Path schema for on (Ming, 2011)
Rationale of the study
In today's globalized world, English serves as a crucial international language for expressing ideas and desires Its prominence has made it a key component of Vietnam's national curriculum and a requirement for job applications Despite its importance, many Vietnamese learners face challenges in mastering and using English effectively and accurately.
Prepositions present significant challenges for both English language learners and teachers, primarily due to their complex semantics (Evan & Tyler, 2001) Nguyen Tuyet Nhung (2010) notes that the arbitrary nature of prepositions makes it difficult for learners to grasp their meanings without contextual clues In response to this challenge, numerous textbooks and reference materials have been developed, and teachers invest substantial time in instructing students on preposition usage However, the effectiveness of these methods has been questioned, as evidenced by Lorincz & Gordon (2012), who identified common prepositional errors such as substitution, omission, and addition among language users Ongoing research suggests that the root of these difficulties may stem from cultural differences in perception and cognition rather than from the structural aspects of prepositions (Tran Quang Hai, 2010).
To aid English learners in understanding the preposition "on," this article employs Cognitive Semantics to explore its meanings and their Vietnamese equivalents By examining both spatial and non-spatial contexts, readers can identify the similarities and differences between the two languages.
2 Aims and objectives of the study
The study aims at an intensive investigation into the meanings of preposition
―on‖ and their equivalents in Vietnamese from cognitive perspective For the realization of this aim, the following objectives are posed:
- To present a semantic description of the English preposition ―on‖ from the perspective of cognitive linguistics;
- To investigate potential Vietnamese equivalents to the meanings of the English preposition ―on‖ in ―The Call of the Wild‖
The following research questions are raised:
- What meanings are conveyed by the English preposition ―on‖ from a cognitive semantic perspective?
In the Vietnamese translation of "The Call of the Wild" by Jack London, the English preposition "on" is represented through various equivalents that capture its contextual meanings The translators, Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong, utilize terms such as "trên," "về," and "trong," reflecting the nuances of location, involvement, and condition present in the original text These choices enhance the reader's understanding of the narrative while maintaining the essence of the characters' experiences The careful selection of these prepositions demonstrates the translators' skill in conveying the subtleties of the English language in Vietnamese, ensuring that the emotional depth and thematic elements of the story are preserved.
This study examines the meanings of the English preposition "on" and its Vietnamese equivalents through a cognitive theoretical framework Data is sourced from Jack London's renowned novel and its Vietnamese translation by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong The analysis focuses on instances where "on" functions as a preposition, specifically in the structures (NP) + on + NP and NP + V + on + NP.
This study utilizes both quantitative and qualitative approaches to explore the meanings of the preposition "on" in Jack London's "The Call of the Wild," alongside its Vietnamese translations by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong By employing descriptive and contrastive methods, the research aims to gather qualitative data and analyze the similarities and differences in spatial cognition between English and Vietnamese.
The thesis presents compelling evidence that the preposition "on" encompasses various interconnected meanings The analysis reveals a close relationship between the meanings of "on" in English and the conceptual frameworks of both Vietnamese and English cultures This indicates that the perception of prepositions is influenced by how individuals from different cultures interpret their physical surroundings based on their unique experiences.
This thesis aims to enhance research on prepositions through a cognitive lens, providing readers with a theoretical foundation on one of the most complex aspects of the English language.
The study offers valuable recommendations for preventing common prepositional errors and enhancing teaching methods for English prepositions, specifically aimed at English major students.
The research consists of three main parts: Introduction, Development and Conclusion
Part A: Introduction presents the rationale, the aims, the research questions, methods, scope, significance and organization of the study
Part B: Development consists of three chapters:
Chapter 1 Literature review gives the concepts of cognitive linguistics and cognitive semantics, prepositions in English and the analytical framework of the study Furthermore, the review of previous studies is also presented
Chapter 2 Methodology includes the research method, the data collection and data analysis
Chapter 3 Analyses indicates the potential meanings of preposition ―on‖ in English and their equivalents in Vietnamese of ―The Call of the Wild‖ in order to answer two research questions: (1) the potential meanings of preposition ―on‖ in
English; (2) the Vietnamese equivalents of preposition ―on‖ found in the translation by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong
Part C: Conclusion is the last part which offers a summary, some limitations and suggestions for further study.
Research questions
The following research questions are raised:
- What meanings are conveyed by the English preposition ―on‖ from a cognitive semantic perspective?
In the Vietnamese translation of "The Call of the Wild" by Jack London, the preposition "on" is represented through various equivalents that capture its contextual meanings The translators, Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong, utilize phrases that convey the sense of being atop or in contact with surfaces, as well as indicating time and ongoing actions This nuanced approach reflects the richness of the Vietnamese language in expressing the multifaceted uses of "on," ensuring that the essence of the original text is preserved while making it relatable to Vietnamese readers.
Scope of the study
This study examines the meanings of the English preposition "on" and its Vietnamese equivalents through a cognitive theoretical framework Data were gathered from Jack London's renowned novel and its Vietnamese translation by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong The analysis focuses on structures such as (NP) + on + NP and NP + V + on + NP, where "on" serves as a preposition.
Methodology
This study utilizes both quantitative and qualitative approaches to explore the meanings of the preposition "on" in Jack London's "The Call of the Wild," alongside its Vietnamese equivalents as translated by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong Additionally, a combination of descriptive and contrastive methods is employed to gather qualitative data, highlighting the similarities and differences in spatial cognition between English and Vietnamese.
