the data gathered from completed questionnaires, personal observations, and insights from supervisors and experienced individuals may not fully reflect real-life scenarios, they represent the most viable approaches to collecting data on this sensitive topic, particularly within multicultural workplaces.

DATA PRESENTATION AND DICUSSION

The types of salary negotiation experienced by the informants

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 a: upon job offer b: annual talk c: during w orking tim e (not annual talk), proposed by em ployer d: during w orking tim e (not annual talk), requested by you e: other

Types of salary negotiation experienced

Chart 1: Types of salary negotiation experienced by respondents

The chart illustrates the types of salary negotiations (SN) experienced by respondents, revealing that all have encountered SN upon job offers, with most also participating in annual discussions with employers This is common in projects and NGOs, where SN during job offers is essential before candidates officially start Annual salary reviews facilitate feedback on performance and salary, promoting improved outcomes in subsequent years Typically, an employee in these sectors experiences two primary types of SN: upon job offer and during annual talks, especially if employed for over a year However, other forms of SN, particularly proactive employer-initiated negotiations during work, are less common, as employers rarely propose salary increases Despite this, a small number of respondents reported positive experiences in this area Additionally, salary increases requested by employees are noted, with fewer Vietnamese females actively seeking raises compared to their Anglophone counterparts Further analysis in subsequent questions will explore these dynamics in greater detail.

The respondents’ personal information

a Age, nationality, job tittles/positions and English levels

Age range of Vietnamese & Anglophone respondents

Chart 2: Age range of respondents

The survey results indicate that the majority of respondents, primarily Anglophones, fall within the 30 to 35 age range, with few participants aged 24 to 29 This age distribution reflects the requirements for expatriate employment, where years of experience are a critical selection criterion The differing age ranges between the two respondent groups may also influence variations in job titles and promotions, which will be explored further in the subsequent sections of this chapter.

The study involved a diverse group of Anglophone respondents, with varying nationalities represented The largest nationality groups included English (22%, 9 out of 40 respondents), Australian (17%, 7 respondents), New Zealander (14%, 6 respondents), and Canadian (13%, 5 respondents) Other nationalities, such as Irish, American, Scottish, Singaporean, and Indian, were represented by fewer respondents, ranging from 1 to 4 individuals each.

An Anglophone is defined as an individual who speaks English either natively or through adoption, which facilitates their ability to communicate and work effectively in English In the context of linguistic studies, the English proficiency of informants significantly influences their choice of pragmatic strategies (PSs) in social networks (SN) To bridge the English fluency gap between different groups of informants, the researcher focuses on Vietnamese females employed in projects or NGOs where English is the primary language of communication Furthermore, the selection of Vietnamese respondents is based on their job positions to ensure a consistent level of English proficiency among participants.

Chart 4: Respondents’ positions/job tittles

The chart clearly illustrates that the three primary job categories among Vietnamese informants are project/program assistants, project/program officers, and project/program coordinators Project/program assistants, which include administrative, financial, and accounting roles, primarily provide support for specific tasks or projects Project/program officers are required to possess more advanced skills and carry greater responsibilities than assistants Meanwhile, project/program coordinators are tasked with mobilizing resources to ensure the effective execution of projects and typically report directly to team leaders or directors Notably, the number of Vietnamese respondents working as short-term consultants and experts/advisors is minimal, with only five individuals in these roles.

The article highlights the roles of consultants and experts within a project framework, noting that 11 out of 40 individuals serve as full-time experts or advisors, directly reporting to project or program directors Additionally, there are 4 Anglophone respondents functioning as project or program officers Proficiency in English is essential for daily office communication across all these positions Overall, it can be inferred that Vietnamese respondents predominantly engage in long-term roles, while Anglophone informants are divided between short-term positions and higher-ranking roles.

In a recent survey of Vietnamese respondents, the roles ranged from project/program assistants to experts/advisors, indicating a diverse level of expertise Notably, the majority expressed confidence in their English proficiency, with 21 out of 40 participants identifying as upper-intermediate users, 17 as advanced, and 2 claiming native-like fluency due to their experience living in England.

The responses from participants in Vietnam and New Zealand, who have been using English for 5 and 8 years respectively, indicate that Vietnamese respondents do not find daily communication and work in English to be a significant challenge.

English levels of Vietnamese respondents

2 0 pre-intermediate intermediate upper-intermediate advanced like mother tongue other

Chart 5: English levels of Vietnamese respondents b Numbers of working years, jobs changed, promotions, and current salary satisfaction

1 to 3 years 4 to 6 years 7 to 9 years more than 9 years

Chart 6: Number of respondents’ working years

A survey of respondents revealed that the majority of Vietnamese females (26 out of 40) have 4 to 6 years of work experience, while 19 Anglophone respondents have 7 to 9 years of experience Notably, no Vietnamese respondents reported over 9 years of work experience, in contrast to 10 Anglophone respondents who did This trend is further supported by Chart 2, which shows that Anglophone females are generally older than their Vietnamese counterparts, potentially influencing their work experience This disparity is further explored in subsequent charts detailing job changes and promotions.

