A study of attitude and graduation in english and vietnamese economic newspaper articles an appraisal approach

A study of attitude and graduation in english and vietnamese economic newspaper articles an appraisal approach A study of attitude and graduation in english and vietnamese economic newspaper articles an appraisal approach A study of attitude and graduation in english and vietnamese economic newspaper articles an appraisal approach A study of attitude and graduation in english and vietnamese economic newspaper articles an appraisal approach

INTRODUCTION

RATIONALE

Newspapers have been generally regarded as a mirror of each society (Tim,

In the context of globalization, economic articles serve as vital tools for readers to grasp various economy-related issues and business cultures worldwide Opinion articles, in particular, play a crucial role in interpreting, analyzing, and evaluating significant events, helping readers develop a proper understanding of pertinent issues Their purpose includes explaining the relevance of numerous events, enhancing news comprehension, and providing context to highlight their importance Despite comprising a small percentage of newspaper content, opinion pieces offer invaluable insights and embody the essence of journalism Thus, this study focuses on economic opinion articles within the broader category of economic newspaper writings.

Opinion articles serve as a platform for expressing the attitudes of both writers and the public, highlighting the presence of attitudinal meanings through up/down-scaling in language Evaluative language is prevalent across various languages, making it crucial to examine its use in specific opinion discourses, particularly within the economic sector This investigation aims to uncover the similarities and differences in how evaluative language is employed across different languages.

The Appraisal framework by Martin and White (2005) is a significant and systematic approach to understanding evaluative language, particularly within discourse semantics, which focuses on the meaning of entire texts This framework introduces key concepts such as Attitude and Graduation, providing an initial list of their values The dissertation aims to investigate how the Appraisal system can enhance the recognition of evaluative language in Vietnamese discourses, especially in economic contexts By exploring and expanding the existing Attitude and Graduation values, the researcher seeks to enrich the linguistic resources related to these concepts in both English and Vietnamese economic opinion articles.

Non-English writers often struggle to compose opinion articles due to the challenges of using precise evaluative language to express their views on economic issues To succeed in both academic and non-academic writing, these authors must embrace traditional English rhetorical approaches A practical solution for overcoming difficulties in second language writing is to provide explicit knowledge through a contrastive analysis of the similarities and differences in Attitude and Graduation as evaluative language between English and Vietnamese, focusing on their semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations.

The researcher conducted a study titled “A Study of Attitude and Graduation in English and Vietnamese Economic Newspaper Articles: An Appraisal Approach.” This thesis aims to provide valuable insights for writing opinion articles, enhancing English language skills, and improving the translation of articles between English and Vietnamese through the application of the Appraisal framework.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

This dissertation investigates the language of Attitude and Graduation in English and Vietnamese economic opinion articles through Appraisal theory (Martin & White, 2005) It analyzes the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of these elements in separate English and Vietnamese articles, highlighting both similarities and differences The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of evaluative language, enhancing skills in newspaper writing, English language teaching, and translation practices.

To achieve the aims of the study, the following objectives are intended to:

- Examine semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in English economic opinion articles;

- Examine semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in Vietnamese economic opinion articles;

- Discover similarities and differences in terms of semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation between English economic opinion articles and Vietnamese economic opinion articles.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Based on research objectives, this dissertation is formulated in the following questions:

1 What are semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in English economic opinion articles?

2 What are semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in Vietnamese economic opinion articles?

3 What are similarities and differences in terms of semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation between English economic opinion articles and Vietnamese economic opinion articles?

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Newspapers are categorized into various types, with previous studies focusing on language use in hard news reports In contrast, opinion articles provide critical analyses of current events rather than merely presenting facts This dissertation specifically investigates the evaluative language used in online economic opinion articles, as these digital formats have gained popularity due to their numerous advantages for readers compared to printed versions.

100 economic opinion articles (50 in English and 50 in Vietnamese) were chosen randomly and downloaded from the websites of four reliable newspapers

For the exploration of the evaluative language of economic opinion discourses, the thesis drew on the Appraisal framework by Martin and While

This article presents a novel approach to discourse analysis, particularly in the realm of opinion genre analysis It explores Attitude through two key dimensions: the semantic features related to Attitude subtypes—positive, negative, implicit, and explicit—contextualized within the discourse, and the lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude Additionally, the study examines Graduation, focusing on its semantic features and lexicogrammatical expressions Due to the extensive workload involved, the researcher has chosen to exclude cases of Focus and concentrate primarily on the Graduation of Force.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This thesis investigates the deployment of Attitude and Graduation, two key subsystems of the Appraisal framework by Martin & White (2005), within English and Vietnamese economic opinion articles Utilizing Appraisal Theory, the analysis focuses on discourse semantics, revealing the inherent nature of opinion discourse The study highlights how evaluative language in these articles is expressed both explicitly and implicitly, guiding readers toward specific attitudinal perspectives It also explores semantic shifts within the Attitudinal system and the role of Graduation in conveying Attitudinal meanings By distinguishing between Graduation and Attitude while examining their intersections, this research provides valuable insights for language learners, educators, researchers, journalists, and translators aiming to enhance their understanding of evaluative language in both English and Vietnamese contexts.

This thesis utilizes the Appraisal framework proposed by Martin and White (2005) to explore discourse semantics This framework offers a detailed system for understanding linguistic resources that convey social experience values, enabling a deeper comprehension of interpersonal meaning patterns that extend beyond mere emotional expression in discourse.

Martin and White (2005) propose an appraisal framework that enhances traditional evaluations of speaker and writer attributes such as certainty, commitment, and knowledge, while also examining the textual voice's relationship with other voices and positions in discourse This theoretical approach facilitates an exploration of "meanings in context" (Martin and White, 2005, p.94) The completed thesis aims to provide insights into the nature and application of evaluative language, focusing on Attitude and Graduation in English and Vietnamese economic discourses.

This thesis presents a methodology for analyzing Appraisal, focusing on its interaction with negation and the constructive nature of opinion It categorizes comments using the appraisal framework, providing a rich data source for examining Attitude and Graduation in English and Vietnamese opinion discourses By compiling a list of Attitude and Graduation values, the study enhances the understanding of evaluative language in both languages, serving as a valuable resource for language teaching and translation practice The research emphasizes the importance of comprehension and usage of appraisal language in developing listening and reading skills, enabling learners to effectively recognize and explain discourses Additionally, it offers pedagogical insights for teaching opinion writing at the tertiary level, particularly for students in journalism and English for Specific Purposes (ESP), guiding them in crafting economic opinion articles that resonate with native readers and facilitating effective translation.

WORKING DEFINITIONS

Appraisal is a method for analyzing how language is utilized to evaluate situations, express viewpoints, create textual identities, and navigate interpersonal dynamics (White, 2001) It is recognized as one of the three primary discourse semantic resources that shape interpersonal meaning (Martin & White, 2005) The framework of appraisal encompasses three key semantic areas: Attitude, Engagement, and Graduation.

Attitude is concerned with our feelings, including emotional reactions (so- called Affect), judgements of behavior (Judgement) and evaluation of things (Appreciation)

Graduation is a key concept in appraisal theory, reflecting the nuances of grading or scaling in communication It emphasizes the interpersonal strength of a speaker's expression and the clarity with which an item represents a value relationship According to White (2001) and Martin & White (2005), graduation is categorized into two main aspects: Force and Focus, highlighting its importance in effective communication.

Opinion articles are usually published in a newspaper or magazine that mainly reflects the author's opinion about a subject.

ORGANIZATION OF THE DISSERTATION

The dissertation is divided into seven chapters as follows:

Chapter 1 is Introduction, which describes the rationale for choosing the subject matter for research together with the aims and objectives of the study; identifies research questions as an orientation for the study The scope of the study is also stated in this chapter to show what areas the thesis would mainly focus on, then the significance and contribution of the thesis are clarified The last part of the chapter is the organization of the study

Chapter 2 named Literature Review and Theoretical Background reviews the previous studies related to the research topic, and draws the theoretical background for the study These include the theoretical framework of Appraisal by Martin and White (2005) at the level of discourse semantics, language of evaluation, economic opinion discourses and journalistic voices

Chapter 3 is Research Methods, which displays research methodology for the thesis It includes the research design, which serves as a framework for data collecting and analysis The methods for collecting and processing data, as well as the procedures for data analysis, are also explained in this chapter Validity and reliability are discussed at the end of the chapter

Chapter 4 presents the findings of the research of Attitude and Graduation in EEOAs In detail, it deals with analyzing, interpreting and finding the semantic features of Attitude and Graduation In addition, lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in EEOAs are also examined in this chapter

Chapter 5 gives way to a display of how language denoting Attitude and Graduation in VEOAs in terms of semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations Then the discussion of what has been described is presented to confirm how language of evaluation in English is applied to analyze Vietnamese discourse

Chapter 6 presents a contrastive analysis of differences and similarities in terms of semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation between EEOAs and VEOAs The chapter begins with some comparisons in relation to the deployment of Attitude in EEOAs and VEOAs, and the same procedure for the case of Graduation is presented in the second section of the chapter The reasons for differences and similarities in terms of semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation between EEOAs and VEOAs are also mentioned to clarify the issue

Chapter 7 is Conclusions It draws the conclusions of the dissertation and several implications for teaching and learning relating to the Appraisal framework to analyze evaluation language Some suggestions for further research are also provided in this chapter.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

The first chapter of the dissertation outlines the rationale for investigating the realizations of Attitude and Graduation in EEOAs and VEOAs, detailing the thesis's aims and objectives It presents three interrelated research questions focused on the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation, highlighting their similarities and differences in two target languages Furthermore, this chapter addresses the study's scope and its theoretical, methodological, and practical contributions Additionally, it provides an overview of the dissertation's organization, giving readers a clear understanding of its content.

10LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL

REVIEW OF PREVIOUS STUDIES

This section reviews existing literature on Appraisal, focusing on its application to media texts and specifically opinion texts It examines the language of evaluation within journal discourse and identifies gaps in current research Key information from the reviewed studies is presented, including research types, methods, objectives, and findings, which will help the researcher address identified gaps and determine the variables necessary for the research questions.

The appraisal framework, rooted in Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), serves as a vital resource for analyzing interpersonal meaning at the discourse semantics level It enables speakers and writers to evaluate language use, adopt stances, construct textual personas, and manage interpersonal relationships (White, 2000) Developed by Martin and colleagues, this comprehensive model of evaluation has been extensively elaborated through various studies (Iedema et al., 1994; Christie & Martin, 1997; Coffin, 1997; Eggin & Slade, 1997; Martin, 1992-2003; Martin & Plum, 1997; Martin & Rose, 2003; Martin & White, 2005; White, 2002-2003) Notably, White (2001) established a dedicated website (www.grammatics.com/appraisal) that serves as an introduction to the theory for scholars and a resource for recent refinements and extensions.

Prior to the development of the Appraisal framework by Martin and White

Since 2005, extensive research on evaluative language has emerged from various perspectives, focusing on terms such as 'affect', 'modality', 'evaluation', and 'appraisal' Martin's Appraisal model has been particularly influential in developing interpersonal meanings that have been underexplored in Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), highlighting critical issues in attitudinal systems According to Thompson (2008), Appraisal analysis effectively captures essential aspects of meaning in texts that other analytical methods may overlook White (2015) further emphasized that the appraisal framework elucidates "evaluative meaning-making," detailing how speakers and writers express positive and negative attitudes, adjust their assessments, and position themselves in relation to actual or potential audiences.

The article presents a nuanced classification of attitudinal meanings, focusing on the criteria for positive or negative assessments, their intended targets, the social implications involved, and the explicit or implicit nature of these evaluations It categorizes appraisal into three interconnected domains: "Attitude."

The concepts of "Engagement" and "Graduation" are essential in understanding attitudes, which encompass our emotional reactions (Affect), judgments of behavior (Judgement), and evaluations of objects or experiences (Appreciation) Engagement focuses on the sourcing of attitudes and the interplay of voices surrounding opinions in discourse, while Graduation addresses the amplification of feelings and the blurring of categories In this study, the Appraisal model is favored as the most systematic and influential framework for theorizing evaluation.