Significance of the study
The thesis presents compelling evidence that the preposition "on" has multiple interconnected meanings The analysis reveals a strong relationship between the meanings of "on" in English and the conceptual frameworks of both Vietnamese and English speakers This suggests that the understanding of prepositions is influenced by cultural perceptions and individual experiences of the physical world.
This thesis aims to enhance the body of research on prepositions from cognitive perspectives, providing readers with a theoretical foundation on one of the most complex aspects of the English language.
The study offers valuable recommendations for avoiding common prepositional errors and enhancing pedagogical approaches in teaching English prepositions, specifically tailored for English major students.
Organization of the study
The research consists of three main parts: Introduction, Development and Conclusion
Part A: Introduction presents the rationale, the aims, the research questions, methods, scope, significance and organization of the study
Part B: Development consists of three chapters:
Chapter 1 Literature review gives the concepts of cognitive linguistics and cognitive semantics, prepositions in English and the analytical framework of the study Furthermore, the review of previous studies is also presented
Chapter 2 Methodology includes the research method, the data collection and data analysis
Chapter 3 Analyses indicates the potential meanings of preposition ―on‖ in English and their equivalents in Vietnamese of ―The Call of the Wild‖ in order to answer two research questions: (1) the potential meanings of preposition ―on‖ in
English; (2) the Vietnamese equivalents of preposition ―on‖ found in the translation by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong
Part C: Conclusion is the last part which offers a summary, some limitations and suggestions for further study.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Spatial prepositions in cognitive semantics
Spatial prepositions are essential in natural language to describe the spatial relationships between two entities, referred to as x and y In cognitive studies, these entities are often termed as Trajector (TR) and Landmark (LM), respectively By using the Landmark (y) as a reference point, spatial prepositions effectively convey the location of the Trajector (x) For instance, in the sentences "The books are on the table" and "He washed his car in the garage," the prepositions illustrate how x relates to y in terms of spatial positioning.
In the provided examples, the preposition "on" specifies the location of the books as being on top of the table, while "in" denotes that something is situated within the interior of the garage.
Furthermore, prepositions, as stated in cognitive semantics, possess the following characteristics:
Prepositional meaning refers to a fundamental sense that underlies all prepositional uses, as established by linguists like Leech (1969) and Bennett (1975) This core sense manifests across various contexts, illustrating its versatility and significance in language.
Prepositions exhibit polysemy, featuring a primary spatial sense alongside various non-prototypical meanings According to Ciencki (1989), a preference rule system identifies the prototype, which is fundamentally linked to spatial relations The alternative meanings of prepositions can be traced back to a basic image-schema, utilizing family resemblances and image schema transformations as outlined by Brugman (1980), Linder (1983), Lakoff (1987), and Cuyken (1988, 1993).
Analytical framework
The analytical framework employed in this study includes image schemas, prototype theory and metaphorical meaning extension
1.3.1 Image schemas 1.3.1.1 Definition of image schemas
Image schemas, as discussed by Lakoff (1987), Lakoff & Turner (1989), and Johnson (1987), extend beyond mere linguistic theory, embodying psychological realities supported by experimental research in psycholinguistics, cognitive psychology, and developmental psychology (Gibbs & Colston, 1995).
Images serve as representations of unique embodied experiences, while image schemas are abstract, schematic patterns rather than specific images These schemas emerge from various imagistic domains, including containers, paths, links, forces, and balance, and they consistently shape our bodily experiences across different contexts (Lakoff, 1987; Johnson).
Image schemas, as described by Lakoff (1987) and Johnson (1987), are fundamental mental patterns that shape both our bodily and non-bodily experiences through metaphor These schemas are not limited to a single sensory modality; instead, they encompass kinesthetic elements and transcend various modes of perception They recurrently offer structured understanding of diverse experiences, serving as a source domain for metaphorical interpretations of new situations.
1.3.1.2 Image schemas of preposition “on”
The spatial senses of on usually indicate a surface with two dimensions and are generally classified into three basic image schemas: contact, support and path (Linstromberg, 1998)
The most familiar usage of the preposition on is that the TR has contact to an
LM which plays the role of support as a surface but the TR is not any part of the
The contact schema can be restructured into both a rotated schema and an attachment schema, which may experience modifications influenced by perceptual shifts in perspectives or profiles (Ming, 2011).
Figure 1 General image schema of on (Ming, 2011)
Secondly, the support image schema of on expresses the functional relationship between the LM and the TR and normally the entity (the TR) is on the
The relationship between the target reference (TR) and the landmark (LM) involves overlapping image schemas of contact and containment When the TR is in contact with the LM, the LM serves as a background or support for the TR In certain contexts, particularly with vehicles, the image schema of "on" can imply containment, such as "on the train." However, research indicates that the concept of support is more prominent than that of containment in these scenarios Ming (2011) highlighted that "on" is often used to indicate support from vehicles like ships, aircraft, and trains, where the supporting surfaces, such as floors or seats, are more significant than merely being physical containers Therefore, phrases using "on" in relation to vehicles are categorized as support image schemas.
In scenarios where one object exerts control over another by counteracting gravitational forces, this dynamic can be described as a pressure schema, complementing the support schema In this relationship, the controlling participant is identified as the TR (Theme Role) of the action, while the controlled participant is designated as the LM (Location Marker).
