I Optical Fibre, New Developments Optical Fibre, New Developments Edited by Christophe Lethien In-Tech intechweb.org Published by In-Teh In-Teh Olajnica 19/2, 32000 Vukovar, Croatia Abstracting and non-prot use of the material is permitted with credit to the source. Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published articles. Publisher assumes no responsibility liability for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained inside. After this work has been published by the In-Teh, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are an author or editor, and the make other personal use of the work. © 2009 In-teh www.intechweb.org Additional copies can be obtained from: publication@intechweb.org First published December 2009 Printed in India Technical Editor: Melita Horvat Optical Fibre, New Developments, Edited by Christophe Lethien p. cm. ISBN 978-953-7619-50-3 V Preface The optical bre technology is one of the hop topics developed at the beginning of the 21th century and could do many services for application dealing with lighting, sensing and communicating systems. Many improvements have been carried out since 30 years to reduce the bre attenuation and to improve the bre performance. Nowadays, new applications have been developed over the scientic community and this book titled “Optical Fibre, New Developments” ts into this paradigm. It summarizes the current status of know-how in optical bre applications and represents a further source of information dealing with two main topics: - the development of bre optics sensors, - the application of optical bre for telecommunication systems. Over 24 chapters, this book reports specics information for industrial production and for the research community about the optical bre potentialities for telecommunication and sensing. It gives an overview of the existing systems and the main credit of this book should go to all the contributors who have summarized the contemporary knowledge in the eld of the optical bre technology. This book could be divided into two parts. The rst part covers the applications of bre based distributed sensors network or local sensor developments for: - Temperature sensing (ctive temperature measurement of bulk silica glass and silica based optical bres), - Strain sensing, - Chemical sensing (detection of hydrogen leaks, chemical species detection using advanced nanostructured material (carbon nanotubes, tin oxide particles)…), - Electric eld sensing in electric power industry, high intensity electric eld environments and high intensity telecommunications signal, - Structural health monitoring, - Structures monitoring using distributed sensors network (bridges, building…) - Corrosion measurement using multipoint distributed corrosion sensor based on an optical bre and the optical time domain reectometry technique, - Turbidimetry based on optical bre sensor for environmental measurement in urban or industrial waste water. VI The second part of the book titled “Optical Fibre, New Developments” deals with the new developments realized in the eld of optical bre communication in particular: - The use of optical bre delay lines for phase array radar system and microwave signal processing as well as for wavelength selective switching, - The theoretical modelling of all optical Impulse Radio Ultra Wideband generation without optical lter, - The potential of graded index glass and polymer multimode bre used in low cost 10Gbps small ofce/home ofce baseband network and Radio over Fibre systems, - The development of 60-GHz millimetre wave over bre system based on two innovative solutions using polymer multimode bre, - The use of graded index plastic optical bre for broadband access networks up to 40Gbps combined with the special design of the light injection setup, - The development of all optical logic gates based on non linear optical loop mirror - The theoretical modelling and experimental demonstration of bre based optical parametric amplier using novel highly non linear bres (photonic crystal bres), - The Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Ultra Wideband radiofrequency (RF) signal transmission over glass multimode bre by