Appraisal theory has gained global recognition for its ability to analyze the evaluative aspects of language across various genres Numerous studies utilizing the Appraisal framework have been conducted, focusing on areas such as academic writing (Hood, 2004; Hood & Martin, 2007), public texts (Fuoli, 2012), and reading science (Martin, 1995, 1997, 2000) Additionally, it has been applied to science discourse (Fuller, 1998; Veel, 1998) and particularly in media texts (Coffin & O'Halloran, 2005; Coffin, 2006; Dreyfus & Jones, 2010; Iedema, Feez, & White, 1994; Millar & Hunston, 2015; Thompson, White & Kitley, 2008; White, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2004).

2006) that are related to this current study

Iedema et al (1994) identified a link between evaluation, stance, and journalistic styles, emphasizing that Affect, Judgment, and Appreciation play crucial roles in expressing emotions They highlighted that graduation allows for the modulation of emotional intensity, enabling academic authors to navigate the dual demands of impartiality and critique while establishing their unique position within the research community By utilizing resources like Force and Focus, scholars can conduct inferential analyses, integrating graduated meanings such as vagueness and downtoners through a semantic lens This approach recognizes the manifestation of these meanings across different grammatical structures, paving the way for further exploration of implicit attitudes conveyed through graduation in journalistic discourse In subjective texts, authors' value judgments are often overtly expressed, whereas objective texts are designed to obscure such linguistic indications.

The appraisal framework, established over 20 years ago by a group of Australian linguists as an extension of Halliday's linguistic theories, serves as a crucial tool for analyzing language in terms of evaluation, positioning, and interpersonal relationships (Vo Duy Duc, 2017) This study aims to provide an overview of the appraisal framework and its applications in both national and international discourse analysis, particularly in multimodal contexts Despite its novelty in Vietnam, the appraisal framework has been effectively utilized to explore interpersonal meaning across various genres, offering valuable insights for those interested in discourse analysis within this paradigm.

According to Martin and White's (2005) framework for linguistic resources in English, Ngo and Unsworth (2011) highlighted the distinctions in personal reference systems between Vietnamese and English They explored the complex structure of personal reference in Vietnamese, which encompasses common nouns-kinship terms, people's names, and personal pronouns Their analysis revealed that the selection of terms for referring to individuals carries evaluative implications from the speaker towards the listener and others in specific contexts This insight underscores the role of Vietnamese personal reference in shaping appraisal resources within the language.

An exploratory study by Tran and Thompson (2008) demonstrates that Vietnamese appraisal materials can be evaluated using the English appraisal framework, particularly through an analysis of a Vietnamese journalist's assessment of the US administration during the Iraq invasion However, the study's focus on a single article restricts its findings, highlighting a significant gap in the literature regarding systemic functional linguistic studies of Vietnamese, especially concerning interpersonal meaning and the specific areas of appraisal and graduation.

The increasing integration of media texts in adult education highlights their tailored design, utilizing specific structures, sentence patterns, and visual elements to engage targeted audiences effectively As noted by Bell (1995), media language captivates linguists, making it essential to analyze evaluative language within this genre through various perspectives, particularly the appraisal approach.

2.1.2.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity of Media texts

Subjectivity and objectivity are crucial in journalism for ensuring fair and balanced reporting White (2004) defines subjectivity as a perspective and utilizes an appraisal framework to explore this concept He highlights the distinction between objective and subjective claims in media discourse, illustrating how subjective opinions can be conveyed indirectly through association, metaphor, or inference Understanding these nuanced expressions is essential for sentiment analysis, yet they pose significant challenges due to their reliance on specific world knowledge that may not be accessible to everyone.

Thompson, White, and Kitley (2008) introduced the Appraisal framework to analyze the language used in hard news reporting across different languages and cultures, focusing on the concept of authorial "neutrality" in journalistic discourse Their research emphasizes the relationship between this neutrality and the broader idea of "objectivity" in journalism.

Neutrality in hard news reporting can be observed across various languages, particularly when it is viewed as a tactical restraint on specific attitudinal language Research indicates that there are few instances of explicit authorial judgment and affect in hard news due to the genre's nature Pound (2010) conducted a comparative analysis using Appraisal theory to explore the presence of the impersonal 'reporter voice,' as defined by Martin and White (2005), in English hard news versus Italian reporting This analysis highlighted both similarities and differences in reporting techniques, suggesting the influence of underlying social and cultural factors However, these studies have largely overlooked the examination of opinion pieces within this context.

Oteiza (2009) focused on Appraisal analysis and transitivity analysis of mental and verbal projections to explore voice realizations in the Chilean National Truth and Reconciliation Commission of 1991 This linguistic study offers a deeper understanding of the subjectivities in oral Chilean history, integrating evaluation resources into social practices Appraisal theory views evaluation as a discursive semantic system, manifested at the lexicogrammatical level.

SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS

Systemic functional linguistics (SFL) is a powerful tool for text analysis, focusing on how language is used and structured It emphasizes that language serves a semantic function, allowing people to negotiate meanings through written or spoken communication Developed in the 1960s by Halliday and collaborators, SFL contrasts with traditional grammar by prioritizing meanings over forms It posits that various meanings in language are realized through concrete linguistic layers, which reflect social and cultural contexts This dual stratification of language and context is visually represented in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 The language stratification and meta-functions

Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) identifies three types of meanings in language: ideational, interpersonal, and textual, shaped by social (register) and cultural (genre) contexts SFL analyzes registers using three semiotic functions: Field, Tenor, and Mode Field refers to the subject matter or external reality addressed in the text, Tenor relates to the relationships among participants in the communication, and Mode describes the method of communication employed.

The semantic component of the Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) model consists of three metafunctions: ideational, interpersonal, and textual The ideational metafunction represents how external reality is depicted in the text, often viewed as the core content of the message, encompassing actions, events, states, and the entities involved, along with their circumstances The interpersonal metafunction focuses on the relationships between the speaker and the addressee(s), as well as the connection between the speaker and the message Lastly, the textual metafunction transforms a collection of words or clauses into a coherent text, involving thematic structure, information structure, and cohesion.

The three types of meanings in language are represented by phonology/graphology, lexico-grammar, and discourse semantics, with phonology/graphology being the most concrete and discourse semantics the most abstract Discourse semantics focuses on meanings that extend beyond individual clauses, operating at the text level This level encompasses interpersonal meanings related to various discourse organizations, including Negotiation, which addresses how conversational turns are structured; Involvement, which examines non-gradable resources for managing relationships; and Appraisal, which involves expressing feelings, evaluating behaviors, and appreciating entities (Martin & White, 2005, p 33) This study specifically explores the Appraisal resource within discourse semantics, particularly its manifestation in business newspaper articles.

Recent revisions to the theoretical framework of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) have been made by Martin (2014, 2016, 2018) and Matthiessen & Guo (2020), emphasizing the significance of interpersonal grammar Martin's 2014 autobiographical essay reflects on his linguistic training and its impact on his interpretation of SFL, focusing on discourse semantics, genre, and appraisal In 2016, he discussed the interplay between theory and practice, positioning SFL as a practical linguistic approach Martin's 2018 work introduced the systems of negotiation and appraisal within interpersonal grammar The 2020 interview by Matthiessen & Guo provides valuable insights into key SFL issues, enhancing our understanding of SFL's overall structure.

APPRAISAL IN DISCOURSE SEMANTICS

Martin and his colleague have significantly advanced systemic functional linguistics (SFL) through their contributions to discourse semantics, appraisal frameworks, and genre relations According to Martin and White (2005), the Appraisal framework emphasizes interpersonal meaning, aiming to broaden traditional views on speaker and writer evaluations, commitments, and knowledge, while also examining how textual voices interact within discourse This approach prioritizes understanding "meanings in context and rhetorical effects" (Martin and White, 2005, p.94), positioning Appraisal within discourse semantics, which explores meaning beyond lexicogrammar and phonology Additionally, Hunston and Thompson (2000, p.19) noted that evaluation is pervasive throughout texts rather than isolated to specific sections.

According to Martin (2014), discourse semantics represents a distinct structural level beyond mere cohesive ties between grammatical units Oteiza (2017) elaborates that language consists of complex meaning patterns across various strata, including genre, register, discourse semantics, lexicogrammar, and phonology, each layer built upon the patterns of the one below it, a concept known as meta redundancy This is particularly significant in the context of appraisal, as it shifts the focus from a purely grammatical assessment to understanding the rhetorical impact of evaluative lexis throughout the text Consequently, the appraisal system facilitates the generalization of diverse lexicogrammatical expressions that interconnect sensations, thereby enabling the analysis of evaluative prosodies in relation to genre.

The appraisal framework utilizes a conceptual approach to evaluation, focusing on both grammatical and lexical codification, along with their patterning, known as valorative prosody, throughout the discourse.

Discourse semantic systems, structured by metafunction within the Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) paradigm, enable a reinterpretation of lexicogrammatical resources from an interpersonal perspective This approach facilitates the exploration of how attitudes are expressed in discourse, whether through prosodic elements or cumulative effects According to Martin and White, understanding these dynamics at the discourse semantics level is crucial for analyzing interpersonal meaning in communication.

Understanding grammatical metaphor is crucial, as it involves a process where meaning is intricately developed, creating a tension between the wording and its intended meaning (2005, p.10).

APPRAISAL FRAMEWORK

The Appraisal framework encompasses English language resources that articulate concepts of comparison, subjectivity, and values, organized into three main sub-systems: Attitude, Graduation, and Engagement Attitude reflects individuals' emotions and opinions towards others or objects Engagement addresses how language resources like projection, modality, polarity, concession, and comment adverbials position the speaker or writer in relation to the proposed value stance and potential responses, categorized under 'heterogloss' and 'monogloss.' Graduation focuses on language tools that enhance both Attitude and Engagement This study primarily examines Attitude and Graduation in detail.

Attitude is a crucial component of the Appraisal framework, focusing on the evaluation of entities, personalities, and emotions It encompasses both the author's perspective and external viewpoints The concept of attitude is divided into three sub-systems: Affect, which relates to emotions; Judgment, which pertains to ethical considerations; and Appreciation, which addresses aesthetic values.

The distinction between Affect and the other attitudinal categories is both clear and nuanced, as noted by Bednarek (2006) and White (2005, 2006) Attitudinal meanings can be compared and intensified, which will be further examined in the sections on attitude and graduation Appraisal theory identifies three broad semantic domains, with Affect considered fundamental, as it represents the innate expressive resource we possess from birth (Martin & White, 2005) This underscores the central role of Affect among the attitudinal resources, as illustrated in Figure 2.2 from Martin and White (2005), which shows Affect's pivotal position in relation to institutionalized meanings like Judgement and Appreciation.

Figure 2.2 Judgement and Appreciation as institutionalized Affect

The figure shows the interplay between affect and the other two attitudinal sub-groupings Their detailed explorations are presented in the following sections

The interpersonal mode of economic opinion articles, as discussed by Martin & White (2005), focuses on the discourse semantics of Affect, which pertains to the emotional reactions elicited by behaviors, texts, processes, or phenomena Key emotions within Affect include unhappiness, insecurity, dissatisfaction, and disinclination, which can be graded on a scale of intensity from dislike to hate Affect also differentiates between realis and irrealis stimuli, emphasizing the registration of positive and negative feelings—such as happiness versus sadness or confidence versus anxiety—as they are expressed in text This evaluation through Affect Appraisal highlights the importance of emotional responses in understanding interpersonal communication within economic contexts.

―Authorial Affect‖ or ―Non-Authorial Affect‖ A framework of six factors to classify Affect is presented as follows a Un/Happiness

Emotions such as melancholy, hate, happiness, and love are all part of the un/happiness spectrum This spectrum encompasses both positive and negative moods, highlighting our capacity to direct these feelings towards a specific trigger through love or rejection Additionally, the concept of In/Security plays a crucial role in shaping our emotional experiences.

Anxiety, fear, confidence, and trust are emotions that significantly impact eco-social well-being, encapsulated by the concept of in/security This term reflects our feelings of calm and worry about our environment and the people within it The emotions associated with in/security often relate to nurturing and protection, traditionally linked to gender roles, and highlight the importance of feeling safe in both domestic and social contexts.