According to Herskovits (1986), prepositions fall into two categories: some are primarily static (e.g., at, in, under); others primarily dynamic (to, from, via)
According to Yang (2008), the static usage rates of prepositions are notably high, with "at" at 95.03%, "on" at 98.84%, and "in" at 97.25% However, static prepositions can occasionally appear in dynamic contexts and vice versa Notably, while "on" is primarily static, it can also function in dynamic situations, particularly illustrated by the path image schema This dynamic schema is evident in contexts such as the tightening of an attachment, which involves a sequence of movements.
Figure 2 PATH schema for on (Ming, 2011)
The specialization of the preposition "on" highlights specific perceptual aspects, acknowledging that sensory categories are often ambiguous and challenging to classify Various image schemas of "on" represent different facets of a broader schema, demonstrating a static contact relationship These image schemas are systematically interconnected, reflecting the sensory-motor organization of speakers This study focuses on the general image schema of "on" as contact in a static context, aiming to propose a simplified teaching method for English beginners The design of this approach is outlined below.
Figure 3 The CONTACT image schema of on
The TR is as the square on the top and the LM is under the TR to support it with closed contact (see Figure 3)
The prototype approach is widely recognized in studies focused on the acquisition of English prepositions, originating from Bernnett (1975) He proposed that prepositions encompass three types of meanings: spatial, temporal, and abstract, with spatial meaning serving as the core Subsequent research has largely viewed temporal and abstract meanings as extensions of the spatial meaning Therefore, the spatial usage, which most clearly illustrates the relationship between the target reference (TR) and landmark (LM), is considered the prototypical meaning of English prepositions.
According to Lindstromberg (1998), prototypical meaning is ‗conceptually basic‘ compared to other meanings, which are considered to be secondary or
The preposition "on" primarily conveys meanings of contact and support, where the subject interacts with a supporting surface, such as in the phrase "the book on the table." This prototypical meaning is significant because it aligns with several criteria identified through cognitive linguistics research, which seeks to establish a core meaning for each polysemous preposition.
1 The meaning recorded earliest in history
2 The first meaning acquired by native-speaking children
3 The meaning which seems most grounded in physical experience
4 The meaning which appears to be the one that (most of) the other senses evolved from
5 The meaning that is most readily elicited from native-speakers when they are asked to give an example of a particular preposition
6 The meaning that the preposition has in compound expressions
7 The semantic relations between the target preposition and one or more other prepositions
8 The degree to which a candidate prototypical meaning explains particular abstract usages of the preposition
*) Meaning of contact: a Contact: Partial sanction of the conceptual schema leads here to profiling the contact between the TR and outer limits or boundaries of the LM
The soft trail increased friction on the runners, resulting in heavier pulling for the dogs; however, the drivers remained fair and did their utmost for the animals Additionally, the term "TR" refers to a component of an external aspect, whether it be features like a nose on a face, ears on a head, or peaks on a mountain, or elements that are integral to a whole, such as heels on shoes.
The passage reflects a deep-seated curse extending through generations, targeting not only the individual but also their ancestors and descendants, emphasizing a profound sense of animosity In linguistic terms, a locative marker (LM) indicates a specific external area related to another entity, with a focus on precise positional accuracy Common expressions such as side, flank, right, left, part, hand, edge, and cardinal directions are frequently used in conjunction with "on" to convey this clarity of contact.
The character preferred not to be approached from his blind side, highlighting a vulnerability in his awareness As the situation intensified, he felt the closeness of the huskies, emphasizing the tightening circle around him The concept of limits is crucial, as the landscape model (LM) is perceived as a defined area, with "on" indicating contact with its external boundaries This understanding applies to various landscapes, such as streets, parks, lakes, and shores, which all possess distinct outer limits.
In a vast area, it is inevitable that other dogs would also be present During a memorable night ride, the man passionately recounted his experience in a small shed behind a saloon on the San Francisco waterfront.
The TR establishes or sustains control over the LM by maintaining contact with its resting side, a relationship known as support This dynamic may lead to shifts in the general conceptual schema or perspective From the LM's perspective, the TR is perceived as a burden, while the TR views the LM as a supportive entity.
The general conceptual schema may suffer certain shifts of perspective or profile Therefore, there are three further construals of conceptual schema as follows:
- Rotated schema: A non horizontal surface is the supporting side of the LM
Control and contact are still present For example: ―Pictures of her in more glamorous days were on the walls‖
- Axial support: An axis sustains the TR as a ring on a finger
Review of previous studies
Prepositions, despite being small words, pose significant challenges for language learners due to their abundance and multiple meanings in English As a result, numerous studies have focused on identifying common errors made by second language learners and exploring effective solutions to address these issues.
Numerous studies have examined prepositions from a contrastive analysis perspective, notably by Hoang Thi Huyen Dieu (2011) and Nguyen Thi Yen Nhung (2010), who conducted secondary research comparing English and Vietnamese prepositions Their findings indicated that differences in thematic roles (TRs) and lexical meanings (LMs) often lead to misunderstandings among English learners using prepositions However, the lack of clear data sources in their research has raised concerns about the reliability of these studies.
Together with the birth of cognitive linguistics, many studies have been conducted from this perspective
Vo Thi Cam Thuy (2011) showed her concern with the prepositions
The study examines the prepositional phrases "up/down" in English and "lên/xuống" in Vietnamese, drawing data from various literary sources It analyzes their syntactic and semantic features to highlight similarities and differences between the two pairs The findings reveal that "up/down" can function as particles in English phrasal verbs, while "lên/xuống" can serve as main verbs Semantically, "up/lên" signifies upward movement with a positive connotation, whereas "down/xuống" indicates downward movement with a negative implication, though this meaning can sometimes be reversed Despite providing valuable insights into these prepositions, the study notes a lack of uniformity in terminology, complicating the search for precise Vietnamese equivalents.