optical means using either parallel RF/ serial optics or parallel RF/parallel optics topologies, - The combined use of back propagation technique with dispersion managed transmission to extend the linear behaviour of optical bre. - The development of high speed, high power and high responsivity photodiode for Radio over Fibre systems A specic chapter nding applications in the eld of biomedical and material processing (power scaling in bre laser) using large mode area microstructured bres is also developed. This book is so address to engineers or researchers who want to improve their knowledge of optical bre technologies in sensing and communicating systems. I thank you my family for its patience and its support during the writing. December 2009, Christophe Lethien Book editor Associate professor for University of Lille 1 – Institute of Electronics, Microelectronics and Nanotechnologies CNRS UMR 8520 (France) VII Contents Preface V 1. Fabricationofsensitivebre-opticgassensorsbasedonnano-assembledthinlms 001 SergiyKorposhandSeung-WooLee 2. Opticalbresinaeronautics,roboticsandcivilengineering 017 GiuseppeDeMaria,AldoMinardo,CiroNatale,SalvatorePirozziandLuigiZeni 3. OpticalFibreSensorSystemforMultipointCorrosionDetection 035 JoaquimF.Martins-FilhoandEduardoFontana 4. FiberSensorApplicationsinDynamicMonitoringof Structures,BoundaryIntrusion,SubmarineandOpticalGroundWireFibers 045 XiaoyiBao,JesseLeeson,JeffSnoddyandLiangChen 5. Near-FieldOpto-ChemicalSensors 069 AntoniettaBuosciolo,MarcoConsales,MarcoPisco,MicheleGiordanoandAndreaCusano 6. Electriceldsensingschemesusing low-coherencelightandLiNbO 3 electroopticalretarders 101 CelsoGutiérrez-Martínez 7. Fictivetemperaturemeasurementsin silica-basedopticalbersanditsapplicationtoRayleighlossreduction 125 MatthieuLancry,EliseRégnierandBertrandPoumellec 8. OpticalFibresTurbidimetres 161 MiguelA.PérezandRocíoMuñiz 9. DistributedOpticalFibreSensorsfor StructuralHealthMonitoring:UpcomingChallenges 177 VincentLanticq,RenaudGabet,FrédéricTailladeandSylvieDelepine-Lesoille 10. FindinghydrogenleaksbymeansoftheberBragggratingstechnology 201 MarcDebliquy,DrissLahem,ChristopheCaucheteur,PatriceMegret 11. FiberOpticChemicalSensorsbasedon Single-WalledCarbonNanotubes:PerspectivesandChallenges 227 MarcoConsales,AntonelloCutolo,MichelePenza,PatriziaAversa,MicheleGiordano andAndreaCusano VIII 12. LowCostMulti-berModelDistributedOpticalFiberSensor 259 ChuanongWang 13. Potentialitiesofmultimodebresastransmissionsupportfor multiserviceapplications:fromthewiredsmall ofce/homeofcenetworktothehybridradiooverbreconcept 283 ChristopheLethien,ChristopheLoyez,Jean-PierreVilcotandPaulAlainRolland 14. Anoverviewofradiooverbresystemsfor60-GHzwireless localareanetworksandalternativesolutionsbasedonpolymermultimodebres 321 ChristopheLoyez,ChristopheLethien,Jean-PierreVilcotandNathalieRolland 15. ApplicationofGraded-IndexPlasticOpticalFiberinbroadbandaccessnetworks 333 JianjunYu 16. High-Speed,High-Power,andHighResponsivity PhotodiodeforRadio-Over-Fiber(ROF)Communication 367 J W.Shi,F M.KuoandY S.Wu 17. Ultrawideband-over-bertechnologies withdirectly-modulatedsemiconductorlasers 397 VíctorTorres-Company,KamauPrince,XianbinYu,TimothyBraidwoodGibbon andIdelfonsoTafurMonroy 18. AllOpticalGenerationandProcessingofIRUWBSignals 415 Y.BenEzra,B.I.Lembrikov,M.RanandM.Haridim 19. HighSpectralEfciencyOpticalTransmissionof OFDMUltra-widebandSignalsbeyond40Gb/s 435 B.I.Lembrikov,Y.BenEzra,M.RanandM.Haridim 20. NonlinearImpairmentCompensationusingBackpropagation 457 EzraIpandJosephM.Kahn 21. FiberOpticalParametricAmplierasOpticalSignalProcessor 485 ShunsukeOno 22. FibreBasedSchemesforUltrafastSubsystems: NonlinearOpticalLoopMirrorsTraditionalDesignandNovelApplications 505 AntonellaBogoni,FrancescoFresi,PaoloGhel,EmmaLazzeri,LucaPotì andMircoScaffardi 23. DigitallyFastProgrammableOpticalSignalProcessingDevices 529 XinwanLI,ZehuaHONG,ShuguangLIandJianpingCHEN 24. AllGlassMicro-structuredOpticalFibres 555 LiangDong Fabricationofsensitivebre-opticgassensorsbasedonnano-assembledthinlms 1 Fabricationofsensitivebre-opticgassensorsbasedonnano-assembled thinlms SergiyKorposhandSeung-WooLee X Fabrication of sensitive fibre-optic