Despite being older and having more years in the workforce, Anglophone respondents have changed jobs less frequently than their Vietnamese counterparts Specifically, 17 Anglophones have switched jobs 1 to 3 times, compared to 9 Vietnamese, while 23 Anglophones have changed jobs 4 to 6 times, in contrast to 31 Vietnamese Notably, neither group has exceeded 7 job changes in total.

Chart 7: Number of jobs changed by respondents

Chart 8 provides insights into the relationship between job changes and the number of promotions received by respondents throughout their careers.

Chart 8: Number of promotions attained by respondents

Research indicates that Anglophone females experience a higher rate of promotions compared to their Vietnamese counterparts, despite changing jobs less frequently Out of 40 Anglophone women surveyed, 29 reported receiving between 3 to 5 promotions, while only 21 Vietnamese women shared similar experiences Notably, 8 Anglophone women have achieved between 6 to 8 promotions, in contrast to just 2 Vietnamese women reaching this milestone.

Chart 9: Respondents’ satisfaction of their current salaries

Research indicates a strong correlation between job promotions and overall job satisfaction, including aspects such as work environment, opportunities, and compensation Survey results reveal that Anglophone respondents express greater satisfaction with their current salaries compared to their Vietnamese counterparts Specifically, among Anglophones, only one individual reported dissatisfaction, while 26 out of 40 expressed satisfaction In contrast, only two Vietnamese respondents were satisfied with their salaries, with the majority feeling neutral or dissatisfied This disparity suggests that salary perceptions can vary significantly among individuals, even at the same pay level Additionally, expatriates in Vietnam typically receive competitive compensation, which may explain their higher satisfaction levels compared to local employees Further analysis in this chapter will explore additional factors contributing to the Anglophone respondents' salary satisfaction beyond the standard pay scale.

Respondents’ habit and opinion on salary negotiation

Respondents' pro-activeness in approaching employers is assessed through two scenarios, each accompanied by potential solutions for respondents to choose from These situations and their corresponding options are designed to gauge the level of initiative displayed by the respondents in their interactions with employers.

1.2.1 During your working time in an organization/project , you realize that though there is no change in your responsibilities, you are still lower paid than you actually deserve, you TEND to (more than one answer is accepted) a stay silent and do not perform the job to the best of your ability

1.2.2 During working time in an organization or project, you are given more responsibilities or more tasks without being offered any pay rise, you TEND to (more than one answer is accepted) (to answer this question, please put ticks to the boxes b stay silent and look for a part-time job besides the job you are doing c stay silent and look for another job d complain to your colleagues or co- workers only e continue working and wait for relevant opportunities for salary review (annual talk, your employer‟s proposal, etc.)

To effectively address your situation with your employer, consider approaching them directly and clearly stating your circumstances You can either request a personal talk appointment for a later time or ask for an immediate discussion Alternatively, feel free to express your own approach to the situation.

Chart 10 illustrates the responses of participants regarding salary discussions In situation 1.2.1, Vietnamese respondents predominantly prefer to continue working while awaiting salary review opportunities, such as annual discussions or employer proposals In contrast, most Anglophone respondents are inclined to approach their employers directly to discuss their situations and request personal meetings Although respondents could select multiple answers, fewer Anglophones chose to wait for salary reviews, while the preference for direct communication was similarly noted among Vietnamese respondents Additionally, a significant number of Vietnamese (17) and a few Anglophones (4) opted to remain silent and seek new job opportunities instead This choice is often attributed to the difficulty Vietnamese face in negotiating salary increases after signing contracts that typically lock in fixed salaries for about three years Many view quietly searching for better-paying jobs as a more practical solution, while some fear that requesting a salary raise may risk “losing face” or damaging their relationship with employers This sentiment is also echoed by Anglophone respondents who selected the same option.

Vietnamese and Anglophone) choose both (c) and other options explaining that they consider (c) as the “safe way out” if their proposal for salary rise fails

Pro-activeness in approaching employers (1)

Chart 10: Pro-activeness in approaching employers (Sit 1.2.1 in Questionnaire)

Pro-activeness in approaching employers (2)

Chart 11: Pro-activeness in approaching employers (Sit 1.2.2 in Questionnaire)

In the second situation, options (f), (e), and (c) remain the most popular among respondents, with a notable increase in those selecting (f) compared to the first scenario Respondents indicate that taking on more responsibilities is seen as a valid reason to approach their employer, as it helps them avoid "losing face" if their request is declined Both Vietnamese and Anglophone females share similar perspectives on this matter, although a higher number of Anglophones are willing to directly engage with their employer Interestingly, despite viewing increased responsibilities as a positive motivation, Vietnamese respondents still tend to wait for "relevant opportunities" such as annual discussions or employer proposals before initiating contact.

Vietnamese respondents exhibit a lower level of proactiveness in engaging with employers compared to their Anglophone counterparts, often preferring to "play it safe" to maintain relationships and avoid losing face In contrast, Anglophone respondents are more candid about their situations and are less inclined to seek alternative employment options, such as part-time jobs This highlights a distinct difference in the approach to employer interactions between the two groups.

Social negotiation (SN) is a form of positional bargaining that adheres to a structured process involving pre-negotiation, negotiation, and post-negotiation phases The strategies employed in negotiations, particularly positional strategies (PSs), are context-specific and are analyzed in detail in Part 2 of the questionnaire, which is central to this research This section specifically examines key steps in both the pre-negotiation and post-negotiation stages.