Nguyen Thi Van Khanh (2009) conducted a study on the meanings of the English preposition "in" and its Vietnamese equivalents from a cognitive semantic perspective, analyzing data from three renowned English novels: "Vanity Fair" by Thackeray, "Jane Eyre" by Brontë, and English-Vietnamese translation course books for third and fourth-year English majors at the Military Science Academy The research focused on 681 instances of "in," specifically in the structures (NP) + in + NP and NP + V + in + NP, where "in" functions as a preposition The data were categorized by frequency and percentage to identify differences and similarities in spatial conceptualization and cognition between English and Vietnamese Findings revealed that the predominant translation of "in" in the corpus is "trong" in Vietnamese, while other meanings correspond to "ngoài," "trên," "dưới," "trước," and "sau."
In both English and Vietnamese, prepositions such as "bên," "bằng," "về," and "vào" illustrate a similar relationship between the theme (TR) and the location or medium (LM), where the LM is often perceived as a container-like object This parallel highlights the linguistic similarities in how both languages express spatial and relational concepts.
The study explores the differences in spatial cognitive structuring between English and Vietnamese, particularly focusing on the preposition "in" and its Vietnamese equivalents within the context of tridimensional locative models (LMs) It highlights the influence of socio-cultural factors on language encoding and locative strategies While the research enhances understanding of the cognitive aspects of the preposition "in," it is limited in scope as it does not address its other grammatical functions, such as adverb and affix.
Sharing the similar idea with the above author, Nguyen Thi Tuyet Nhung
In 2010, a study explored the similarities and differences among the prepositions "above," "over," "under," and "below," using data collected from five literary works, including "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix," "David Copperfield," "Vanity Fair," and "Gone with the Wind." The analysis involved a corpus of 962 instances classified into image schemas with target roles (TRs) and landmark roles (LMs) in both spatial and non-spatial domains Utilizing image schemas and metaphorical structures as a framework, the study revealed that while the prepositions are described through an up-down schema, the characteristics of TRs and LMs differ, leading to varied spatial senses and metaphorical uses Although the research contributed to understanding vertical English prepositions, it did not provide a comprehensive account of all meanings associated with these terms.
In recent decades, researchers have increasingly focused on prepositions, examining various aspects of their usage Some studies investigate the number of English prepositions that have equivalents in Vietnamese, while others differentiate between similar prepositions Additionally, a portion of the research addresses common errors made by second language learners However, there remains a gap in comprehensive studies that delve deeply into this topic.
The preposition "on" is one of the most frequently used in English, and understanding its Vietnamese equivalents is essential This study aims to address the existing gap in research regarding this topic.
METHODOLOGY
Research method
The study utilized a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods to provide a comprehensive analysis Quantitative research is known for collecting statistical data that represents a larger population to either support or refute a theory In contrast, qualitative research generates descriptive data in the form of words rather than numbers, allowing for deeper insights (Bricki and Green, 2007) According to Dapper (2004, p.645), qualitative research emphasizes understanding the underlying meanings and experiences, making it a valuable approach in this study.
Qualitative research seeks to explore and understand the complexities of social phenomena by addressing questions related to "what," "why," and "how," thereby developing relevant concepts and theoretical propositions applicable to various contexts and groups In contrast, quantitative research primarily concentrates on numerical data, focusing on "how much" or "how many" to facilitate measurement (Draper, 2004).
This study employs a quantitative method to analyze and classify the occurrences of the preposition "on" in "The Call of the Wild" and its Vietnamese translation by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong Following data collection, a qualitative approach will be utilized to explore the distinctive features in the use of "on" between English and Vietnamese, highlighting the cognitive differences and similarities between the two cultures.
The data collection
The data used in the study were collected from English literary work ―The Call of the Wild‖ and its Vietnamese translation by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong
The Call of the Wild is a short adventure novel by Jack London published in
Set against the backdrop of the 1890s Klondike Gold Rush in Yukon, Canada, the novel follows Buck, a dog stolen from his home and thrust into the brutal world of sled dog racing in Alaska As he faces the harsh climate and fierce competition, Buck gradually reverts to his primal instincts, ultimately becoming a leader in the wild First serialized in the Saturday Evening Post in 1903, the story captivated readers and is now regarded as one of the 100 best novels, celebrated for its clear narrative, strong character development, and masterful use of language that resonates with readers.
In Vietnam, the translation of this literary masterpiece has seen contributions from various authors, but the rendition by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong stands out for its exceptional quality As noted by Nguyen Thi Thu Hien (2012), these translators effectively captured the author’s intent through concise and clear language, utilizing flexible syntax and carefully selected vocabulary Despite being influenced by the translators' unique styles, this Vietnamese version has gained widespread acceptance among readers for years, reflecting the cognitive nuances of Vietnamese culture Consequently, it serves as the primary sample for data exploration in this thesis.
This study focuses exclusively on the occurrences of the preposition "on" in the English version of "The Call of the Wild" by Jack London, along with its Vietnamese translation by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong Phrases featuring "on" as an adverb or affix were excluded from the analysis.
To differentiate between the functions of on-instances, it's important to recognize that a preposition requires an object, while an adverb does not Furthermore, adverbs typically appear at the end of a clause or sentence.