Emotions such as ennui, displeasure, curiosity, and respect play a significant role in our pursuit of goals, collectively influencing our sense of dis/satisfaction This dis/satisfaction reflects our feelings of accomplishment and frustration in various activities, whether we are participants or spectators These sentiments are particularly relevant in the context of 'fathering' and mentorship, often framed within traditionally gendered environments that emphasize learning and achievement.

The dis/inclination variable reflects emotional reactions tied to fear and desire, often referred to as Irrealis Affect in appraisal theory This concept consistently involves an emotional trigger, which is the phenomenon that elicits the respective emotion.

The network of Affect proposed by Martin and White (2005) and later modified by Bednarek (2008) presents some confusion, particularly with new subcategories for "In/security," such as "disquiet-quiet" and "distrust-trust." To address these issues, this study employs an adapted composite Affect system that integrates elements from both frameworks While no changes were made to the categories of Un/happiness and Dis/satisfaction, modifications were applied to Dis/inclination and In/security Specifically, Martin and White’s subcategories of Fear and Desire in Dis/inclination have been replaced with Non-Desire and Desire In the In/security subcategory, Disquiet and Surprise have been retained, but Surprise is now replaced with Distrust The original options of Confidence and Trust remain in the Security subcategory This adapted Affect system is visually represented in Figure 2.3.

(source: Martin & White, 2005, p 51) e Positive and Negative Affect

The Affect typology examines whether feelings are culturally perceived as positive, associated with enjoyable experiences, or negative, linked to emotions that should be avoided.

Table 2.1 Examples of types of Affect

Dis/inclination miss, long for, yearn for, … wary, fearful, terrorized, …

Unhappiness can manifest as feelings of sadness, melancholy, and despondency, often leaving individuals feeling heartbroken or heavy-hearted In contrast, happiness is characterized by cheerfulness, buoyancy, and jubilation, often expressed through love and adoration The spectrum of emotions ranges from sorrowful and grief-stricken to joyless and dreary, highlighting the complex nature of human feelings.

In/security together, confident, assured; comfortable, confident, … uneasy, anxious, freaked out; startled, surprised, astonished, …

Dis/satisfaction involved, absorbed, engrossed; satisfied, pleased, chuffed/ impressed, … flat, stale, jaded; cross, angry, furious; bored with, sick of, fed up with…

(source: Martin & White, 2005, p 49-51) f Authorial and Non-Authorial Affect

Authorial Affect in first-person narratives highlights the emotional responses of the writer or speaker towards the evaluated subject, showcasing their personal attitudinal assessments This individualized evaluation underscores the inherent subjectivity of the communicator, emphasizing their emotional investment in the situation Consequently, the presence of Authorial Affect shapes the rhetorical dynamics of the discourse, making the speaker's subjective experience a central element of the communication process.

In cases of Non-Authorial Affect, where emotions are expressed in the second and third person, the writer serves as the source of the emotional evaluation and assumes responsibility for it However, it is important to also acknowledge situations where the emotions being described belong to other individuals or groups, rather than the author themselves.

Judgment is defined by Martin & White (2005, p.42) as an element that

Judgment involves our attitudes toward behaviors that we either admire or criticize, reflecting our capacity to assess actions based on various normative principles As a system of attitudinal positioning, it enables us to evaluate human behavior in both positive and negative terms, taking into account the individual's actions or inherent traits.

Judgment is subdivided into two broad categories by Martin & White (2005, p.65): (i) those dealing with ―social esteem‖ and (ii) those regarding ―social sanction‖

 Social esteem: construes ―esteem in the eyes of the public‖ (Iedema et al.,

1994, p.14) It involves personal judgements expressing admiration and criticism of someone‘s specialness, strengths, and courage or reliability, typically without legal implications

 Social sanction: involves moral judgements expressing praise and condemnation, often with legal implications

In the context of personal judgment, esteem judgments focus on an individual's normality, capacity, and tenacity, assessing how unusual, capable, and resolute they are In contrast, moral judgment involves sanction judgments that evaluate veracity and propriety, determining how truthful and ethical a person is.

SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL LINGUISTICS DESCRIPTION OF

Systemic functional linguistics has provided a comprehensive framework for understanding Vietnamese grammar, as demonstrated by various authors Notably, Cao Xuan Hao's work in 1991 effectively applies this grammatical model to analyze the structural elements of the Vietnamese language.

In 2004, it was posited that Vietnamese operates as a Topic-Comment language, aligning with Halliday's Theme-Rheme framework This structure indicates that Vietnamese sentences typically consist of a Topic, which serves as the sentence's starting point, followed by a Comment that elaborates on the Topic, similar to the Rheme in Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) Cao's findings sparked further exploration into the Vietnamese clause structure and encouraged research from an SFL perspective Additionally, Cao's introduction of this theory laid the groundwork for analyzing the Vietnamese language through SFL's appraisal framework, effectively illustrating the relationship between the Appraised (the Topic) and the Attitude (the Comment).

Hoang Van Van (2002, 2005) significantly contributed to the understanding of Vietnamese grammar through a Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) lens He introduced essential concepts for analyzing experiential grammar and developed a comprehensive framework to explore transitivity Hoang's model identifies three types of processes in Vietnamese: (1) the "doing" process, encompassing material and behavioral actions; (2) the "projecting" process, which includes mental and verbal activities.

The "being" process can be understood as either relational or existential Over time, there has been a growing interest in reading the book in its original English version Van has revised and updated certain sections referenced in Hoang (2012) His research provides an opportunity to explore whether the semantic features of Vietnamese can be analyzed through the Appraisal framework of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL).

In 2004, Halliday's book was translated into Vietnamese, significantly enhancing the understanding of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) among Vietnamese linguists and scholars Notably, Hoang (2014) focused on the concept of clauses in Vietnamese, emphasizing that, similar to English and other global languages, the clause is a fundamental grammatical category This category can be analyzed through the lenses of stratification, rank, and metafunctions, which serve as valid criteria for defining and identifying clauses in Vietnamese.

Thai Minh Duc (1998, 2004) is a pioneer in applying functional theory to describe Vietnamese grammar, focusing on the textual, interpersonal, and experiential meanings He demonstrated how the systems of theme, mood, and transitivity are expressed in Vietnamese In Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), the experiential metafunction is represented by transitivity, which reflects experiential meaning through the setup of processes, participants, and surrounding circumstances Circumstantial elements provide additional information about time, place, manner, and reason, and can be identified by probing questions such as where, why, how, and when In contrast, elements that answer who, which, or what are considered participants Thai noted that every Vietnamese clause includes the "does what" elements, highlighting the unique structure of the language.

In his 2004 study, Thai outlined the representative nature of clauses in Vietnamese, highlighting a verbal group that follows the "whom/to whom" element and includes participants, which may be supplemented by circumstances He identified four primary process categories: material, mental, verbal, and relational Material processes involve actions, while mental processes relate to consciousness experiences such as seeing and thinking Mental clauses are defined by the combination of a Senser, a process, and a phenomenon Verbal clauses encapsulate experiences of stating or symbolizing, and relational processes are characterized by "having, being at, and being." Thai noted two types of relational clauses: existential, which have one participant, and expanding, which involve two or more, distinguishing them from English's Hallidayan transitivity model, which lacks a distinct Existential process type.

This study builds on Thai's research to explore the placement of appraisal meanings within clauses and metafunctions in Vietnamese It identifies the Appraised through thematic elements and clarifies authorial positions via mood categories to challenge assessments Additionally, it demonstrates how lexico-grammar conveys semantics in any language Appraisal Theory focuses on the semantics of evaluation, highlighting the grammatical resources that shape these meanings within clauses.

Halliday's Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) theory has been utilized by numerous Vietnamese linguists to analyze the Vietnamese language, demonstrating its applicability and providing a foundation for future research within the SFL framework However, there has been limited exploration of Appraisal Theory in this context This study aims to apply Appraisal Theory to examine the interpersonal meanings of evaluation found in a collection of opinion texts.

APPRAISAL RESOURCES IN VIETNAMESE

Analyzing Appraisal resources in Vietnamese can be effectively achieved using the English Appraisal framework developed by Martin and White (2005) This approach is supported by research conducted by Tran and Thomson (2008), Vo Duy Duc (2011), and Nguyen Thi Thu Hien, demonstrating its applicability and relevance in the Vietnamese context.

(2014), Nguyen Thi Kim Ngan and Nguyen Thi Huong Lan (2020) However, due to some distinguishing features of Vietnamese, some more resources can realize Attitude and Graduation in Vietnamese

According to Hoàng Văn Vân (2002), the Vietnamese term "cú," equivalent to "clause" in Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG), serves as the highest grammatical unit that conveys the speaker's experiences of both the external and internal worlds, as well as their involvement in various situations during communicative events In the context of lexicogrammar, the clause is understood through the transitivity system, which shapes the meaning of experiences via different processes Hoàng Văn Vân emphasizes that the concept of process is crucial for identifying clauses in Vietnamese Consequently, the functional components of a cú or clause can be realized through processes represented by verb groups and adjective groups, along with participants denoted by nominal groups and adjective groups.

Ngo Thi Bich Thu (2013) highlights the role of modal particles in expressing attitudes in Vietnamese, distinguishing them from inflected grammatical categories like pronouns and verbs While English particles function as fillers or discourse markers, Vietnamese particles can be categorized into interpersonal and experiential groups based on their functional grammar (Diep, 2004) Experiential particles convey meanings related to polarity, time, ability, and degree of intensification, similar to English lexemes such as "rất" (very) and "khá" (rather) Interpersonal particles, including modal particles like "được," "phải," and "mất," also carry evaluative meanings, alongside the Final Polite Particle, which exists outside the Mood structure (Diep, 2004).

Các hạt từ như "được", "mất", "phải", "coi" có khả năng diễn đạt nhiều ý nghĩa đánh giá như Affect (Thiện chí/Không thiện chí, Thỏa mãn/Không thỏa mãn), Judgement (Bình thường và Năng lực) và Appreciation (Chất lượng) Ví dụ, mặc dù dịch Covid-19 vẫn ảnh hưởng tiêu cực đến nền kinh tế toàn cầu, nhưng một số nơi như Việt Nam đang kiểm soát dịch tốt Hơn nữa, hàng trăm nghìn tỷ đồng vốn đầu tư công chưa được giải ngân nếu được đưa vào nền kinh tế sẽ hỗ trợ xã hội và doanh nghiệp, thúc đẩy sản xuất Tuy nhiên, thương hiệu Việt đang dần biến mất, và những thương hiệu còn lại thường mang ảnh hưởng của Thái, Hàn, Nhật, Trung Quốc Đối với doanh nghiệp, thời gian là tiền bạc, quyết định khả năng nắm bắt cơ hội kinh doanh, vì vậy không nên để nợ của Nhà nước ảnh hưởng đến người dân và doanh nghiệp Nếu doanh nghiệp Việt vẫn chỉ làm gia công mà không tạo ra giá trị gia tăng lớn hơn, sản phẩm sẽ không đủ tiêu chuẩn xuất khẩu sang thị trường Mỹ.

Diep Quang Ban (1998) highlights that most Vietnamese words encompass both grammatical and lexical meanings Unlike English, which features inflections, Vietnamese is characterized as isolating and monosyllabic, with each word representing a distinct sound To identify Vietnamese words, three criteria are essential: generalized meaning, possibilities for combination, and syntactic functions.

Each word class possesses distinct generalized meanings that differentiate them from one another Adjectives describe the characteristics of objects, verbs denote actions, and nouns refer to entities In Vietnamese, words do not change form, allowing them to combine with others to express their meanings For instance, adjectives can be paired with modifiers like rất or quá, while the term hành động functions as both a verb and a noun, with verbs taking elements like đã to indicate tense and nouns preceded by quantifiers such as những The syntactic functions of sentence components—subject, predicate, and complement—illustrate how adjectives, verbs, and nouns can fulfill roles within a sentence, influencing word order in clauses and phrases.