gas sensors based on nano-assembled thin films Sergiy Korposh and Seung-Woo Lee The University of Kitakyushu Japan 1. Introduction Optical techniques offer powerful tools for the characterisation of chemical and biological systems. The variety of different designs and measurement schemes of fibre-optic sensors provides the potential to create very sensitive and selective measurement techniques for the purpose of environmental monitoring. Different approaches exist for creation of fibre-optic sensors (FOS), which generally can be classified into two groups depending on the sensing mechanism: intrinsic and extrinsic fibre-optic sensors (Grattan & Meggitt, 1999). Intrinsic FOS allows to implement different measurements designs within an optical fibre based on the gratings (Bragg Gratings and long period gratings, LPG ) written into the fibre core in which the changes in the reflected light due to changes in the grating period is measured to detect the effect caused by an external stimulus (Vohra et al., 1999; Schroeder et al., 1999). Interferometric sensors can be made that use some external effect to cause a change in the optical path way or a phase difference in the interferometer caused by some external effect. All traditional interferometers such as Michelson, Mach Zehnder (Bucholtz et al., 1989; Dandridge, 1991; Yuan & Yang, 2005), Fizeau, Sagnac (Russell & Dakin, 1999) and Fabry Perot (Rao et al., 2000; Cibu1a & Donlagic, 2004; Lin et al., 2004) used for measuring of both chemical and physical parameters can be constructed utilizing optical fibres. The other type of intrinsic fibre-optic sensors is based on the evanescent wave absorption effect (Leung et al., 2006). The advantages of the fibre-optic sensors allow to create measurements systems with the high sensitivity and selectivity, providing an excellent tool for the environmental monitoring. In general, sensitive elements are needed for efficient fibre-optic sensing, which amplify the chemical interaction of analytes and convert it into a measurable optical response as signal. Current research in the field of optical fibre sensors is focusing on the creation and development of new sensitive elements which can expand an application area and increase the number and range of the analytes that can be measured by fibre-optic sensors. Generally there are some requirements to the sensitive elements of fibre-optic sensors and they should be: - transparent in the appropriate spectral range; - change their optical properties under the influence of the specific chemical species; 1 OpticalFibre,NewDevelopments2 - fast in response and have wide dynamic range; - reversible; - selective; - easy to immobilize onto glass/quartz/ plastic fibre; - easily and cheaply manufactured. Employing different sensitive elements deposited onto the side of single-mode (Monzón- Hernández & Villatoro, 2006) and multimode (Rajan et al., 2005) optical fibres allows the creation of an FOS with high sensitivity and selectivity. For instance a pH fibre-optic sensor coated with porous silica film was prepared by the sol- gel procedure to measure the pH of the solution with sensors sensitivity up to 0.66 dB/pH for the pH range of 7–10.5 (Rayss & Sudolski, 2002). Using a sol-gel film doped with a dye (e.g. coumarin, brilliant green, rhodamine 6G, and rhodamine B) (Beltrán-Pérez et al., 2006; Gupta & Sharma, 1997; Gupta & Sharma, 1998) the dynamic range of the pH measurement can be increased to cover pH values from 2 up to 12. The sensor sensitivity was increased by decreasing the probe light wavelength, with the highest sensitivity being achieved at 400 nm (Beltrán-Pérez et al., 2006). A sensor element doped with polypyrrole was used as a sensitive element for nerve agent detection; using a 1,5 naphthalene disulphonic acid (NDSA) –doped polypyrrole coating produced by the in situ deposition technique a sensitivity of up to 26 ppm with a response time of a few seconds was achieved. Utilizing different deposition techniques and using different doping materials has produced fibre-optic sensors with different sensitivities and performances (Bansal & El-Sherif, 2005). The transparency of an optical fibre