Eg: For weeks at a time they would hold on steadily, day after day; and for weeks upon end they would camp (p.72)
… and on and on, for hours, through the forest aisles and across the open spaces where the niggerheads bunched (p.75)
In other words, only occurrences of the preposition in form of NP + on + NP and NP +V+on +NP where these words play the role as the preposition were accepted
All occurrences were meticulously listed and filtered according to the specified criteria A total of 153 samples were manually collected from Jack London's English work "The Call of the Wild" and its Vietnamese translation by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong Each sample was paired, numbered, and the on-phrases were underlined for easy reference, as illustrated in the example below.
He playfully carried the Judge's grandsons on his back and rolled with them in the grass, creating joyful moments together.
The study classifies data into sub-groups based on two research questions regarding the cognitive semantic meanings of the English preposition "on" and its Vietnamese equivalents in Jack London's "The Call of the Wild," as translated by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong The analysis identifies three categories rooted in image schemas and metaphorical extensions Specifically, phrases indicating contact or support are classified as prototypical meanings, where the theme (TR) interacts with the landmark (LM) in a manner that suggests contact or is positioned on the upper surface of the LM, reflecting overlapping spatial meanings with the concepts of contact and containment.
The instances indicating movement were categorized as path schema, while the remaining data fell under metaphorical categories In response to the second question, the Vietnamese equivalents were classified into two groups: prepositional phrases and non-prepositional phrases.
Vietnamese grammatical rules Accordingly, there were eleven sub-groups, corresponding to ten Vietnamese prepositions, namely ―trên‖, ―trong‖, ―lên‖,
The article discusses the usage of specific Vietnamese prepositions: "xuống," "giữa," "bằng," "vào," "tại/ở," "đến," and "bên," along with a non-prepositional term These prepositions are organized based on their frequency of occurrence, ranked from the highest to the lowest percentage.
Finally, the results were represented in detail in Appendices whereas the frequency for different types were recorded and calculated as percentages in two separate tables.
Data analysis procedure
After being collected, the data were analyzed to answer two research questions mentioned in 2.2:
This study utilized an analytical framework based on prototypical meaning, image schema, and metaphorical extensions to explore the various meanings of the preposition "on." The results aligned with theoretical expectations, showing that the predominant meaning associated with "on" was contact, which is its prototypical interpretation Following this, the meaning of path was the second most frequent, while support represented a smaller fraction of occurrences in the corpus Additionally, a significant portion of the data revealed metaphorical extensions with diverse interpretations.
In examining the use of the prepositional phrase "on," a comparison was made with its Vietnamese equivalents from a cognitive semantic perspective This analysis focused on two key aspects: the ability of "on" phrases to combine with other words and their overall usage patterns in both languages.
(2) the relation between TR and LM expressed in the phrases
The study reveals both differences and similarities in spatial cognition between English and Vietnamese speakers Additionally, the author integrates current findings with previous research to elucidate these characteristics.
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
The potential meanings of preposition ―on‖ in English
The preposition "on" primarily signifies contact and support, which constitutes 37.25% of its occurrences in the analyzed corpus These instances can be categorized into four sub-groups: contact, where the theme (TR) is part of the landmark (LM), definite contact, and contact with a limit.
Out of 57 instances, 22 fall into the first sub-group, where partial sanction of the conceptual schema highlights the contact between the target referent (TR) and the outer limits of the landmark (LM) Fourteen instances indicate definite contact, referring to specific external zones of another entity, using expressions such as "on the side," "flank," "right," "left," and "part." Additionally, 12 occurrences illustrate contact with the external side of the LM Lastly, a modest number of occurrences, totaling 9, belong to the sub-group where the TR is considered a part of the LM.
The preposition "on," which signifies support, constitutes 9.8% of the total phrases in the corpus In this context, the TR establishes or sustains control over the LM or itself by maintaining contact with the external surface of the LM through its resting side.
A significant 16.34% of "on" instances in the study illustrate the path image schema, with 18 out of 25 occurrences indicating movement that concludes with contact In contrast, other meanings, such as movement ending in support and attempts at contact and control with the landmark, account for a smaller percentage, comprising only 2 to 3 occurrences.
Next, 10 out of 153 of on-occurrences are used to indicate the temporal in the study, which accounts for 6.54%
The study reveals that metaphorical expressions are prevalent, with support metaphors comprising 20.26% of the occurrences, totaling 31 instances Most of these metaphors convey significant meanings related to support.
The analysis reveals that "processes are path" metaphors are infrequently used, comprising only 1.96% of occurrences, while temporal metaphors represent a slightly higher percentage at 3.27% The remaining data primarily reflects alternative meanings associated with the term "on."
No Meaning No of instances Percentage
TR is a part of LM 9
TR becomes part of the LM through contact 2
Movement attempting contact and control of the LM 3
Topic are pieces of ground 1
Main components is support for the whole 2
The meanings of the English preposition ―on‖ and their Vietnamese
English and Vietnamese both utilize prepositions to convey spatial and temporal relationships; however, they exhibit notable differences in their use of spatial marking and the extensions of meaning associated with these prepositions.
Translators Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong employ various Vietnamese equivalents for the English preposition "on," highlighting two primary approaches Firstly, they use semantically corresponding Vietnamese prepositions to translate "on." Secondly, they opt for alternative translations, utilizing directional words, verbs, and adverbial clauses to convey the meaning of prepositional phrases that include "on." The subsequent sections will provide a comprehensive list and detailed explanations of the Vietnamese equivalents for the preposition "on."