The third criterion of syntactic function is evident in the constituent elements of sentences, including the subject, predicate, and complement Adjectives, verbs, and nouns are instrumental in forming the subject and complement, influencing the word order within clauses and phrases These criteria are crucial for identifying words in phrases or clauses, while the second criterion establishes the framework for creating phrases This relationship facilitates the development of word order rules, particularly illustrated by verb and adjective combinations For instance, verb phrases such as "rất chạy" and "hơi đi" do not include terms like "khí" or "rất" as pre-heads of action verbs.

In Vietnamese grammar, "lắm" and "quá" cannot precede action verbs; however, they can precede state verbs or verbs expressing feelings and thoughts, such as "thương quá" (love too much) and "nghĩ ngợi quá" (think too much) Conversely, "quá" can serve as a pre-head for these verbs, as seen in phrases like "quá nể" (too respectful) and "quá thương" (too loving), while "lắm" cannot form similar combinations (e.g., "lắm nể," "lắm thương," "lắm hiểu" are incorrect) Additionally, frequency words like "thường" (often), "hay" (sometimes), and "hiếm" (rarely) can be placed before verbs.

Adjectives can be easily identified when combined with modifiers like "rất," which precedes both standalone adjectives and adjective phrases, including relational adjectives such as "rất Việt Nam" and "tác phong rất công nhân" (Diệp Quang Ban, 1998, p 19) However, unmarked adjectives cannot combine with "rất," nor with "hơi" or "khí," as seen in examples like "rất công*" and "rất tư*." Additionally, modifiers such as "rất," "tuyệt," "cực kì," "hơi," "khí," and "quá" can be prefixed to adjectives, while "lắm," "quá," "cực kì," "cực," "tuyệt," and "quá" can be suffixed, forming adjective phrases like "đẹp lắm," "đẹp cực kì," "đẹp tuyệt," and "đẹp quá." (Diệp Quang Ban).

There are differences in the labeling of some word classes between English and Vietnamese In detail, from the functional grammar perspective, Nguyen Tai

According to Can (1998), adjectives and adjectival groups are more effective than adverbs or adverbial phrases for describing the manner of an action For example, in the verbal phrase "chạy nhanh" (which translates to "run quickly"), the adjective "nhanh" (quick) serves to convey the manner of the action more effectively.

The term "nhanh" is categorized as an adjective rather than an adverb, a perspective endorsed by Ngo Thi Bich Thu (2013) This classification arises from the observation that Vietnamese words maintain their form across various functions and tenses.

The Vietnamese term "nhanh" signifies a quality related to speed and functions exclusively as an adjective, applicable to both objects and processes This perspective aligns with the viewpoint of Nguyễn Tai Can (1998), which will be adopted in the current study.

There are some further resources for expressing Graduation in Vietnamese, including Compounds and Reduplicatives as suggested by Ngo Thi Bich Thu

Compounds are multi-syllable words formed from constituents that are semantically related but not phonetically duplicated In contrast, reduplicatives feature parts that are phonetically similar.

This study examines two types of compounds: Iterative and Repetitive Compounds In Iterative Compounds, each component carries a distinct meaning that combines to create a synthesized meaning for the entire word, exemplified by terms like "tốt đẹp" (good beautiful) and "mong chờ" (expect wait) According to Martin and White (2005), "mong chờ" strengthens Force-Process, while "tốt đẹp" enhances Force-Quality Conversely, Repetitive Compounds consist of synonyms or words with very similar meanings, merging to form a synthesized meaning Examples include "vui mừng" (joyful cheerful) and "mong muốn" (desire want), with "vui mừng" intensifying Force-Quality.

―Mong muốn‖ (desire want) would intensify Force-Process

Reduplicatives are multisyllabic words characterized by phonological relationships between their syllables They typically consist of a root element accompanied by one or more derivative elements When the derivative elements repeat the entire syllable of the root, a reduplicative is created Conversely, when only a portion of the root element is repeated, a reduplicative is also formed.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This thesis aims to explore the language used to express Attitude and Graduation in economic opinion articles written in English and Vietnamese While various approaches exist, this research specifically employs the Appraisal framework The theoretical foundation for this study is illustrated in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7 Theoretical framework for the thesis

This study employs the Appraisal framework by Martin and White (2005) to analyze the semantic features of Attitude and Graduation in English and Vietnamese economic opinion articles Focusing on the three semantic domains of the Appraisal framework, the research examines the lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation within these articles Utilizing indicators from Appraisal Theory and Systemic Functional Grammar, the analysis highlights the similarities and differences in semantic features and lexicogrammatical expressions between the two languages' economic opinion pieces.

AN OVERVIEW OF ECONOMIC DISCOURSES

Economic discourse refers to the process of creating texts that consider socio-cultural, psychological, and pragmatic factors, serving as a deliberate social action involving interaction and cognitive mechanisms (Erreygers & Jacobs, 2005) It encompasses a range of economic speech acts expressed through oral and written forms, reflecting the realities of the economic world This discourse is characterized by specific extralinguistic features and distinctive characteristics of economic texts Additionally, Dudley-Evans & Henderson (1990) highlighted that economic discourse employs scientific methods focused on prediction, control, reproducible experimentation, objectivity, and mathematical specificity.

Chawla (2001, p.119) described the importance of economic discourses, stated that:

Economic affairs dominate daily life, emphasizing productive efficiency and the maximization of individual needs through commodity purchases Society's wellbeing is evaluated based on continuous growth in consumer goods and consistently increasing levels of production and consumption.

Extralinguistic qualities significantly influence discourse, particularly through the unique roles of participants Benveniste (1974) emphasizes that the relationship between communicative participants is a crucial element of discourse, especially in the context of economics Economics discourse is characterized by the involvement of various experts, as it encompasses diverse practices including business, finance, accounting, auditing, taxation, insurance, and trade.

Economics functions as a language, where discourse serves as a scientific text that describes, interprets, and explains the economy, essentially using one artifact to discuss another (Warren, 1989, p.7) McCloskey (1986) emphasized that economics relies heavily on metaphors, indicating that authors frequently utilize rhetorical devices like metaphors, comparisons, and analogies to enhance their credibility.

Economic discourse primarily focuses on the art of persuasion, employing various rhetorical devices such as comparison, contrast, metaphor, and metonymy This discourse often incorporates a blend of everyday language, technical jargon, and mathematical expressions to effectively communicate ideas.

ECONOMIC OPINION ARTICLES AND LANGUAGE OF OPINION

2.9.1 Opinion articles and economic opinion articles

An opinion can be viewed from two key perspectives: first, as a method for evaluating and discussing events or phenomena to achieve a deeper understanding, often reflected in various publications like news articles, editorials, and commentaries through the inclusion of others' viewpoints Second, it is recognized as a genre of mainstream journalism that encompasses explanation, analysis, and supporting evidence, contributing to a broader discourse on societal issues.

Opinion pieces, as defined by Bell (1991), are specialized writings found in newspapers or magazines that express assessments and evaluations of societal phenomena These columns, typically authored by senior journalists, invite readers to reflect on significant social, political, or economic issues that capture national attention They provide insights into the events and news behind the scenes, discussing topics of public interest As a form of commentary writing, opinion columns inherently include the writer's assumptions, thoughts, and evidence regarding specific issues, ultimately leading to positive or negative judgments Such articles often encompass commentary, criticism, suggestions, and problem-solving approaches, aiming to persuade readers to align with the writer's viewpoint.

White (1998) emphasized that the author's role in media commentary is to provide subjective interpretations, incorporating value judgments, aesthetic evaluations, and causal theories Hoang Dinh Cuc and Duc Dung (2007) described commentary as a genre aimed at explaining, evaluating, and analyzing significant life events and phenomena This form of writing seeks to clarify and orient public understanding of current issues By skillfully blending evidence, arguments, and personal attitudes, commentary can effectively persuade audiences to align with the author's perspective Ultimately, commentary functions as a general argumentative essay that combines explanation, analysis, and occasionally proof.

An opinion paper is a journalistic genre within the editorial category, where the author employs an argumentative framework to analyze and explain significant economic, political, and social issues Through this analysis, the author provides a judgment or assessment of the topic, or alternatively, encourages the public to form their own evaluations.

Economic opinion articles provide insightful commentary on the individuals, companies, and ideas that influence the global economy They deliver balanced, fact-checked analyses of political economy, economics, and business By depicting economic events and policies, these articles articulate both objective and subjective perspectives, aiming to inform and persuade readers effectively.

The typical features and objectives of an opinion, according to Tran Quang

 Draw the reader‘s attention to significant new events emerging in the social life, and evaluate them;

 Put the commented event in relation to other events, discover the cause of that event;

 Predict the development of the commented event;

 Compare the necessary behavior and problem-solving practices with the help of examples and evidence

A key aspect of opinion pieces is their ability to analyze individual facts from multiple perspectives, creating a comprehensive understanding of the issue at hand These articles not only express the writer's political and ideological viewpoints on important current events but also provide readers with insightful analysis and justification, enhancing their understanding of the nature of these occurrences.

An opinion article in a national news outlet effectively amplifies the author's ideas to politicians, policymakers, and the general public This type of article is characterized by its unique language choices, which play a crucial role in conveying the author's message and engaging the audience.

To effectively engage and persuade readers, it is essential to present arguments, supporting points, and relevant facts in a clear and impactful manner In his 2007 work on argument theory, Do Huu Chau emphasizes the importance of reasoning indicators, which serve as formal signs that reveal the orientation and argumentative characteristics of statements within an argumentative framework These indicators include function words and modal particles such as "đã," "mới," and "thôi," which can alter the argumentative significance of the content Furthermore, coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, along with adverbs like "nên," "nhưng," and "hơn nữa," play a crucial role in linking multiple propositions to form a cohesive argument Through these connections, the information presented evolves into a compelling argument or conclusion.

Vu Quang Hao (2007) emphasizes that opinions are deeply emotional, encompassing a wide range of feelings such as joy, hatred, anger, contemplation, and affection This emotional depth enhances the analysis of events and the judgments made about them Writers, influenced by their creativity and personality, often choose specific verbal and lexical units that carry meaningful and expressive nuances, thereby enhancing the appeal of their opinions.

Indirect speech, as noted by Bargiela-Chiappini (2009) referencing Chew (2005) and Clyne (1994), is a communication style not exclusive to Vietnam This approach can be more effective and courteous in gaining acceptance for proposals, as it often fosters a more considerate dialogue rather than a hasty agreement.

Differentiating journalistic voices in written press is essential as it reveals the level of authorial subjectivity or objectivity in newspaper articles According to Martin & White (2005), the text's nature influences the presence of evaluative and subjective elements Consequently, authors must decide whether to incorporate lexical elements that convey their personal opinions and beliefs.

In their study, Martin & White (2005) identify two main types of voices in writing: reporter voice and writer voice Reporter voice is characterized by a factual and objective style, while writer voice incorporates more subjective and emotive elements from the author Writer voice can be further categorized into correspondent voice and commentator voice According to Thompson et al (2008), reporter voice is typically used in "hard news" coverage, such as reports on accidents and protests, emphasizing the importance of objectivity in journalistic writing.

The correspondent voice in journalism, as defined by Thompson et al (2008), avoids making ethical judgments about human behavior, instead relying on external sources to evaluate actions based on human capacity, tenacity, and normality In contrast, the commentator voice is prevalent in opinion pieces, commentaries, and editorials, where subjective and argumentative perspectives are explicitly expressed.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter provides an overview of discourse semantics and the Appraisal framework as proposed by Martin & White (2005) It explores how the Appraisal framework, originally developed for English, can be applied to analyze evaluative resources in the Vietnamese language While Vietnamese shares some Appraisal resources with English, it also possesses unique evaluative elements that lack direct equivalents in English The chapter reviews previous studies on evaluative language in opinion discourses to highlight trends and styles, as well as to identify research gaps that this thesis aims to address.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design of this dissertation establishes a framework for data collection and analysis, guiding the selection of appropriate methodologies to address the three key research questions These questions focus on the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in English and Vietnamese economic opinion articles, as well as the similarities and differences between them The thesis employs a descriptive comparative study that integrates both qualitative and quantitative approaches, aiming to provide a systematic contrast of these linguistic expressions in English and Vietnamese, thereby enhancing the understanding of their semantic and lexicogrammatical characteristics.