In a recent survey, participants were asked about their preparation methods prior to negotiations The options provided included doing nothing and waiting for the negotiation, preparing key points to address potential questions from employers, or specifying their own unique preparation strategies The results highlighted the diverse approaches individuals take when gearing up for negotiations.

Chart 12: Preparation before salary negotiation

A majority of both Vietnamese and Anglophone respondents favor the approach of thoroughly preparing arguments, with slightly more Anglophones supporting this option Notably, options (a) and (d) received no votes, while option (b), which suggests preparing key points for potential employer questions, saw a slight preference from Vietnamese respondents (8) over Anglophones (4) Overall, the data indicate that while both groups engage in preparation before social networking, Anglophone respondents tend to do so more comprehensively than their Vietnamese counterparts, albeit with a minor difference.

To specify the preparation done by both groups, next chart illustrates the items or issues which respondents determine before negotiation

Items/issues to be determined before negotiation

Chart 13: Items/Issues to be determined before negotiation

The survey results reveal that respondents prioritize their acceptable salary range, with 100% selecting the lowest salary they may accept (option b) and a slightly lower number choosing the highest salary the employer may agree to (option c), with a notable preference among Anglophone respondents In contrast, while options a, e, and f are deemed important by Anglophone participants, they receive less emphasis from Vietnamese respondents Furthermore, option g, concerning the sequence of arguments, appears to attract interest primarily from Anglophone females Notably, option d, which pertains to the lowest salary level the employer may propose, garnered the least attention from both respondent groups.

Following the conclusion of the SN, respondents were asked if they need the SN results to be officially documented in writing The chart below illustrates the findings.

Chart 14: Requirement of employers’ decision in written form

The majority of respondents from both groups emphasize the importance of employers documenting discussions and agreements in writing, such as through contracts, memos, or official announcements Only a small number of respondents, including one Anglophone and three Vietnamese, believe that the decision should be left to the employer, expressing confidence that employers will not change their positions and will ensure that the relevant personnel accurately record the agreed-upon terms.

Most recent salary negotiation experience

Requirement of employers' decision in written form

Respondents' relationship with their employers

Chart 15: Respondents’ relationship with their employers

A Likert Scale was utilized to assess respondents' relationships with their employers, ranging from 1 (not close at all) to 5 (very close) The data reveals that most respondents from both groups rate their relationships at levels 2 and 3, indicating lower medium to medium closeness While the proportions of Vietnamese and Anglophone respondents choosing these levels are similar, a slight distinction emerges: Vietnamese females tend to select level 2, whereas Anglophones lean towards level 3 Notably, 19 Vietnamese respondents rated their relationship at levels 3 to 5.

25, which shows that despite the fairly similar preference of level 2 and 3 in both respondents‟ groups, Anglophone respondents‟ relationship with their employers is considered a little closer than Vietnamese respondents‟

Salary negotiations (SN) occur between employers and employees, focusing on decisions, reviews, or changes to an employee's salary Due to its sensitive nature, SN can significantly affect the employer-employee relationship Insights into the impact of SN on this relationship are revealed through the responses of the surveyed individuals, as depicted in the accompanying chart.

Relationship with the employers is affected?

Chart 16: After salary negotiation, is the relationship with the employer affected?

In response to the question regarding the impact of SN on employer relationships, five options were provided for respondents to choose from The majority of Anglophone females selected options (a) - "no, not at all" and (d) - "you do not recognize this," while only four individuals acknowledged that their relationship was affected post-SN In contrast, Vietnamese respondents showed a different trend, with a higher number (13) indicating that SN does impact their relationship with their employer, while fewer chose options (a) and (d) Among the respondents from both groups, 17 individuals selected options (b) and (c), highlighting a division between those who did not receive a salary increase.

In a study involving 17 respondents, Group A, consisting of 11 individuals, expressed significant discomfort in continuing their work following an unsuccessful performance review, prompting many to seek new job opportunities They noted a perceived shift in their employers' attitudes towards them, feeling as though they were viewed "in different eyes." Additionally, some respondents in Group A highlighted the emotional toll of experiencing a failed review.

Employees in group A often lack the confidence to request future pay raises, leading to decreased motivation in their work Conversely, individuals in group B perceive increased pressure from their employer following a salary increase, feeling that they are held to higher performance standards and subjected to closer supervision These dynamics highlight the contrasting factors that influence employee morale and motivation in response to salary adjustments.

Chart 17: Factors affecting salary negotiation

Respondents face various challenges in achieving their expectations before the negotiation process (SN), but this inquiry focuses on identifying the most significant factor they believe negatively impacts their experience The options include: a) language barriers, which hinder effective communication; b) cultural uncertainties regarding what is acceptable to employers; c) insufficient persuasion and negotiation skills; d) difficulties in establishing a rapport with employers, including fears of damaging relationships; e) a lack of self-confidence in their abilities; and f) inadequate preparation, such as insufficient knowledge about the position and salary or poorly formulated arguments prior to discussions.