3.2.1.1 ―On‖ in English corresponds to ―trên‖ in Vietnamese
An analysis of the translated and original versions reveals that 37 out of 153 instances of "on," accounting for 24.18%, are represented by "trên" in Vietnamese This indicates that "trên" serves as the primary equivalent of the English preposition "on."
In Vietnamese, the term "trên" corresponds to the English preposition "on," used when a thematic role (TR) makes contact with a landmark (LM) that serves as a supporting surface, without being a part of the LM itself Consequently, most instances of "on" that express contact are translated as "trên" in Vietnamese.
(24a) He lay down on the snow and attempted to sleep, but the frost soon drove him shivering to his feet (p.18)
Lying in the snow, he struggled to sleep, but the biting frost soon forced him to rise, trembling uncontrollably His entire body tensed involuntarily, and the hair on his neck and shoulders bristled in response to the cold.
(25b) Các bắp thịt trong toàn thân nó co giật từng hồi theo linh tính, lông trên cổ và vai nó dựng ngược…
Table 2.1 Preposition ―on‖ equals ―trên‖ in Vietnamese
In the above examples, ―on‖ in English is used with the LM such as ―bank‖,
Dyea Beach, rim ice, and lake represent specific areas with distinct boundaries, suggesting a two-dimensional surface in Vietnamese and invoking the use of "trên." The nature of contact limits varies based on context, ranging from a single point, such as the crest of a cliff or the totem pole of Alaskan fame, to a portion of a surface, like on Dyea Beach or on the bank.
(17a) UCK‘S first day on the Dyea beach was like a nightmare (p.15)
(17b) Ngày đầu tiên của Bấc trên bờ sông Đaiê giống như một cơn ác mộng (p.15)
(119a) That winter, at Dawson, Buck performed another exploit, not so heroic, perhaps, but one that put his name many notches higher on the totem-pole of Alaskan fame (p.66)
Vào mùa đông năm ấy tại Đoxân, Bấc đã thực hiện một kỳ công mới, dù không anh hùng như trước, nhưng đã nâng cao danh tiếng của mình trên cột totem lưu truyền tại miền Alaxen.
Table 2.2 Preposition ―on‖ equals ―trên‖ in Vietnamese
In addition to the above prototype of ―trên‖, Vietnamese people employ this meaning to show a process or path like in the following examples:
(42a) And strange Buck was to him, for of the many Southland dogs he had known, not one had shown up worthily in camp and on trail (p.29)
Bấc là một con chó đặc biệt, khác biệt với những con chó phương Nam mà hắn đã gặp, vì không có con nào thể hiện được vai trò quan trọng tại trại và trong quá trình kéo xe Trong khi đó, Dave lại từ chối chạy lặng lẽ trên con đường phía sau chiếc xe trượt tuyết.
(65b) Đêvơ cự tuyêt không chịu chạy thanh thản trên đường mòn phía sau xe (p.51)
Table 2.3 Preposition ―on‖ equals ―trên‖ in Vietnamese
3.2.1.2 ―On‖ in English corresponds to ―vào‖ in Vietnamese
In our analysis, the preposition "on" representing the meaning of "vào" in Vietnamese constitutes 5.88 percent of the corpus This usage of "on" signifies a preposition of movement, indicating that the Theme Reference (TR) approaches the Landmark (LM), leading to contact or support Additionally, there are instances where the movement seeks to make contact and exert control over the LM.
(6a) His jaws closed on the hand, nor did they relax till his senses were choked out of him once more.(p.8)
Hàm răng của Bấc cắn chặt vào bàn tay đang lao tới, không chịu buông lỏng cho đến khi Bấc bị thắt cổ, ngạt thở và ngất đi lần nữa.
In mid-air, just before he could seize the man, a sudden shock coursed through his body, causing his jaws to snap shut painfully.
Khi đang lao về phía con người, một cú đánh bất ngờ đã khiến nó dừng lại đột ngột, làm hai hàm răng của nó va chạm đau đớn vào nhau.
(13a) Then the man advanced and deliberately dealt him a frightful blow on the nose (p.11)
(13b) Lúc này, người mặc áo đỏ bèn bước tới, cố tình quật cho nó 1 cú khủng khiếp vào mũi (p.10)
Table 3.1 Preposition ―on‖ equals ―vào‖ in Vietnamese to denote movement
The subject exerts a strong force on a surface, referred to as the LM, which is typically an upper surface due to gravity However, in some cases, such as in example (13a), the LM may not be particularly wide, as demonstrated by the implicit subject "the man" and the LM being "the nose."
The Vietnamese preposition "vào" is used in temporal expressions, similar to how the English preposition "on" functions In English, "on" is applied to specific days, dates, or detailed times, while "vào" refers to parts of the day, particular months, seasons, or specific occasions in Vietnamese.
(2a) … he escorted Mollie and Alice, the Judge‘s daughters, on long twilight or early morning rambles (p.6)
Nó đã đồng hành cùng Mo-li và Ê-lêx, hai cô con gái của ông Thẩm, trong những buổi dạo chơi dài vào lúc hoàng hôn hoặc sáng sớm.