This thesis investigates the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in English and Vietnamese economic opinion articles through the lens of the Appraisal framework and Systemic Functional Grammar (SFL) It emphasizes the functional nature of language in analyzing how assessments are utilized in discourse to achieve specific communicative goals The Appraisal framework reflects writers' attitudes, beliefs, and values, while SFL elucidates how Appraisal shapes social identities in discourse Specifically, SFL provides analytical tools to systematically examine how authors express, discuss, and clarify their positions within economic opinion discourse.

To address the objectives and research questions, this study utilized descriptive and contrastive research methods to gather both quantitative and qualitative data regarding the semantic values and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in English and Vietnamese economic opinion articles, guided by Appraisal theory A descriptive qualitative approach was employed to understand the evaluative values within the Appraisal subsystems, as reflected in resources from these articles Additionally, comparative research highlighted the similarities and differences in semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation between English and Vietnamese economic opinion articles For quantitative analysis, Microsoft Excel was used to quantify the subtypes of Attitude and Graduation, allowing for a detailed examination of their proportions in both languages.

The research design outlined in Figure 3.1 focuses on a descriptive and comparative analysis of Graduation and Attitude resources, aiming for a comprehensive and systematic understanding of their functions and characteristics Utilizing discourse analysis, the study examines semantic features through the distribution of two Attitudinal sub-systems—Attitudes and Graduation—within English and Vietnamese discourses It further explores pragmatic features based on context, employing evaluative language that can be explicit or implicit, as well as positive or negative Ultimately, the analysis of Attitude and Graduation is conducted through various linguistic elements, including sentence types, phrases, and words in English and Vietnamese evaluative opinion analyses (EEOAs and VEOAs).

RESEARCH METHODS

This dissertation employs a descriptive qualitative and comparative method to investigate three key research questions Firstly, it identifies the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in English economic opinion articles (EEOAs) Secondly, it examines these elements within Vietnamese economic opinion articles (VEOAs) Lastly, the study explores the similarities and differences in semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation between EEOAs and VEOAs.

The dissertation employs a descriptive qualitative method to analyze the semantic features and realizations of Attitude and Graduation in both EEOAs and VEOAs This approach aids in establishing theoretical insights derived from the findings Specifically, it is utilized to examine and synthesize collected materials, thereby offering a robust theoretical and analytical framework along with criteria for identifying the semantic elements of Attitude.

The study of EEOAs and VEOAs enables researchers to analyze the realizations of Attitude and Graduation within these frameworks, highlighting both their similarities and differences By examining data samples, this approach facilitates a deeper understanding of the language used in economic opinion discourse, allowing for the identification of key realizations and meanings.

The study utilized discourse analysis to explore both qualitative and quantitative data, focusing on the role of language in social media contexts related to economic opinions This approach highlighted the contextual meanings of language and emphasized the social dynamics of communication It examined how writers strategically use linguistic resources to achieve specific effects, such as fostering attraction, evoking strong emotions in readers, and persuading them effectively.

Descriptive qualitative research, while primarily qualitative, can effectively incorporate quantifiable data, as demonstrated in this thesis The study utilized quantitative information to analyze the frequency of Attitude and Graduation values in various discourses, enabling the researcher to compare numerous items through a straightforward index By employing statistical methods, the research investigated the properties of the collected data, providing clear evidence and insights This quantitative analysis quantified specific figures, facilitating conclusions about the frequencies and distributions of Attitude and Graduation in EEOAs and VEOAs, ultimately identifying relevant groupings for economic opinion articles.

This comparative analysis aims to identify the similarities and differences in the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in English-English Online Assessment (EEOAs) and Vietnamese-English Online Assessment (VEOAs) It employs a bilingual, parallel, and two-way approach, examining both English and Vietnamese as target languages This methodology enhances the understanding of the unique characteristics of each language, moving beyond a one-way comparison that typically focuses on one target language and one source language (Le Quang Thiem, 2008, p 333-334).

This analysis emphasizes the semantic and pragmatic features of Attitude and Graduation values, focusing on their explicit and implicit expressions, as well as their positive and negative aspects It conducts a functional comparison of five subtypes of economic opinion discourses in English and Vietnamese, utilizing quantitative data to highlight the similarities and differences in the usage and distribution of Attitude and Graduation in English Economic Opinion Articles (EEOAs) and Vietnamese Economic Opinion Articles (VEOAs) The findings aim to provide valuable recommendations for learners, enhancing their writing skills with assessment elements pertinent to each language.

SAMPLING

The sample selection process was meticulously designed to align with the Appraisal framework established by Martin and White (2005), focusing on the parameters of Attitude and Graduation The researcher expanded upon Martin and White's initial criteria by introducing additional guidelines to effectively identify linguistic expressions that convey appraisal meanings within these subsystems Purposeful sampling was employed to ensure the reliability of the study, allowing for the selection of representative clauses that reflect Attitude and Graduation resources This approach ensured that the opinions of participants and economists were relevant to the research objectives, facilitating a comprehensive analysis of evaluative language related to graduation and attitude Ultimately, this targeted sampling enabled researchers to concentrate on the most pertinent data points, yielding valuable insights into the research questions.

The current investigation requires selected examples to be analyzed through the Attitude and Graduation criteria outlined in Chapter 2 The samples must effectively illustrate the semantic representation of Attitude and Graduation across various lexical units, grammatical functions, and forms, including words, groups, or clauses in EEOAs and VEOAs.

Economic opinion articles often reflect the writers' emotions, judgments, and valuations, categorized into Affect, Judgement, and Appreciation These attitudes can be identified through selected words, phrases, or clauses within the media texts.

Force instances, categorized as a subtype of Graduation, can be expressed through various levels of intensity, including isolated lexemes, semantic infusion, and both figurative and non-figurative features Additionally, Force can be analyzed in conjunction with Attitude instances, serving as lexical tools to enhance the depth of Attitude meanings.

Some instance examples are displayed as follow:

(3.1) Chúng ta đã tự hào [Affect] về tốc độ tăng trưởng xuất nhập khẩu ngày càng cao [Appreciation/ Graduation], về kết quả xuất siêu ngày càng lớn

(3.2) Diễn biến trên thị trường tài chính từ đầu năm đến nay cho thấy không còn kênh đầu tư nào hấp dẫn hơn chứng khoán (E13)

Numerous instances of failed calls in the market highlight the importance of humility, demonstrating that even the most astute investors and strategists can be proven wrong.

The Appraisal system, based on the theory by Martin and White (2005), utilizes Attitude and Graduation annotations to evaluate linguistic expressions Read and Carrol (2012) explored various methods for annotating appraisal values, including single words, multi-word expressions, and complete sentences This thesis emphasizes the necessity of a thorough linguistic analysis at the lexico-grammar level Choosing the appropriate annotating unit proved challenging; initially favoring clause-oriented annotation due to traditional grammar familiarity, it became evident that this approach hindered effective content analysis, especially for implicit evaluations, leading to inconsistencies in semantic unity.

I take into account Cloran‘s notion of message units, which prioritizes semantic unity over formal realization (Cloran, 1994)

Annotating message units offers several benefits, as highlighted by Cloran (1994), Halliday (1974), and Halliday and Hasan (1989) They emphasize that semantics and grammar do not have a direct correlation, making it challenging to link lexico-grammatical realizations to their semantic counterparts.

In 1974, it was noted that a single element in the semantic system can be represented by multiple components within the lexico-grammatical system Hasan defines meaning by identifying the message as the fundamental unit of semantics.

In this analysis, I utilized a unit of analysis defined as a clause that conveys a complete message or a collection of clauses indicating a message This collection includes both the main messages and additional clauses that serve as co-text to enhance understanding For example, a quote may contain five clusters of clauses, each with a primary message unit highlighted, while the remaining clauses provide context to aid in comprehending the main messages.

Amazon is not a reliable partner for cities, merchants, or workers, as it prioritizes control over collaboration Seattle's experience illustrates that reliance on Amazon has not resulted in shared prosperity; instead, it has contributed to rising home prices and increased homelessness Additionally, Amazon has exerted significant political influence in Seattle, investing millions to oppose corporate taxes.

The article discusses appraisal analysis, focusing on the examination of the primary message This analysis involves identifying key aspects such as the object of appraisal, the appraiser, and the coded attitude—whether it is judgment, affect, or appreciation It also evaluates the polarity of the message, determining if it is positive or negative, and assesses the degree of evaluation through intensification, quantification, sharpening, or softening, as well as the level of explicitness or implicitness in the communication.

In terms of explicit expressions, only a clause can also convey a message For example:

(3.5) The Biden plan also includes smart [Appreciation] provisions that would improve the tax code and economic growth (E8)

In this example, the message can be fully understood in a clause Adjective

―smart‖ is employed to denote positive Appreciation toward thing ―provisions‖

Annotating expressions of Attitude and Graduation in EEOAs and VEOAs presents challenges due to overlapping subtypes of these values The analysis of overlapping annotations meets additional criteria, demonstrating the effectiveness of this approach Consequently, an agreement measure between the linguistic phrases annotated by two annotators (A and B) was utilized for Attitude and Graduation annotations, based on a sensitive annotation measure adapted from Wiebe et al (2005).

In this study, Annotator (a) represents the researcher while Annotator (b) signifies the colleagues involved in the agreement measure The researcher first annotated the Attitude and Graduation variables from the data, followed by a re-annotation by colleagues to verify that the appraisal values align with the criteria for Appraisal realizations as outlined in Martin and White's (2005) theory This collaborative cross-annotation process enhances the reliability of the research findings.

DATA COLLECTION

According to Walliman (2011), research questions play a crucial role in shaping data collection methods and analysis The initial step involves identifying the data sources based on these research questions, which focus on three key areas: i the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in English economic opinion articles; ii the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in Vietnamese economic opinion articles; and iii the similarities and differences in the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation between English and Vietnamese economic opinion articles.

This research focuses on collecting data related to Attitude and Graduation, based on the Appraisal framework established by Martin and White (2005) To ensure accurate data collection, it is essential to clearly define the data sources, sampling methods, and criteria for identifying intensification.

Data were collected from 50 English-language articles from The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, alongside 50 Vietnamese articles from Thoi Bao Kinh Te Sai Gon and Cafef The subjective nature of these publications facilitates a thorough analysis of evaluative language These newspapers were selected due to their quality and popularity, making them ideal for this study.

According to White (1998), the term "broadsheet" refers to publications that position themselves as "up-market," "the quality press," or "journals of record." These newspapers adhere to specific journalistic conventions and aim to serve as comprehensive resources for the community, appealing to a wide audience Personally, I favor broadsheet newspapers such as The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal in English, as well as The Thoi Bao Kinh Te Sai Gon and The Cafef in Vietnamese.

The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal are prominent newspapers in the United States, while The Thoi bao Kinh te Sai gon and The Cafef serve a similar role in Vietnam The New York Times, a renowned morning broadsheet published in New York City, has a weekday circulation of 443,000 copies In contrast, The Thoi bao Kinh te Sai gon is a weekly business newspaper published every Thursday, with a circulation of 70,000 copies Despite the differences in circulation, these newspapers were selected for a comparative study due to their status as major national publications that cater to a diverse audience and feature a significant number of economic opinion pieces.

According to White (1998), broadsheet publications are increasingly accessible online, facilitating data collection Consequently, my thesis data was sourced electronically from the websites of four newspapers: thesaigontimes.vn, cafef.vn, wsj.com, and nytimes.com.

Source of data collection consists of articles dating from April 2018 to June

The year 2019 marked the slowest global growth since the financial crisis, influenced by both common and unique factors across nations, as highlighted by the International Monetary Fund Blog (2019) This period was characterized by increasing macroeconomic stress due to tighter financial conditions, geopolitical tensions, and social unrest The onset of the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020 further exacerbated these economic challenges, leading to ongoing discussions about its impact and necessitating a variety of responses in the global economic landscape.

DATA ANALYSIS

This study aimed to analyze the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in English and Vietnamese EEOAs and VEOAs A qualitative descriptive method was employed to explore these characteristics, while quantitative data were analyzed to summarize the dataset through metrics such as frequencies and occurrences The findings highlighted similarities and differences between the two languages, using Microsoft Excel to ensure accuracy and reliability The results of the data analysis formed the basis for further interpretation, discussion, and conclusions in the thesis.