The chart reveals that the primary challenge faced by both Vietnamese (15) and Anglophone respondents (12) is a deficiency in persuasion and negotiation skills Cultural differences rank second, affecting 9 Vietnamese and 7 Anglophones, while employer-related issues are the least cited, with 4 Vietnamese and 3 Anglophones acknowledging them Notably, Anglophone respondents (18) predominantly identify preparation as their major issue, whereas most Vietnamese attribute their difficulties to persuasion and negotiation skills Vietnamese respondents express that despite thorough preparation and clear goal-setting, they often succumb to employers' strong negotiation tactics, feeling unable to refuse offers Conversely, Anglophones believe their negotiation failures stem from inadequate preparation, despite earlier claims of being well-prepared This indicates that Anglophone respondents view their own preparation as insufficient, not necessarily worse than that of Vietnamese respondents Furthermore, Anglophones exhibit confidence in their English skills, as evidenced by the absence of selections for options related to language discomfort, which are minimally chosen by Vietnamese respondents (4 total).

Politeness strategies employed in respondents’ salary negotiation experience

A survey revealed that 100% of respondents have experienced salary negotiation (SN) during job offers at least once This experience typically occurs during personal discussions with employers, where salary and other job-related issues are agreed upon All respondents currently work in multicultural environments, making SN a familiar topic for them Consequently, the insights they provide on this subject are deemed realistic and valuable for analysis.

In negotiations, each party possesses a certain level of bargaining power, which influences their ability to sway the opponent's decisions This awareness of bargaining power, whether perceived as low or high, impacts the choice of negotiation strategies and ultimately the outcomes Before examining the specific strategies employed by respondents, it is essential to first explore their understanding of bargaining power in various situations.

For the specific situation, i.e upon job offer, the respondents‟ awareness on their bargaining power over the employer is illustrated in the chart below:

Bargaining power upon job offer

Anglophone 29 9 2 higher power equal power lower power

To assess respondents' perceptions of their bargaining power over employers, three options were provided: (a) higher power, (b) equal power, and (c) lower power Candidates experience a significant advantage during job offers, as they are viewed as highly desirable candidates, leading to a favorable negotiation position This initial phase is crucial, as it becomes increasingly challenging to negotiate salary increases once the terms are set Consequently, many respondents (27 Vietnamese and 29 Anglophones out of 40 each) believe they possess greater bargaining power at this stage, while others (13 Vietnamese and 11 Anglophones) feel they have equal or lower power Those selecting option (c) express a persistent sense of inferiority in their negotiating position, while those choosing (b) acknowledge the advantages of selected candidates but still feel their power is limited Notably, Anglophone females tend to select options (a) and (b) more frequently than their Vietnamese counterparts, who show a higher inclination toward option (c).

Coming to the focus of the research, typical situations were developed to elicit respondents‟ most possible answers concerning the PSs they use in SN

When receiving a job offer, candidates are typically asked about their expected salary, leading to a variety of responses These answers often reflect different personal strategies (PSs) used by the respondents Despite the diversity in replies, the primary PSs can be categorized and represented in the accompanying chart.

In this typical situation, Strategy 22 (Str.) - Impersonalize S and H - is most utilized by both Vietnamese and Anglophone respondents Besides, Str 7 - Impersonalize S and H and Str 11

Both Anglophone females and Vietnamese respondents exhibit optimism in their responses, with Anglophone females slightly leading in the use of strategies such as "H wants what S wants." However, a notable difference arises in the use of indirect communication, with Vietnamese respondents favoring hints significantly more than their Anglophone counterparts Specifically, over 50% of Vietnamese respondents utilize hints when discussing expected salaries, while only 9 Anglophone females do so When addressing the employer's question about salary expectations, Vietnamese respondents often employ an indirect approach, referencing industry standards and their years of experience to encourage the employer to deduce an appropriate salary without explicitly stating their own expectations This strategy minimizes the risk of appearing presumptuous by avoiding direct requests for a specific salary amount.

In answering the question: "What is your expected salary?"

Str 7 Str 11 Str 16 Str 22 Str 26

Chart 19: Politeness strategies in respondents’ answers to the question: What is your expected salary?

Some Anglophone respondents utilize similar strategies when communicating with Vietnamese individuals, but they often demonstrate a notable proficiency in the negative strategy No 22 – Impersonalizing the speaker and hearer For instance, one respondent stated, "I am sure you have known this very well and have no objection for this; $150 for a manday working for this consultancy is a norm to be applied." This approach is complemented by an optimistic perspective and the establishment of common ground, showcasing an effective method of indirectly requesting the expected salary.

Vietnamese respondents often express their salary expectations indirectly, using phrases like “Hopefully this is not something so different in your project salary band” or “I think you will fully agree with me on this provided information.” Notably, none of the respondents openly stated a specific salary they would accept, as doing so is seen as awkward and ineffective Many shared experiences of receiving higher salaries than anticipated when discussing off-record, while directly stating their expected salary often led to employers proposing lower amounts The following table summarizes the primary types of politeness strategies employed by the two groups of respondents.

Strategies/Respondents’ groups Vietnamese Anglophone

Table 5: Summary of politeness strategies in respondents’ answers to the question: What is your expected salary?