Table 3.2 Preposition ―on‖ equals ―vào‖ in Vietnamese to denote time 3.2.1.3 On‖ in English corresponds to ―trong‖ in Vietnamese
Comparison between English and Vietnamese Spatial Cognition
Vietnamese equivalents of ―on‖ Frequency of occurrences Percentage
Table 23 The Vietnamese equivalents of preposition ―on‖
3.3 Similarites and differences between English and Vietnamese Spatial Cognition
Despite cultural and societal differences, both Vietnamese and English utilize prepositions to convey spatial concepts This study identifies ten Vietnamese prepositions that correspond to the English preposition "on," with statistics revealing that over one-fifth of its occurrences are translated as "trên" in Vietnamese This indicates a shared cognitive understanding between Vietnamese and English speakers in the prototypical use of these prepositions.
―trên‖ Prepositions are applied in both languages based on the same relation of the
The relationship between TR (reference object) and LM (landmark) highlights how individuals from different countries share similar spatial experiences due to common biological traits and environmental interactions Levinson (2001) emphasizes the existence of universal elements in both the physical world and human perception, suggesting that similar spatial configurations are likely to emerge across diverse cultures, ultimately resulting in commonalities in spatial language.
People from English and Vietnamese cultures employ different locative strategies when describing spatial relations While both languages center on human perspectives, English uses the preposition "on" to denote objective physical relationships between a reference point (TR) and a landmark (LM) In contrast, Vietnamese incorporates the speaker's subjective perception alongside objective concepts, making the vantage point crucial for selecting spatial prepositions For example, in the translated version of "The Call of the Wild," the English preposition "on" is represented by ten different Vietnamese prepositions, such as trên, bên, tại/ở, vào, lên, giữa, trong, xuống, bằng, and đến.
The second key difference in language encoding involves the usage of the prepositions "on," "above," and "over" in English, which indicate varying degrees of contact between the Target Reference (TR) and Landmark (LM) English speakers pay close attention to this relationship, using "on" to describe locations from a landscape perspective (e.g., "on the bank of the river") to a precise point (e.g., "on the crest of a cliff") In contrast, Vietnamese simplifies this by using the single preposition "trên" for all three cases, showing less emphasis on the contact between TR and LM.
He had experienced these moments previously in a distant, vaguely remembered world, and now he found himself once again running freely across the unspoiled earth beneath his feet, with the expansive sky stretching above him.
Nó đã từng trải qua những khoảnh khắc tuyệt vời trong quá khứ, mà giờ đây lại được sống lại giữa thiên nhiên rộng lớn Tự do chạy nhảy trên mặt đất nguyên sơ và ngắm nhìn bầu trời bao la, nó cảm nhận được sự thanh bình và tươi mới của cuộc sống.
Summary of the study
This study explores the meanings of the preposition "on" in "The Call of the Wild" and its Vietnamese translations by Nguyen Cung Ai and Vu Tuan Phuong Utilizing a cognitive approach, it examines image schemas, prototypical meanings, and metaphorical structures to uncover both the literal and metaphorical implications of "on." The analysis of the collected data reveals significant findings regarding its usage in the text.
The meanings of the English preposition ―on‖ from a cognitivesemantic perspective
From a cognitive semantic perspective, the English preposition "on" encompasses various meanings, including contact, support, and path imagery Notably, the prototypical meaning of "on" is contact, which accounts for approximately 37.25% of its occurrences in English This contact can be understood at different levels, with the landmark (LM) being perceived as an area such as a park, lake, or road, and an external definite zone or area, including terms like flank, right, left, part, or hand.
LM (nose on face, ears on head, peaks on the mountain )
In "The Call of the Wild," various metaphors are recognized as deviant language within generative linguistics These metaphors, based on the literal interpretation of "on," can be categorized into three distinct groups: metaphors of support, metaphors of contact, and metaphors of path.
Vietnamese equivalents of on-occurrences
It is estimated that more than 50 percents of the data in the corpus is equivalent to a number of Vietnamese prepositions such as ―lên‖, ―xuống‖, ―giữa‖,
In Vietnamese, prepositions such as "trên," "trong," "đến," "bên," "bằng," "tại," "ở," and "vào" primarily convey spatial meanings, with only a few, like "vào" and "đến," indicating temporal senses Research indicates that "trên" is the most common equivalent for "on," accounting for 21.14% of occurrences in translations This data suggests that both English and Vietnamese share similar cognitive frameworks when utilizing the preposition "on."
―trên‖ when people use them to indicate the contact between the TR and the LM in both versions
Metaphorical extensions of the term "on" encompass various non-literal meanings, including directional movement, the act of putting on clothing, and discussions of specific topics.
Teaching implications
Prepositions, though small lexical units, pose significant challenges for English Language Learners due to their abundance and multiple meanings An analysis of "The Call of the Wild" and its translation, along with the author's teaching experiences, reveals that students frequently make errors such as substitution, omission, and addition of prepositions To address these difficulties, several teaching strategies are proposed to assist students in mastering prepositional usage effectively.
Firstly, a collocation approach should be an alternative of the traditional one
In Vietnam, traditional education primarily emphasizes explicit grammar instruction, leading students to focus on learning prepositions in isolation, which limits their understanding of context and diminishes their confidence in using these words correctly (Lam, 2009) In contrast, the collocation approach teaches students to use "chunks" or phrases that frequently occur together, such as verb and prepositional phrases, rather than individual words This method is beneficial as it aligns with research indicating that language learners are sensitive to the frequency of linguistic input, with children often expressing ideas through phrases instead of single words (Mueller, 2011) Additionally, chunk-learning serves as a foundation for analyzing linguistic patterns, facilitating the acquisition of irregular forms and fixed idioms.