- read each piece of EEOAs and VEOAs carefully and pick up all samples of Attitude and Graduation based on their identification criteria;

This article focuses on coding data by identifying key concepts and expressions related to Attitude and Graduation It emphasizes the importance of systematically marking instances of these categories throughout the dataset, utilizing specific terms and phrases that reflect the nuances of Attitude and Graduation By capturing these indicators, the analysis aims to enhance understanding and interpretation of the data in relation to these critical themes.

- examine and classify the samples into four lists of data, namely (i) Affect, (ii) Judgement, (iii) Appreciation, (iv) Force;

- sub-divide the given data in these four categories into smaller groups of each domain based on different subtypes of Affect, Judgement, Appreciation, and Force in the Appraisal Framework;

- analyze the contrastive features of Attitude and Graduation to discover possible similarities and differences of Attitude and Graduation between EEOAs and VEOAs

The thesis is based mostly on Appraisal framework by Martin and White

In 2005, a study was conducted to analyze the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in EEOAs and VEOAs The research focused on how Attitude and Graduation are established, sourced, and targeted, emphasizing the importance of discourse semantics, as attitudes often extend beyond grammatical boundaries throughout a conversation The study utilized two main systems from the Appraisal framework to analyze the collected data, as illustrated in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.2 Analytical Framework for the study

Coding plays a crucial role in organizing and categorizing data during the analysis process, facilitating further interpretation Various coding methods exist, such as the color coding utilized by Nguyen Thi Kim Ngan and Nguyen Thi Lan Huong (2020) and Tran Van Phuoc (2020) to classify attitudes into Affect, Judgement, or Appreciation While Martin and White (2005) recognize color coding as a useful technique with general categories, they note its high cost for publication, making it less suitable for large datasets Consequently, this study adopted a different approach by using inscriptions and a table to present results, with abbreviations like +ve for 'positive attitude.'

The article explores various affective and evaluative terms that influence human emotions and judgments It highlights the significance of a negative attitude (ve) and its impact on feelings of happiness (hap), insecurity (sec), and dissatisfaction (sat) The text also discusses the criteria for normality (norm), capacity (cap), tenacity (ten), veracity (ver), and propriety (prop) in judgment Additionally, it examines appreciation through reaction (reac), composition (comp), and valuation (val) The concepts of intensification are addressed, focusing on scale (scale), lexicalization (lexi), and infusion (inf), while quantification is represented through number (num), mass (mass), and extent (extent).

Understanding the source of attitude is crucial; the term "Appraiser" denotes the individual making the judgment or evaluation, while "Appraised" refers to the person or object receiving that judgment and appreciation.

The qualitative analysis of the research focuses on a specialized analytical framework aligned with the thesis's theoretical foundations Data analysis, essential for addressing research questions and drawing conclusions, employs qualitative and contrastive methods to explore the semantic features and lexico-grammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in EEOAs and VEOAs Utilizing the Appraisal framework by Martin and White (2005), the study categorizes the semantic features of Attitude into three aspects: Attitude types, Explicitness, and Polarity, while Graduation is examined through Force, including Force types and Scale The analysis sorts data into subcategories such as Un/Happiness, Dis/Satisfaction, In/Security, and others, providing a comprehensive evaluation of the language used in media discourse.

The study explored attitudes by examining their explicitness—whether they were expressed clearly or implied—and polarity—whether they were positive or negative For explicit realizations, three dimensions were analyzed: (1) lexical instantiations, (2) the core/non-core status and frequency of these instantiations, and (3) grammatical realizations in terms of function and form Linguistic manifestations of explicit attitudes typically occur at the word or phrase level and will be illustrated based on their frequency across the data set This analysis is grounded in Halliday's fundamental transitivity system at the lexico-grammar level.

In analyzing the grammatical realizations of Attitude instances, Matthiessen (2004) employs functional and form labels to provide a structured description This analysis includes two layers of function descriptions, focusing on implicit Attitude resources and exploring invocation tactics such as Provoke, Flag, and Afford A thorough reading of the text-discourse is essential to grasp the overall meaning, followed by identifying lexical units and their contextual meanings related to entities, relations, or attributes Furthermore, the selection of ideational meanings can effectively evoke evaluations, even without explicit attitudinal lexis, through the use of lexical metaphor.

The analysis was conducted meticulously following the sorting and categorization of data Utilizing Martin and White's (2005) appraisal framework, the thesis examined Attitude and Graduation samples to explore their semantic aspects within EEOAs and VEOAs The context of the discourses was thoroughly considered to uncover both explicit and implicit evaluations, as well as positive or negative meanings and instances of semantic domain transfer.

Quantitative analysis was performed using Microsoft Excel, leveraging its spreadsheet capabilities to display data through rows and columns Tools such as pivot tables and pivot charts facilitated the counting of distributions, represented in column, pie, and bar charts The analysis employed a structured analytical framework and detailed data analysis procedures, with statistical analysis being crucial for quantifying data and understanding the realization of Attitude and Graduation subdomains in EEOAs and VEOAs This approach also helped identify preferred groups or subgroups of Attitude and Graduation within these areas To enhance statistical clarity, we recorded and counted the frequency of repeating sentences, phrases, and words, compiling this information in the appendices.

This article compares the similarities and differences between Attitude and Graduation in English Eloquent Opinion Articles (EEOAs) and Vietnamese Eloquent Opinion Articles (VEOAs) It analyzes the semantic features of Attitude and Graduation using quantitative data on their distribution within the two corpora The study focuses on three key aspects of Attitude: the proportions of different Attitude types, explicit versus implicit Attitude, and the balance of negative and positive instances Additionally, it examines the deployment of Graduation in both EEOAs and VEOAs, exploring the semantic features of Force and the various realizations of Force subtypes The findings draw conclusions about the use of Attitude to persuade readers in each language.

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

Reliability and validity are essential for effective data collection Despite being primarily conducted manually, the accuracy of data collection and analysis is evident, as proper criteria were used in selecting the data, enhancing its reliability When a thesis demonstrates both reliability and validity, the findings hold true value and significance.

Reliability addresses the stability and consistency of the data collecting methods used; it guarantees the consistency and dependability of the findings, too

To enhance data reliability during the research process, a systematic and methodical design was employed Data collection and analysis adhered strictly to the established research procedures, ensuring the integrity of the methods used The identification of subsystems related to Attitude and Graduation was guided by criteria from the theoretical framework, and their analysis was contextualized within each discourse Furthermore, the annotation agreement between colleagues and the researcher, as discussed in section 3.3.4, serves to validate the identification of Attitude and Graduation.

The study utilized concepts from the Appraisal framework by Martin and White (2005) to ensure construct validity, focusing on relevant questions that reflect semantic features within lexicogrammar It aimed to define the functional characteristics of the Appraisal framework by examining (i) the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in EEOAs, (ii) the same aspects in VEOAs, and (iii) the similarities and differences between the two The description technique was designed to cover all critical elements of the subject to yield valid results, and it was anticipated that the content would demonstrate face validity by aligning with the study's objectives of exploring semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations in EEOAs and VEOAs.

The thesis utilized the Appraisal framework by Martin and White (2005) for precise data analysis To ensure reliability, the researcher and colleagues cross-verified the identification and analysis of Attitude and Graduation in EEOAs and VEOAs, aiming for consistent interpretations that supported construct validity in the descriptive analysis These methodologies were designed to achieve external validity.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Chapter 3 has described research design and research methodology of the dissertation and the steps in which the samples were collected The thesis has applied descriptive design and comparative design with the aim of seeking qualitative and quantitative information so as to answer three research questions In addition, the procedures for data analysis, reliability and validity of the thesis have also been presented in this chapter in order to lay the foundation for detailed findings and discussion in the following chapters In applying the Appraisal approach to examine the deployment of Attitude and Graduation in economic opinion articles on economic issues, the Appraisal framework will be employed as a coding scheme The deployment of Attitude and Graduation in English and Vietnamese will be analyzed and compared in two dimensions: (1) semantic features of Attitude and Graduation instances deployed in the two data collections and (2) the realizations of Attitude and Graduation through lexicogrammatical resources The analysis of these dimensions of the English language data and the Vietnamese data will be reported respectively in the following chapters.

ATTITUDE AND GRADUATION IN ENGLISH

THE DEPLOYMENT OF ATTITUDE RESOURCES IN ENGLISH

4.1 THE DEPLOYMENT OF ATTITUDE RESOURCES IN ENGLISH ECONOMIC OPINION ARTICLES

The study analyzed the deployment of Attitude resources in EEOAs from two key perspectives: semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations This analysis was supported by quantitative data on the distribution of Attitude's sub-categories.

4.1.1 The proportions of Attitude resources in EEOAs

The analysis of data based on the indicators established in Chapter 3 revealed that all three subtypes of Attitude were identified in the 50 selected EEOAs, with proportions that accurately represent the characteristics of opinion articles The distribution of Attitude across these 50 collected EEOAs is illustrated in the accompanying table and chart.

Table 4.1 Distribution of Attitude in EEOAs

TOTAL EXPLICIT IMPLICIT POSITIVE NEGATIVE

No % No % No % No % No %

Table 4.1 reveals that a total of 2,517 instances of Attitude were identified, categorized into three groups: Affect, Judgement, and Appreciation Among these, Judgement emerged as the most dominant form, representing 43.4% of the occurrences in 50 EEOAs, as illustrated in Figure 4.1 Following closely, Appreciation accounted for 42.7%, while Affect comprised the smallest share at 13.8%.

Figure 4.1 Distribution of Attitude subtypes in EEOAs

In the Attitude mode, both explicit and implicit instances were identified, with implicit instances comprising 52.8% and explicit instances at 47.2%, largely driven by a significant proportion of implicit Judgement Additionally, explicit instances of Affect and Appreciation surpassed their implicit counterparts Figure 4.2 visually represents the proportions of explicitness across different Attitude subtypes.

Figure 4.2 Distribution of Explicitness of Attitude in EEOAs

The analysis reveals contrasting patterns between the explicit and implicit groups In the explicit group, Appreciation instances dominated at 28.4%, significantly higher than the 11.4% for Judgement, while explicit Affect instances were the least common at 7.5% In contrast, the implicit group showed that Judgement instances led at 32%, followed by Appreciation at 14.4% and Affect at 6.4%.

Figure 4.3 Distribution of Attitude Polarity in EEOAs

The analysis of Attitude examples revealed a slight predominance of positive displays, accounting for 52.7% of instances compared to 47.3% for negative displays This trend was also evident in the subtypes of Attitude, with positive Judgement items at 23% and negative Judgement items at 20.5% Appreciation followed closely, with positive values at 22.5% and negative values at 20.3%, while Affect showed the least variation, with positive instances at 7.3% and negative at 6.6%.

This section will explore the use and distribution of Attitude subtypes in opinion discourse, drawing from quantitative data and relevant research It will also examine the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude in English educational opinion articles (EEOAs).

4.1.2 Semantic features of Attitude in EEOAs

Martin (1992, 2002) emphasized that text analysis involves understanding the social context, specifically through register and genre, which is crucial for evaluating 50 English economic opinion articles related to American culture and the current financial market To accurately assess these articles, it is essential to first explore the nuances of American business culture In the U.S., the president cannot unilaterally set fiscal policy; cooperation with Congress is necessary (Thoma, 2016), although presidential influence on the economy is significant in various situations The president appoints the chair of the Federal Reserve, who plays a critical role in shaping monetary policy and maintaining economic stability The actions of American businesses, the banking system, and the stock market are heavily influenced by the Federal Reserve's decisions During economic crises, the president's role in fiscal policy becomes even more pronounced, highlighting the interconnectedness of state administration, the stock market, U.S enterprises, and banking practices in the context of English economic opinion articles.