In this context, Anglophone respondents show a greater preference for both positive and negative communication strategies compared to their Vietnamese counterparts; however, they tend to utilize off-record strategies less frequently than Vietnamese respondents.

Str 6 Str 7 Str 9 Str 22 Str 26

After evaluating the respondents' feedback, the employer proposes a salary that falls short of their expectations, offering X-4 instead of the anticipated X As a result, the respondents find this offer unacceptable, and, similar to prior scenarios, their responses differ significantly among the major groups of PSs, as depicted in Chart 20.

Chart 20: Respondents’ answers when X-4 is offered for the first time

The responses from the two groups of respondents show significant differences regarding their views on X-4, the level offered by employers that candidates find unacceptable This indicates a clear rejection of X-4 and emphasizes the importance of aligning with candidates' expectations.

Recent findings indicate that Vietnamese respondents frequently utilize strategies such as Str 9 (asserting knowledge of H's wants) and Str 26 (giving hints), while Anglophone respondents continue to favor Str 7 (presupposing common ground) and Str 22 (impersonalizing S and H) Notably, a moderate number of Anglophone females align with the Vietnamese preference for Str 9 and Str 26, while Vietnamese respondents show a similar tendency toward Str 22 The most significant disparity arises in the selection of Str 7, with only 2 Vietnamese respondents choosing this strategy compared to 19 Anglophone respondents Typical responses from Vietnamese respondents often reflect a desire to avoid direct confrontation, as seen in phrases like, “I am fully aware that you do not want to disappoint me,” whereas Anglophone respondents tend to be more direct, stating, “It’s quite hard to accept that… $150 a day for consultancy is a norm.” This suggests that Vietnamese respondents employ positive politeness and off-record strategies more frequently, while Anglophone respondents lean towards negative politeness strategies Further details are available in Table 2.

Strategies/Respondents’ groups Vietnamese Anglophone

Table 6: Summary of politeness strategies used in respondents’ answers when X-4 is offered for the first time

The negotiation process persists as the employer presents arguments to support their insistence on X-4, despite it not being an acceptable salary level for the respondents Consequently, the respondents continue to reject this proposal using their own reasoning strategies The subsequent chart illustrates the problem-solving strategies (PSs) utilized by the respondents in this context.

Chart 21: Respondents’ answers to the employers’ insistence on X-4 for the second time

In high-stakes negotiations where both parties are adamant about their positions, the use of persuasive strategies (PSs) becomes more pronounced Data from Chart 21 reveals a notable disparity in PS selection between Anglophone and Vietnamese respondents Anglophone participants frequently incorporate both self and other-oriented strategies, employing rhetorical questions and over-generalizations, as seen in phrases like, “We can never be happy with quite a low rate, can we?” In contrast, Vietnamese respondents favor positive strategies to counter employer arguments, often asserting knowledge of the other party's needs, exaggerating points, and employing token agreements to avoid direct disagreement Strategies such as these are prevalent among both groups, highlighting common ground in negotiation tactics, with both Anglophone and Vietnamese respondents utilizing impersonalization and overstating to strengthen their positions.

(15 Vietnamese & 13 Anglophone) The table below specifies the types of PSs used by both groups:

Strategies/Respondents’ groups Vietnamese Anglophone

Table 7: Summary of politeness strategies used in respondents’ answers to the employers’ insistence on X-4 for the second time

In real-life negotiations, situations can vary significantly; however, this research aims to explore common scenarios for discussion One such scenario involves the closing stage of a job offer negotiation, where, after rejecting an initial offer (X-4) for the second time, the employer presents a final offer (X-2), claiming it is the highest possible In reaction, the two groups of respondents offer diverse responses, utilizing various persuasive strategies (PSs).

Str * Str 6 Str 9 Str 15 Str 29

Chart 22: Respondents’ answers to the employer’s proposal for X-2 as the highest level he/she can offer

Both Vietnamese and Anglophone respondents utilize bald on-record positive strategies, with a notable predominance among Vietnamese participants (16) compared to Anglophone females (4) A total of 20 respondents express their expected salary levels, citing genuine interest in the job or the opportunity for new experiences as reasons for their acceptance (R notes) While some acknowledge that the offered salary (X-2) falls short of their expectations, they prefer to maintain the employer's positive face by avoiding direct disagreement (Str 6) and demonstrating awareness of the employer's needs (Str 9) The majority opt for off-record communication, subtly implying their salary expectations without stating them outright (Str 29), as illustrated by phrases like “I see what you mean…” and “To be honest…” Notably, the use of strategy Str 6 to avoid disagreement is similarly prevalent among both Vietnamese (14) and Anglophone (13) respondents.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Major findings and conclusions

The research was launched to seek answers to the following questions:

1 What are Vietnamese and Anglophone females‟ general understanding and common habits in SN?

2 What are the PSs employed by Vietnamese and Anglophone females in SN?

3 Are there any differences in the choice of PSs in SN between Vietnamese and Anglophone females? If yes, what may be the core reasons and implications?