depends on the fibre material and the wavelength of the probe light. Thus different fibres are appropriate for different spectral ranges; for the near infrared spectra (NIR) the chalcogenide (Lucas et al., 2006; Walsh et al., 1995), for Mid-IR the silver halide (Le Coq et al., 2002; Beyer et al., 2003), and for the UV-Vis quartz (Abdelghani et al., 1997) or plastic optical fibres (Ogita, et al., 2000) can be selected. Chalcogenide glass fibres were used to perform remote infrared analysis of non-polar organic species in aqueous solution. This technique permits the observation of disruption induced in living mammalian cells by at least two different types of toxins and it is possible to distinguish between the effect of a genotoxic agent (which damages nucleic acids) and a cytotoxic agent (which damages other cellular components) based on the cell’s response to IR light (Lucas et al., 2006). For the detection of chemical species with very low concentration in water, chalcogenide fibres which had special chemical treatment were applied for evanescent wave absorption spectroscopy (Le Coq et al., 2002). The concentration of chloroform and ethanol in water were measured using the variations of their absorbance in the infrared spectral range of 8.6– 10 m (Figure 1). The lower limit of detection for ethanol in water was approximately 0.5%, when the length of the sensing zone (removed cladding) was 3 cm (Le Coq et al., 2002). A fibre-optic sensor consisting of a silver halide (AgBr x Cl 1-x ) optical fibre coated with polyisobutylene (PIB) or Teflon was developed for the in situ monitoring of pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons in water for the spectral range of 8.5–12 m (Beyer et al., 2003). The sensitivity of this FOS was in the region of 100 ppb and it could be enhanced by increasing the interaction of the evanescent field with the investigated medium. A mid-IR grating spectrometer operating in the wavelength range of 8–12.5 m was developed for the detection of chlorinated hydrocarbons with a detection limit of 900 ppb for tetrachloroethylene. The sensor was based on the detection of the characteristic absorption of chlorinated hydrocarbons in the polymer membrane coated onto the sensor silver halide fibre and the effects of the samples on the evanescent field of the guided light (Walsh et al., 1995). Fig. 1. Absorbance spectrum of the different concentration of ethanol in water measured in the infrared spectral range of 8.6–10 m (Le Coq et al., 2002) The most suitable fibres in the visual spectral range for the creation of intrinsic FOS based on the generation of an evanescent wave are the plastic cladded silica fibres (PCS); because the plastic cladding can be easily removed by mechanical stripping or by means of chemical etching. This FOS coated with an appropriate sensitive material could be used for the detection of chemical parameters and species (Kawahara et al., 1983; Sharma & Gupta, 2005; Ronot et al., 1994). Polycation Washing Polyanion Washing ① ② Polycation Washing Polyanion Washing ① ② Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of the layer-by-layer (LbL) method In the deposition of a sensitive coating onto the optical fibre it is crucial to provide the sensor with stable parameters and prevent the functional material from leaching or desorbing from the optical fibre. Different immobilization procedures based on the covalent [...]... nm (triangles) 3.2 Optical response to ammonia Difference intensity / mV 15 20 ppm 13 10 7 5 3 1 0.5 0 .1 10 5 0 0 .1 0.5 1 3 5 7 10 13 20 ppm -5 -10 -15 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Wavelength / nm Fig 10 Optical transmission difference spectra of the optical fibre consisting of a five-cycle PDDA+/TSPP- alternate film for ammonia concentrations ranging from 0–20 ppm Ammonia-induced optical changes in... Conference on Optical Fibre Sensors, pp 580–584, ISBN 9780 819 432285, Korea, April 19 99, SPIE 16 Optical Fibre, New Developments Schick, G.A.; Schreiman, I.C.; Wagner, R.W.; Lindsey, J.S & Bocian, D.F (19 89) Spectroscopic characterization of porphyrin monolayer assemblies Journal of American Chemical Society, Vol 11 1, No 4, p 13 44 -13 50, ISSN 15 20- 512 6 Schroeder, R J.; Yamate, T & Udd, E (19 99) High pressure... films 11 at 706 nm (Q band), which is attributed to the aggregation structure of TSPP (Gregory van Patten et al., 2000) (a) (b) Sensor response / % 2.5 NH3 2.0 air 1. 