Between 2018 and 2021, 50 analyzed English economic opinions evaluated the actions of Presidents Trump and Biden during economic crises and recovery, focusing on stock market dynamics influenced by the Fed and the pandemic, as well as fiscal management policies affecting American enterprises and the banking system The analysis revealed 2,517 instances of Attitude across 43,381 words, encompassing various sub-areas: Appreciation included Impact-Reaction, Quality-Reaction, Balance-Composition, Complexity-Composition, and Valuation; Judgment covered Normality, Capacity, Tenacity, Veracity, and Propriety; while Affect addressed Un/Happiness, In/Security, Dis/Satisfaction, and Dis/Inclination Detailed distribution of Attitude subtypes is shown in Table 4.2, with subsequent subsections providing an in-depth analysis of each Attitude category—Affect, Appreciation, and Judgment.

Table 4.2 Distribution of Attitude subtypes in EEOAs

Subtypes TOTAL EXPLICIT ITEMS IMPLICIT ITEMS

No % No % No % No % No %

4.1.2.1 Semantic features of Affect in EEOAs

The study of emotional reactions identified four primary types of Affect within 50 EEOAs: (1) Un/Happiness, (2) In/Security, (3) Dis/Satisfaction, and (4) Dis/Inclination These emotions are culturally categorized as either positive or negative Un/happiness encompasses feelings of misery or cheer, while In/security relates to trust or disquiet Dis/satisfaction includes feelings of ennui or pleasure, and Dis/inclination pertains to desire or non-desire The distribution of these emotions is visually represented in Figures 4.4 and 4.5.

Figure 4.4 Distribution of positive and negative Affect subtypes

Figure 4.5 Distribution of explicit and implicit Affect subtypes

In the analysis of Emotional Expression in 50 EEOAs, Dis/Inclination and In/Security emerged as the most frequently used terms, representing 4.9% and 4.8% respectively, while Dis/Satisfaction accounted for 2.5% Un/Happiness was the least utilized at only 1.5% Notably, positive Affect instances surpassed negative ones, with 7.3% of expressions reflecting positive emotions compared to 6.6% for negative emotions Desire, a key positive emotion, constituted a significant 3.8% of the total, indicating that participants predominantly expressed Desire, a subtype of Dis/Inclination, while Misery/Antipathy was the least expressed emotion.

In 50 EEOAs, some resources of Un/Happiness indicated the positive emotions from participants (include Author and Non-Author) in response to Trigger (the phenomenon responsible for that emotion) like the success of enterprises, the development of economy, or the proper actions of the president in the market, etc or the feelings of Misery/Antipathy when mentioning the suffering of businesses in the pandemic, inappropriate actions of the leaders towards the businesses In/Security resources denoted a greater negative emotion of Disquiet in response to the economic crisis, the outbreak of the disease and its impacts on the economy, the administrative missteps of the government, the stock market volatility, etc Meanwhile, Dis/Inclination resources revealed more positive responses to the phenomenon including the expectation of investment or the transformation of the economy, enterprises‘ desire for autonomy, etc Dis/Satisfaction showed negative attitude toward some of president Trump‘s actions but satisfied with Biden‘s plan in interest rate adjustment, or business tricks The feelings were graded explicitly or implicitly, and as can be seen from Figure 4.5, the percentage of explicit resources was higher than that of implicit ones, 7.5% compared to 6.4% The use of explicit Affect was exemplified by the extract presented below

(4.1) Most important, we need Congress to require quarterly reporting of these estimates alongside gross domestic product (E21)

Many businesses, particularly major oil and gas producers, are advocating for the continuation of existing regulations on methane emissions, opposing Trump's efforts to relax these important environmental rules.

(4.3) Only 28 percent of major companies even provide quarterly guidance, and those forecasts help set investors‘ expectations and smooth market volatility

Major central bankers and analysts place significant emphasis on interest rates, viewing them as key indicators of a central bank's monetary policy direction The positive response to the Federal Reserve's actions reflects this belief in the importance of interest rate adjustments.

(4.5) Senator Bernie Sanders praised Amazon after the $15-an-hour announcement, saying he hoped that other companies would follow its lead (E19)

(4.6) Major oil and gas producers oppose Trump‘s relaxation of rules on emissions of methane, a potent greenhouse gas (E4)

(4.7) No one should be happy with June‘s 11.1% unemployment rate, but it‘s notably better than April‘s 14.7% (E26)

A rapid, single peak of the virus could lead to a V-shaped economic recovery; however, the potential for a second wave of the pandemic raises concerns about the possibility of a double-dip recession.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter has addressed the first research question regarding the deployment of Attitude and Graduation resources in EEOAs, presenting data analysis from two perspectives: the semantic features and the lexicogrammatical realizations of these resources The findings indicate a variety of realizations for Attitude and Graduation, with core expressions being the most frequent for attitude and Participant-Attributes being the most common grammatical realizations Graduation of Force primarily utilized isolated grammatical items, while lexical and semantic infusion items displayed considerable diversity The analysis highlights a notable tendency for the use of evaluative language in opinion articles The subsequent chapter will similarly explore the deployment of Attitude and Graduation in VEOAs, utilizing Vietnamese language data.

ATTITUDE AND GRADUATION IN VIETNAMESE

THE DEPLOYMENT OF ATTITUDE RESOURCES IN

Using quantitative data on the distribution of Attitude‘s sub-categories, the deployment of Attitude resources in VEOAs was evaluated from two viewpoints, including (i) semantic features and (ii) realizations

5.1.1 The proportions of Attitude types in VEOAs

The data analysis conducted in chapter 3 identified all three subtypes of Attitude within 50 selected VEOAs, demonstrating proportions that accurately represent the nature of opinion articles.

The distribution of Attitude subtypes as realized in 50 VEOAs was presented in Table 5.1 and Figure 5.1 as follow:

Table 5.1 Distribution of Attitude in VEOAs

TOTAL EXPLICIT IMPLICIT POSITIVE NEGATIVE

No % No % No % No % No % AFFECT 266 16.7% 159 10.0% 107 6.7% 152 9.5% 114 7.2%

Table 5.1 reveals a total of 1,592 instances of Attitude, categorized into Affect, Judgment, and Appreciation Notably, Judgment was the predominant category, comprising 42.1% of occurrences in 50 VEOAs, closely followed by Appreciation at 41.1%, while Affect represented the smallest share at 16.7% This analysis indicates that the distribution patterns of Attitude subtypes are consistent between EEOAs and VEOAs.

Figure 5.1 Distribution of Attitude subtypes in VEOAs

In the analysis of Attitude mode within 50 VEOAs, both explicit and implicit instances were identified, with implicit judgments comprising a notable 51% of the total, surpassing the 49% of explicit cases Conversely, explicit Affect and Appreciation instances were significantly more prevalent than their implicit counterparts The proportions of explicit Attitude subtypes are illustrated in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2 Distribution of Explicitness of Attitude in VEOAs

Figure 5.2 highlights the contrasting trends between explicit and implicit groups, revealing that explicit Appreciation constituted the largest share at 25.4%, nearly twice that of implicit Appreciation Explicit Judgement followed with 13.6%, while explicit Affect was the least represented at 10.0% Conversely, in the implicit group, implicit Judgement led with 28.5%, trailed by implicit Appreciation at 13.6% and implicit Affect at 6.7%.

Figure 5.3 Distribution of Attitude Polarity in VEOAs

The analysis of Attitude polarity revealed that positive manifestations were more prevalent than negative ones, comprising 58.9% compared to 41.1% Within the positive group, positive Judgement items were the most common at 28.6%, while negative Appreciation dominated the negative group at 20% Negative Judgement followed with 13.6%, and positive Appreciation accounted for 21.2% Both positive and negative Affect were less frequent, with occurrences at 9.1% and 7.6%, respectively.

This section will present a discussion on the use and distribution of Attitude subtypes in opinion discourse, informed by an analysis of semantic attributes and lexicogrammatical realizations in VEOAs, along with relevant quantitative data and research findings.

5.1.2 Semantic features of Attitude in VEOAs

Writing about the economy involves using language to analyze and explain economic systems, as noted by Warren (1989) Understanding the characteristics of different economies, such as the advanced capitalist economy of the United States and Vietnam's developing mixed socialist-oriented market economy, is crucial Although Vietnam's economy is increasingly market-oriented, significant state intervention remains The Vietnamese economic system operates on principles of freedom and competition in production, consumption, and investment, with economic values driven by the natural laws of supply and demand, fostering business growth and development.

Between 2018 and 2021, 50 Vietnamese economic opinions focused on appraisers' insights regarding the competitive market, taxation, the stock market, stock investments, and state fiscal management policies affecting Vietnamese enterprises These critical topics collectively addressed the overall state of the economy.

In a comprehensive analysis of 50 opinion pieces labeled V1 to V50, a total of 1,592 instances of attitude were identified across 50 VEOAs The findings revealed that all sub-areas contained significant attitude meanings Specifically, the Appreciation sub-area encompassed Impact-Reaction, Quality-Reaction, Balance-Composition, Complexity-Composition, and Valuation The Judgment sub-area included Normality, Capacity, Tenacity, Veracity, and Propriety Additionally, the Affect sub-area comprised Un/Happiness, In/Security, Dis/Satisfaction, and Dis/Inclination.

Table 5.2 Distribution of Attitude subtypes in VEOAs

AT T IT UDE Sub-types

TOTAL EXPLICIT ITEMS IMPLICIT ITEMS

No % No % No % No % No %

AP P RE CI AT IO N

5.1.2.1 Semantic features of Affect in VEOAs

Affect is primarily concerned with the emotional states of the appraiser, often conveyed through verbs of emotion Writers may articulate their perspectives on a phenomenon by sharing their feelings and providing an emotive evaluation The four types of Affect—Un/Happiness, Dis/Satisfaction, In/Security, and Dis/Inclination—were represented across 50 VEOAs, each accounting for 16.7% The distribution of these Affect types is illustrated in Figures 5.4 and 5.5.

Figure 5.4 Distribution of positive and negative Affect subtypes

Figure 5.5 Distribution of explicit and implicit Affect subtypes

In a study of 50 VEOAs, In/Security instances were the most prevalent subtype of Affect, comprising 5.4% of the total Dis/Inclination followed closely at 4.7%, while Dis/Satisfaction accounted for 4.3% Un/Happiness represented a minor proportion, making up approximately 2.2%.

The analysis of affect polarity reveals a higher prevalence of positive instances at 9.1%, in contrast to negative instances, which account for 7.6% This indicates a stronger sentiment of desire among the observed emotions.

Disquiet accounts for significant percentages at 3.8% and 3.3% Participants predominantly expressed their feelings through Desire, representing a form of Dis/Inclination, while Misery/Antipathy was the least frequently used emotion This consistent statistical outcome highlights the objective nature of economics as a science when it comes to conveying emotions.

In 50 VEOAs, some sources of Un/Happiness mentioned the positive feelings experienced by participants (including Author and Non-Author) in response to Triggers, such as the success of businesses, the growth of the economy, or the proper actions of the authorities, leaders in economic practices, etc or the feelings of Misery/Antipathy when mentioning the suffering of businesses in the competitive market, inappropriate actions of the leaders, etc According to In/Security sources, people are more likely to feel uneasy due to factors like the market‘s competition, the cumbersome management apparatus, the disease‘s epidemic and its effects on the economy, the volatility of the stock market, etc Meanwhile, the expectation of investment or the transformation of the economy, businesses' desire for autonomy, etc., are some of the most favorable reactions to the phenomenon that were revealed by Dis/Inclination resources Dis/Satisfaction expressed a negative disposition about some business leaders‘ mistakes and the way that businesses compete with one another, but also expressed satisfaction with plans for interest rate adjustment, tax collection, true value of buying bank bonds, monetary policy, development of bank agent channel, or solutions to handle bad debt It was decided whether to evaluate the emotions directly or implicitly, and Figure 5.5 shows that the proportion of explicit resources was larger than that of implicit ones, at 10% as opposed to 6.7% Before examining the use of implicit Affect, the excerpt shown below served as an example of the usage of explicit Affect

Thị trường có khả năng chấp nhận các tác động ngắn hạn từ dịch nCoV và kỳ vọng sẽ phục hồi nhanh chóng khi dịch bệnh được kiểm soát.

THE DEPLOYMENT OF GRADUATION IN VIETNAMESE

Graduation is a key sub-system that focuses on scaling up and down, reflecting varying degrees of positivity and negativity in the values of Affect, Judgement, and Appreciation This article explores the use of Graduation resources in VEOAs through two main perspectives: the semantic features that characterize different subtypes of Graduation and the lexicogrammatical expressions that realize these concepts.