4 What are the recommendations for both Vietnamese and Anglophone females to better attain their expectations in SN?

Based on the analysis of the data collected in the previous part, the answers to the research questions can be briefly summarized as follows:

1 What are Vietnamese and Anglophone females’ general understanding and common habits in SN? a Respondents’ pro-activeness in approaching the employers

The survey results indicate that a significant number of Vietnamese respondents exhibit a lower level of proactiveness in engaging with employers compared to their Anglophone counterparts Many Vietnamese individuals prefer to take the "safest" approach, opting to wait for suitable opportunities to avoid jeopardizing their relationships with employers or facing embarrassment from unsuccessful negotiations In contrast, Anglophone respondents are more inclined to proactively communicate their concerns and expectations to employers when issues arise Additionally, while some Vietnamese respondents may consider quietly leaving their jobs or seeking part-time work as a viable solution, this strategy is generally not favored by Anglophone respondents.

The majority of the respondents, both Vietnamese and Anglophones, show their activeness in preparation before negotiation which includes all the ground they may have for the coming

A significant disparity exists between Vietnamese and Anglophone females in their preparation for job interviews, with Vietnamese women twice as likely to prepare specific points solely to answer employer questions This highlights the comparatively lower level of proactivity among Vietnamese respondents compared to their Anglophone counterparts.

Vietnamese respondents primarily focus on two key factors before salary negotiations: the minimum salary they are willing to accept and the maximum salary employers are willing to offer In contrast, a larger proportion of Anglophone respondents consider additional factors, such as their expected maximum salary, the minimum salary employers might propose, negotiation issues, and the sequence of arguments to present This highlights a difference in the negotiation approach between Vietnamese and Anglophone individuals.

The follow-up responses from both groups of respondents in the SN indicate a consensus, with nearly all participants emphasizing the necessity of having negotiation outcomes documented in writing before commencing work This highlights the respondents' recognition of the significance of formalizing salary agreements, which is crucial for preventing potential misunderstandings and conflicts in the future Additionally, the respondents rated their bargaining power in relation to their employers within the SN context.

The responses from both Vietnamese and Anglophone female participants reveal only minor differences in their perceived bargaining power over employers in various situations However, a small subset of these respondents tends to underestimate their bargaining power, particularly during annual reviews or salary negotiations after taking on additional responsibilities This may stem from a misunderstanding of the term "bargaining power," which they conflate with general power, despite prior explanations provided in the questionnaire Although this group is small, their misperceptions can significantly influence their choices of negotiation strategies.

The concept of "understanding and habit in SN" encompasses much more than what is covered in the survey questions While preparation and follow-up steps are important, the primary focus lies in how negotiators manage situations that arise during the negotiation process This process involves a diverse array of tips, skills, and strategies used by negotiators However, this research specifically examines the problem-solving strategies employed by two selected groups of respondents in this type of negotiation.

2 What are the PSs employed by Vietnamese and Anglophone females in SN?

Referring to the summary table presented and analyzed in the previous part, the answer to this research question is as follows:

The four primary types of politeness strategies (PSs)—bald on record, positive politeness, negative politeness, and off-record strategies—are utilized by both Vietnamese and Anglophone respondents in various social interactions While bald on record is straightforward, the other three categories encompass several sub-strategies, not all of which are employed by the respondents in these contexts.

Positive psychological strategies (PSs) encompass 15 sub-strategies, with Str 6, 7, 9, and 14 being the most frequently employed by both respondent groups In contrast, Str 2, 5, 11, 12, and 15 are also utilized, but to a lesser extent in terms of quantity and frequency compared to the aforementioned strategies.

In the context of negative politeness strategies (PSs), strategies 16, 19, and 22 are predominantly utilized by both groups of respondents Additionally, Anglophone respondents effectively employ strategies 21 and 23, which are notably less favorable for Vietnamese speakers.

Vietnamese respondents demonstrate a strong familiarity with off-record sub-strategies, particularly Str 26, 29, and 30 In contrast, Anglophone respondents find a broader range of sub-strategies effective in various social networking situations, including Str 26, 29, 30, 35, and 38.

3 Are there any differences in the choice of PSs in SN between Vietnamese and Anglophone females? If yes, what may be the core reasons and implications ?

The analysis reveals significant differences in the choice of persuasive strategies (PSs) between Vietnamese and Anglophone respondents, particularly in terms of strategy types, quantity, and frequency Vietnamese respondents demonstrate a strong preference for positive PSs across various situations, especially in strategies 6, 7, 9, and 14, which are frequently employed When addressing sensitive financial issues, Vietnamese individuals tend to prioritize conflict avoidance by either establishing common ground, presupposing an understanding of employers' needs, or asserting reciprocal exchanges for persuasion This approach reflects their intent to minimize any threat to employers' positive face, showcasing their concern and indicating shared interests in the discussions at hand.

Many Anglophone respondents share similar views and incorporate a significant number of positive politeness strategies (PSs) in their discussions However, their use of positive PSs is notably lower compared to Vietnamese respondents Interestingly, Anglophone females demonstrate a strong preference for negative PSs, particularly strategies 16, 19, 22, and 23 By employing these sub-strategies, Anglophone females aim to avoid imposition while simultaneously expressing deference, aligning with the concept of "formal politeness" as described by Yule.