5 3 ppm 1. 0 20 ppm 17 ppm 15 ppm 13 ppm 10 ppm 7 ppm 5 ppm 706 nm 1 ppm 0.5 ppm 0 .1 ppm 0.5 0.0 -0.5 470 nm -1. 0 -1. 5 350 nm -2.0 -2.5 0 2000 4000 6000 Time / sec 8000 Difference intensity / mV 3.0 20 350 nm 706 nm 470 nm 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 ... Chemical, Vol 90, No 1- 3, p 319 –323, ISSN 0925-4005 Bucholtz, F.; Dagenais, D M & Koo, K P (19 89) High frequency fibre-optic magnetometer with 70 fT per square root hertz resolution Electronics Letters, Vol 25, No 25, p 17 19 17 21, ISSN 0 013 - 519 4 Cibu1a, E & Donlagic, D (2004) All-fibre Fabry-Perot strain sensor Proceedings of 2nd European Workshop on OFS, pp 18 0 18 3, ISBN 9780 819 454348, Spain, June... 233-237, ISBN: 9780 819 418 6 61, Munich, June 19 95, SPIE Yuan, L., & Yang, J (2005) Two-loop based low-coherence multiplexing fibre optic sensors network with Michelson optical path demodulator, Proceedings of 17 th International Conference on Optical Fibre Sensors, pp 595–598, ISBN 9780 819 4585 51, Bruges, May 2005, SPIE Optical fibres in aeronautics, robotics and civil engineering 17 2 X Optical fibres in... Vol 10 4, No 25, p 5986–5992, ISSN 10 89-5647 Gupta, B D & Sharma, D K (19 97) Evanescent wave absorption based fibre optic pH sensor prepared by dye doped sol-gel immobilization technique Optical Communications, Vol 14 0, No 1- 3, p 32–35, ISSN 0030-4 018 Gupta, B D & Sharma, S (19 98) A long-range fibre optic pH sensor prepared by dye doped sol-gel immobilization technique Optical Communications, Vol 15 4,... multiple-peak surface plasmon resonance optical fibre sensor Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, Vol 11 5, No 1, p 227–2 31, ISSN 0925-4005 Ogita, M.; Nagai, Y.; Mehta, M A & Fujinami, T (2000) Application of the adsorption effect of optical fibres for the determination of critical micelle concentration Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, Vol 64, No 1- 3, p 14 7 15 1, ISSN 0925-4005 Rajan; Chand, S & Gupta,... / ppm 350 -0.50 ± 0.08 2.0 1. 8 0 .1- 20 1. 90 470 -0.35 ± 0.06 2.5 2.4 0 .1- 20 2.65 706 0.98 ± 0.07 1. 6 3.2 0 .1- 20 0.90 a Slope calculated from the calibration curve (Fig 11 b) b Response and recovery times determined as the interval needed for the signal to achieve 90% of their saturated condition when measured of an NH3 concentration of 10 ppm c LOD: limit of detection Table 1 Summary of the sensors parameters... the mole fraction of ammonia, and L1 and L2 are the flow rates of dry air and ammonia gas, respectively L (where L = L1 + L2) was kept constant at 1 L min -1 and ammonia concentration was adjusted by varying L1 and L2 A specially designed sensor 8 Optical Fibre, New Developments chamber made of Teflon (Fig 7b) was used in order to estimate the ammonia response The optical fibre coated with the functional... Vol 6, No 3, p 12 5 13 3, ISSN 15 12-0856 Fabrication of sensitive fibre-optic gas sensors based on nano-assembled thin films 15 Le Coq, D.; Michel, K.; Keirss, J.; Boussard- Plédel, C.; Fonteneau, G.; Bureau, B.; Le Quéré, J.-M.; Sire, O & Lucas, J (2002) Infrared glass fibres for in-situ sensing, chemical and biochemical reactions Comptes Rendus Chimie, Vol 5, No 12 , p 907– 913 , ISSN 16 31 0748 Lee, S.-W.; . 3.2 Optical response to ammonia 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 0 .1 0.5 1 3 5 7 10 13 20 ppm Difference intensity / mV Wavelength / nm 20 ppm 13 10 7 5 3 1 0.5 0 .1 Fig. 10 3.2 Optical response to ammonia 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 0 .1 0.5 1 3 5 7 10 13 20 ppm Difference intensity / mV Wavelength / nm 20 ppm 13 10 7 5 3 1 0.5 0 .1 Fig. 10 8000 -2.5 -2.0 -1. 5 -1. 0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1. 0 1. 5 2.0 2.5 3.0 17 ppm 15 ppm 1 ppm 0.5 ppm 0 .1 ppm 3 ppm 5 ppm 7 ppm 10 ppm 13 ppm 20 ppm Sensor response / % Time / sec 706 nm 470 nm 350 nm air NH 3 0 .1 1 10 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20