Incorporating cultural and social knowledge into English teaching is essential for addressing learners' prepositional errors Tran Quang Hai (2010) highlights that polysemy and differences in spatial perception, living habits, and topography contribute to these challenges Language learners often struggle with incorrect translations influenced by their native reference systems, leading to confusion about preposition usage By integrating cultural and societal contexts into the curriculum, educators can enhance students' understanding of the linguistic differences between languages, fostering deeper knowledge and a passion for learning.
Limitations of the research and suggestions for further study
This thesis contributes to the study of English prepositions by offering an in-depth analysis of the preposition "on," one of the most commonly used prepositions in English, from a cognitive perspective The research is based on data collected from Jack London's novel "The Call of the Wild" and its Vietnamese translation, which includes 153 occurrences of "on." While this literary work is well-received by readers in both English-speaking countries and Vietnam, its interpretation is influenced by the subjective perspectives of the author and translators Consequently, understanding the nuances of "on" and its Vietnamese equivalents requires consideration of these individual idiosyncrasies.
- widen the scope of the study to other works so as to avoid subjectivity;
- investigate Vietnamese equivalents of other prepositions such as ―in‖, ―at‖,
- explore the data in a different way, for example: studying a group of vertical English prepositions such as up-down, above-below…
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APPENDIX A POTENTIAL MEANINGS OF PREPOSITION ―ON‖ IN ―THE CALL OF THE WILD‖
1 PROTOTYPICAL MEANING OF PREPOSITION ―ON‖
(15a) ―He‘s no slouch at dog-breakin‘, that‘s wot I say,‖ one of the men on the wall cried enthusiastically (p.11)
He was fitted with a harness similar to those used by grooms on horses at home Just like the horses he had observed working, he began hauling Franỗois on a sled to the nearby forest, returning with a load of firewood.
(24a) He lay down on the snow and attempted to sleep, but the frost soon drove him shivering to his feet (p.18)
(41a) Lissen: some dam fine day heem get mad lak hell an‘ den heem chew dat Spitz all up an‘ spit heem out on de snow (p.29)
(47a) It ran lightly on the surface of the snow, while the dogs ploughed through by main strength (p.33)
(53a) The dark circle became a dot on the moon-flooded snow as Spitz disappeared from view (p.36)
The soft trail increased friction on the runners, resulting in heavier pulling for the dogs; however, the drivers remained fair and dedicated, doing their utmost to care for the animals.
(74a) Hal was a youngster of nineteen or twenty, with a big Colt‘s revolver and a hunting-knife strapped about him on a belt that fairly bristled with cartridges (p.46)
When the team initially placed a clothes-sack on the front of the sled, she advised that it should be moved to the back After they complied and covered it with additional bundles, she shook her head firmly as Charles and Hal finished loading the remaining items on top of the already substantial load.
Traveling can sometimes feel overly luxurious, as one character sarcastically questions if they are on a Pullman train Meanwhile, another character, exhausted and sore, chooses to continue riding on the sled, neglecting the dogs' needs in her fatigue.
(94a) She let her legs go limp like a spoiled child, and sat down on the trail
Hal expressed his reluctance to take risks on the unstable ice, emphasizing that he wouldn't jeopardize his life for any amount of gold in Alaska Meanwhile, Buck sensed impending danger as Thornton navigated the treacherous terrain When Thornton's partners, Hans and Pete, finally arrived on the long-awaited raft, Buck ignored them until he confirmed they were near Thornton Pete, aware of Buck's protective nature, made it clear he didn't want to confront anyone while Buck was present.
He appeared equally comfortable among the trees as he was on the ground, showcasing his connection to nature Upon reaching the edge of the clearing, he discovered Hans lying face down, covered in arrows resembling a porcupine.
(149a) Thornton‘s desperate struggle was fresh-written on the earth, and Buck scented every detail of it down to the edge of a deep pool (p.82) b TR is part of a LM: 8 INSTANCES
His entire body tensed up involuntarily, with the hair on his neck and shoulders bristling With a fierce snarl, he leaped into the bright daylight, snow swirling around him in a dazzling cloud.
They cursed him and his ancestors, condemning every aspect of his being down to the last generation Despite being nearly naked, with ragged, fire-scorched skin, his body was covered in hair As he dreamed by the Yukon bank, the sounds and sights of another world caused the hair on his back to stand on end.
(75a) mail-train drivers were passing out of his life on the heels of Perrault and Franỗois and the others who had gone before (p.46)
With just a hint of brown on his muzzle and above his eyes, along with a distinctive splash of white hair down the center of his chest, he resembled a colossal wolf, surpassing even the largest members of the breed.
(148a) At the same instant Buck peered out where the spruce-bough lodge had been and saw what made his hair leap straight up on his neck and shoulders (p.82)
The Yeehats observed a notable change in the timber wolf breed, characterized by individuals displaying distinctive brown markings on their heads and muzzles, as well as a white stripe running down their chests This shift in appearance marked a significant transformation in the species.
He was always aware of the surroundings, both inside and outside the camp By the time they returned, he had learned essential commands like "ho" to stop, "mush" to move forward, and how to navigate safely around bends while avoiding the wheeler as the loaded sled rushed downhill behind them.
(30a) His club landed heavily on the gaunt ribs, and the grub-box was capsized on the ground (p.25)
(37a) At another time Spitz went through, dragging the whole team after him up to Buck, who strained backward with all his strength, his fore paws on the slippery edge (p.28)