The selection of politeness strategies (PSs) varies among respondents, particularly in their choice of off-record strategies While strategies 26, 29, and 30 are widely used by groups, strategies 35 and 38 are rarely employed by Vietnamese respondents, despite their frequent use by Anglophone females in various contexts This discrepancy may stem from the fact that many Anglophone respondents view the act of raising questions—both real and rhetorical—as a standard practice in discussions, including social networking, whereas many Vietnamese individuals tend to prefer a more reserved approach.

Vietnamese respondents demonstrate lower levels of activeness compared to their Anglophone counterparts Notably, the significant use of Strategy 26 among Vietnamese participants suggests a strong preference for providing hints, which they employ frequently across various situations This trend highlights the Vietnamese inclination towards indirectness in their arguments, particularly in sensitive discussions.

Vietnamese and Anglophone respondents exhibit distinct preferences in their use of politeness strategies (PSs) for social interactions, with Vietnamese individuals favoring indirectness and informality, while Anglophone females tend to employ more formal approaches in their arguments This divergence can be attributed to cultural differences, particularly the hierarchical nature of Vietnamese society, where a sense of distance in employer-employee relationships persists Consequently, Vietnamese respondents often utilize positive PSs to bridge this perceived gap and prefer indirect communication to mitigate the risk of losing face In contrast, Anglophone respondents, feeling less constrained by hierarchy, are more inclined to make indirect requests and ask questions to demonstrate proactiveness and openness in their interactions with employers.

Recommendations

To answer research question 4, recommendations on the following aspects are made hopefully to help Vietnamese and Anglophone respondents to better attain their goals in SN:

Pro-activeness in approaching the employers

Vietnamese respondents, particularly in multicultural workplaces, should proactively approach employers when facing any issues during work hours Effective communication and openness are essential for facilitating project success Instead of seeking additional jobs or complaining to colleagues when dissatisfied with their salary, employees should directly address their concerns with employers The key lies in the willingness to engage in discussions and apply effective negotiation strategies Quitting or taking on extra work should be a last resort after all negotiation efforts have been exhausted, as new positions often present similar challenges Employers value staff who demonstrate proactivity and openness in problem-solving With strong facilitation skills and a proactive mindset, employees can effectively resolve workplace issues.

Preparation and follow-ups of SN

Preparation is crucial for successful negotiations, particularly in situations where a single misstep can lead to significant losses Candidates and employees must thoroughly prepare before negotiations, determining not only their expected salary but also various other critical factors This includes understanding the employer's potential offers, establishing acceptable terms, and outlining the sequence of issues to be discussed Well-prepared negotiators exude confidence and ease, minimizing the risk of embarrassment or surprise during discussions, as they are equipped to anticipate and address employer arguments effectively.

Once an agreement with the SN is established, employers typically emphasize the importance of formalizing this agreement through contracts or addendums However, if employers neglect to address this, it is the employees' responsibility to request written confirmation to prevent potential disputes or misunderstandings in the future Candidates should prioritize this aspect when finalizing agreements.

Negotiation is a communication process where parties aim to influence each other's decisions, highlighting that power in negotiation stems from the ability to positively impact the other side's choices While some believe that the capacity to make threats, particularly of physical force, defines negotiating power, this approach is often costly and risky.

Starting a negotiation with extreme positions may not be the most effective tactic, as it often leads to prolonged discussions and heightened tensions between parties (Deutsch, M., 2006) Such approaches can result in anger and resentment, straining relationships and diminishing a negotiator's power Instead of resorting to force or threats, negotiators should focus on making clear and firm offers A key factor in a negotiator's influence is having strong alternatives, known as "BATNA" (best alternative to a negotiated agreement), which provides leverage and reduces dependency on the negotiation process Parties with multiple options outside of negotiation are better positioned to make demands and achieve satisfactory outcomes.

A skilled negotiator who understands the interests and backgrounds of all parties involved can effectively influence decision-making Key abilities such as active listening, empathy, and clear communication are essential for reaching successful agreements Additionally, recognizing different negotiating styles and cultural nuances enhances a negotiator's effectiveness Building strong relationships based on trust and open communication further empowers negotiators in their efforts.

Building a reputation for honesty and candor significantly enhances a negotiator's influence By understanding the other party's perspective, a negotiator can communicate more persuasively and reduce misunderstandings This approach fosters a collaborative dynamic, allowing negotiators to exercise "power with" each other rather than seeking "power over" the opposing side.

Selection of PSs in SN

In addition to applying different strategies mentioned above to increase bargaining power in

Effective persuasion in negotiations relies on the careful selection and presentation of facts and ideas Negotiators must pay attention to the content, structure, and delivery of their messages Vietnamese respondents can enhance their persuasive strategies by incorporating techniques used by Anglophone counterparts, such as demonstrating cooperation through gifts, making indirect requests, and using rhetorical questions However, feelings of inferiority and humility often hinder employees from employing effective persuasive strategies, making it challenging to achieve desired outcomes To maximize negotiation goals, employees should adopt a flexible approach to problem definition, critically assess opposing arguments, and utilize the most relevant strategies.

While a "safe" approach may be necessary initially, it often proves ineffective when employers become resistant to change after prolonged discussions In these situations, although patience and diplomacy remain important, it is essential to adopt more direct strategies aimed at persuading employers more effectively.

Vietnamese respondents should understand that salary negotiation (SN) is not merely about asking for more money; it significantly impacts their job satisfaction, longevity, and performance If they feel underpaid, it's essential to engage in open discussions with employers When receiving job offers, Vietnamese women should confidently express their salary expectations, knowing they have the right to refuse offers that don't meet their needs Unlike their Anglophone counterparts, who are often more straightforward about negotiations, Vietnamese women should recognize the importance of addressing salary upfront, rather than accepting unsatisfactory offers out of fear of being perceived as solely money-driven.

The recommendations provided are insufficient to fully encompass the comprehensive synthesis and analysis of the data gathered from respondents, alongside insights from related literature and personal observations This research faces various limitations, and therefore, suggestions for further studies will be outlined in the concluding section of this paper, aiming to offer practical conclusions and recommendations that may benefit the relevant stakeholders.

Limitations of the research and suggestions for further studies

The research is constrained by limited time and resources, presenting significant challenges that exceed the researchers' capabilities As a relatively new topic, it has not been extensively explored in academic settings, prompting the researcher to undertake this study However, this novelty also complicates the literature review process and the search for guidance from previous scholars Despite the researcher's efforts, the existing literature lacks sufficient detail, particularly regarding specific documents on social networks (SN) and the correlation between the use of persuasive strategies (PSs) and SN outcomes.

The researcher expresses dissatisfaction with the data collection methods employed, specifically the survey questionnaire and note-taking Typically, interviews and real-life observations are preferred for gathering comprehensive data, but in this sensitive research context, these instruments were deemed inappropriate Respondents were hesitant to complete survey questionnaires due to confidentiality concerns, leading to significant challenges in data collection and highlighting a limitation of the study.

The use of Discourse Completion Tasks (DCTs) in survey questionnaires raises concerns about the validity of the data collected regarding respondents' choices of politeness strategies (PSs) Scholars, such as Golato (2002), suggest that DCTs are more effective for analyzing the linguistic tendencies of specific groups rather than the general tendencies of language speakers This study compares the selection of PSs between two respondent groups based on DCT responses, emphasizing that the ultimate goal is not to generalize findings to all speakers of a language Future research aims to adopt more reliable data collection methods for better generalization.

The researcher initially intended to use SPSS, a widely recognized software for quantitative data presentation, but faced challenges due to limited Information Technology skills and insufficient guidance Consequently, the researcher opted for a more straightforward approach, utilizing manual data input and output through an Excel file.

Finally, due to the limited working conditions and personal relationships of the researcher, the respondents are selected only in projects, NGOs and the small sample size of 80 informants

(40 Vietnamese and 40 Anglophone females) may hinder the generalization of the study conclusions

Future research should address the limitations of this study and explore related topics, such as the differences in problem-solving (PS) utilization between men and women in social networks (SN), variations in negotiation skills across different sectors (including public, private, and non-governmental), and the strategies employers use to reject employee proposals The findings from this study aim to provide valuable insights for other researchers in this field.

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In this questionnaire, the term "salary" encompasses various financial entities, including wages, fees, and payments, based on your personal negotiation experiences It is important to note that this definition may apply to amounts that either include or exclude taxes and compulsory insurance.

The principle governing annual bonuses, contract termination allowances, overtime payments, and other additional compensation, excluding X, is uniformly applied to all employees Consequently, these payments are regarded as fixed and will not impact your salary negotiation.

In this article, we focus exclusively on the experience of face-to-face salary negotiation, excluding other methods such as negotiations conducted via email, phone, or mail.

Anglophones are encouraged to share their latest experiences in salary negotiations, while Vietnamese individuals should reflect on their most recent salary discussions with employers from different nationalities, specifically highlighting the use of English during these interactions.

When addressing the questions below, reflect on your personal experiences If you haven't encountered the situations mentioned, please choose the options that most accurately represent your potential actions in those scenarios.

To complete this questionnaire in hard copy, simply tick the checkboxes for the multiple-choice questions For those answering in soft copy, please respond to the multiple-choice questions accordingly.

* use your left mouse to tick the boxes

* if it does not work, please double click the boxes that you select, tick the box “checked” (or “not checked”), then press “ok”

When considering salary negotiation experiences, please indicate all applicable types by placing a tick (√) next to each relevant option: upon receiving a job offer, during annual reviews, during work hours at the employer's proposal, during work hours at your request, or other (please specify) If you have not yet engaged in salary negotiations, kindly provide more details.

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1.1.2 Your nationality Vietnamese other: (please specify……… )

1.1.3 What is your current position/job? ……… 1.1.4 If you are Vietnamese, please specify your general English level pre-intermediate intermediate upper-intermediate advanced like mother tongue other (please specify: ……….) 1.1.5 How long have you been working?

1.1.6 Up till now, how many times have you changed job(s) in total? …………

1.1.7 How many times have you been promoted?

1.1.8 How much are you satisfied with your current salary?

(please select one number that is most relevant to your case)

1 2 3 4 5 not satisfied very satisfied at all

If you notice that your responsibilities remain unchanged yet your salary is lower than what you deserve, you might feel undervalued and consider discussing a raise, seeking new job opportunities, or enhancing your skills to justify a higher pay.