5.2.1 Semantic features of Graduation in VEOAs

This section examines Force, a subcategory of the Graduation system, which is divided into two main categories: Intensification and Quantification Quantification includes three subtypes: Number, Mass, and Extent, while Intensification comprises two subtypes: Process and Quality Additionally, the concept of scale in Force instances indicates both up-scale and down-scale meanings Table 5.19 illustrates the frequency of Graduation of Force resources in VEOAs.

Table 5.19 Distribution of Graduation in VEOAs

GRADUATION No % up-scale 976 79.4% down-scale 253 20.6%

Table 5.19 reveals that Quantification was utilized 56.6% more frequently than Intensification, which accounted for 43.5%, highlighting a notable disparity The predominant type of intensification was quality, representing 35.1% Within Quantification, numbers comprised the largest share at 41.1%, followed by Mass and Extent Additionally, the data indicates a higher prevalence of up-scale examples, with 79.4% compared to only 20.6% for down-scale instances.

Figure 5.10 Distribution of Graduation in VEOAs

The authors utilized quantification to enhance the accuracy and persuasiveness of attitude assessments by measuring factors such as number, mass, and extent over time and space This approach effectively communicated the scope of specific concerns, including the prevalence of businesses, markets, and nations involved Notably, the quantification of numbers was predominant, as authors often provided specific figures related to economic entities, suggesting a more positive rather than negative evaluation.

Force-Intensification of quality involves the upscaling or downscaling of Affect, Judgment, or Appreciation regarding the characteristics, properties, and behaviors of individuals or objects In contrast, Force-Intensification of process pertains to the variation in the intensity of actions, efforts, feelings, thoughts, and verbal expressions This concept highlights the fluctuations in economic growth and the effectiveness of economic policies under the administration of the Vietnamese State Examples of Graduation of Force illustrate these dynamics.

(5.55) … Việt Nam là một điển hình, nền kinh tế rồi sẽ dần hồi phục nhanh chóng và thời cơ ―vàng‖ này sẽ trôi qua (V4)

Giảm thiểu thủ tục và đảm bảo thanh toán kịp thời cho doanh nghiệp trong các dự án đầu tư công là giải pháp hiệu quả giúp doanh nghiệp thúc đẩy tiến độ thực hiện dự án, từ đó góp phần tái khởi động nền kinh tế.

Ngành thép và nhiều ngành công nghiệp khác đang đứng trước một cơ hội quan trọng để phát triển theo hướng bền vững và nâng cao chất lượng sản phẩm.

(5.58) Khi tỷ lệ này cao hơn 1, số người nhiễm bệnh sẽ tăng theo cấp số mũ (V22)

Trong tuần đầu tiên của tháng 6, thị trường chứng khoán đã tiếp tục tăng mạnh, thiết lập nhiều kỷ lục mới, mặc dù một số nhà phân tích vẫn tỏ ra nghi ngờ về khả năng xảy ra "sụp đổ" trong ngắn hạn.

(5.60) Đây có lẽ là hai lỗ hổng lớn nhất dẫn đến thất thoát tài sản nhà nước tại các vụ đại án nói trên (V8)

(5.61) Chỉ số lao dốc tạo sự hoảng loạn chung và bán tháo ở nhiều cổ phiếu khác (V18)

Mặc dù dân số Việt Nam gần 100 triệu người, số lượng tài khoản nhà đầu tư vẫn còn thấp, nhưng sự hấp dẫn của thị trường chứng khoán ngày càng gia tăng.

Sự gia tăng chất lượng và quy trình được thể hiện qua việc sử dụng các trạng từ và tính từ như "vàng, rất, bền vững, chất lượng hơn, cao hơn, cấp số mũ, lớn nhất, thấp, ngày càng tăng" Những từ ngữ này ảnh hưởng đến tác động giữa các sự kiện, vấn đề và hiện tượng Các từ như "nhanh chóng, nhanh, kịp thời, mạnh mẽ, sụp đổ, lao dốc" phản ánh mức độ quy trình ở cả đánh giá tích cực và tiêu cực Ví dụ về sự gia tăng lực lượng bao gồm: "người có thu nhập cực kỳ cao", "hai lỗ hổng lớn nhất", "tác động mạnh", "hồi phục nhanh chóng", "không còn kênh đầu tư nào hấp dẫn hơn chứng khoán", và "tăng trưởng GDP đạt mức kỷ lục 7,08%" Những cụm từ này cho thấy sự phát triển mạnh mẽ, sự gia tăng đáng kể trong các lĩnh vực khác nhau, cùng với những thách thức và áp lực tâm lý không nhỏ.

Quantification plays a crucial role in illustrating the extent of businesses, markets, and nations, as well as highlighting specific issues The significance of numerical data is emphasized by Duong Ut (2021), who asserts that word count enhances readers' comprehension and strengthens the writer's arguments This consistency in using quantifiable metrics is evident across various examples.

Nhiều người đề xuất không nhận ra rằng hàng ngàn giáo viên trường tư đang tạm thời thất nghiệp và hàng ngàn hướng dẫn viên du lịch phải chuyển sang nghề chạy xe ôm công nghệ.

(5.64) Thanh tra Chính phủ đã liệt kê ra một loạt dự án công ty này trúng thầu nhưng không trực tiếp thi công (V6)

(5.65) Doanh nghiệp tư nhân Việt Nam phải vật lộn với muôn vàn rào cản như tiếp cận vốn, đất đai, thủ tục hành chính phiền hà (V25)

(5.66) Phải chăng các tổ chức này nhìn nhận triển vọng sắp tới của thị trường chứa đựng nhiều rủi ro hơn so với lợi nhuận kỳ vọng…(V42)

Trong những tháng đầu năm, việc giữ nguyên bộ khung lãi suất điều hành so với cuối năm 2020 và duy trì các chính sách hỗ trợ doanh nghiệp bị ảnh hưởng bởi dịch Covid-19 là những điểm nhấn quan trọng của chính sách tiền tệ.

Hơn 5 tỉ đồng đã được phân bổ cho nhiều lĩnh vực và ngành nghề, trong đó hàng ngàn giáo viên dạy trường tư đang tạm thời thất nghiệp, cùng với hàng ngàn hướng dẫn viên du lịch phải chuyển sang nghề chạy xe ôm công nghệ Nhiều doanh nghiệp nhỏ cũng chịu ảnh hưởng, trong khi một số doanh nghiệp lớn vẫn duy trì hoạt động Điều này cho thấy sự biến động trong nền kinh tế, với nhiều triệu phú và doanh nhân đang tìm cách thích ứng với tình hình hiện tại.

Gói kích thích kinh tế trị giá hơn 17 tỉ đô la Úc đã được triển khai nhằm hỗ trợ một số lượng lớn người lao động, tuy nhiên không phải công ty nào cũng hưởng lợi từ chính sách này Các dự án được thực hiện theo nhiều cách thức khác nhau, dẫn đến chênh lệch hàng tỉ đồng giữa các nhóm lợi ích Một số cán bộ tại Việt Nam đã chỉ ra rằng khoảng 1,35 tỉ đô la Mỹ đã được đầu tư vào hàng loạt đồng tiền, tạo ra những dấu mốc kỷ lục mới cho thị trường Sự gia tăng gần 12% trong đầu tư từ các nhà đầu tư cá nhân đã góp phần vào tổng số gần 29.200 tỉ đồng.

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF ATTITUDE

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF ATTITUDE DEPLOYMENT IN

IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE ECONOMIC OPINION ARTICLES

The analysis of fifty EEOAs and fifty VEOAs focuses on key subtopics such as state administration, the stock market, national economic health, enterprise activities, and banking practices This study compares the deployment of Attitude in EEOAs and VEOAs from two angles: the semantic features of Attitude subtypes and their lexicogrammatical realizations These findings will be detailed in sections 6.1.1 and 6.1.2, respectively.

6.1.1 A comparison of semantic features of Attitude in EEOAs and VEOAs

A comparative analysis of the semantic features of Attitude in English and Vietnamese Online Articles (EEOAs and VEOAs) was performed using quantitative data on the distribution of Attitude subtypes This involved examining the proportion of Attitude instances within the two corpora, leading to conclusions about the use of Attitude for persuasive purposes in each language The study focused on the differences in Attitude instances across 50 articles.

The investigation of EEOAs and 50 VEOAs focuses on three key aspects: the distribution of attitude types, the balance between explicit and implicit attitudes, and the prevalence of negative versus positive attitude instances The findings are illustrated in Table 6.1 and Figure 6.1.

Table 6.1 Comparison of Attitude in EEOAs and VEOAs

Figure 6.1 Distribution of Attitude subtypes in EEOAs and VEOAs

The analysis of 50 EEOAs and 50 VEOAs, each containing 8,000 to 10,000 words, revealed a significant difference in the frequency of evaluative language, with EEOAs using 2,517 instances compared to 1,592 in VEOAs This discrepancy highlights a gap in the tendency to employ evaluative language across various sub-themes in opinion articles, reflecting the distinct writing styles and communication goals of the authors.

Table 6.1 and Figure 6.1 illustrate that, despite varying total numbers of Attitude instances in EEOAs and VEOAs, both languages exhibit similar trends in the proportion of Attitude subtypes Specifically, Judgement is the most frequently used subtype, followed by Appreciation, with Affect being the least utilized This pattern indicates that opinion discourse primarily emphasizes opinionated language (Judgement and Appreciation) over emotional reactions (Affect), aligning with the communicative goals of economic texts that focus on assessing economic entities and phenomena rather than personal emotions This finding resonates with the research of Cavasso (2021) and Zaidi and White (2021), supporting Martin's (2002) assertion that Appreciation serves as a contextual tool for Judgement rather than a dominant element in discourse centered on human behavior.

In analyzing EEOAs and VEOAs, it was found that the predominant Judgment type in both groups was Capacity, with Judgement of Propriety being the second most common in EEOAs and Judgement of Normality in VEOAs In EEOAs, Appreciation of Quality ranked highest, followed by Appreciation of Valuation, while in VEOAs, Valuation surpassed Quality Additionally, the primary Affect type in EEOAs was Dis/Inclination-Desire, contrasting with In/Security in VEOAs The differences in the proportions and realizations of Attitude types and subtypes between the two corpora provide a deeper understanding of these variations.

Affect, as the first system of Attitude, is primarily conveyed through emotional verbs that reflect the appraiser's feelings Writers express their attitudes by sharing personal emotions and evaluations, which can be categorized as positive or negative This system comprises three subsystems: quality, process, and comment, allowing for unique evaluative statements through various expressions of affect However, economic opinion pieces, which typically analyze significant events, risk becoming overly personalized and less persuasive if they rely too heavily on emotional language Additionally, the nature of economic discourse, often centered on people, businesses, or nations, limits the use of sentimental language, necessitating a more objective approach.

When evaluating the values of affect in a text, two key elements should be considered Firstly, the author's influence can originate either from themselves or a third party, with authorial affect being a personalized method of assessment that expresses the writer's emotional reaction to a particular individual, item, or circumstance This approach allows authors to establish a point of commonality with readers from different socio-semiotic positions, despite ideological or cultural differences, by inviting the audience to share or accept their emotions as reasonable and well-intentioned Secondly, the role of the ascribed evaluator should be examined, where the author may use a reported source to convey a positive or negative assessment, with the credibility of the source being crucial in determining the validity of the evaluation.

The analysis of Attitude reveals that while there are variations in the quantities of explicit and implicit instances, both corpora display a similar trend, with implicit Attitude instances slightly outnumbering explicit ones This prevalence of implicit expressions can be attributed to the significant amount of implicit Judgement resources across all three subtypes In contrast, explicit Affect and Appreciation instances were found to be more numerous than their implicit counterparts This aligns with Warren's (1989) observation that economic discourse often utilizes language to describe and interpret the economy, effectively using one artifact to discuss another Furthermore, Martin and White (2005) noted that the subtype of Appreciation can evoke Judgement or Affect, facilitating the expression of implicit Attitude Thompson (2014) echoed this sentiment by referring to this phenomenon as "Russian doll," where one type of attitude expression indirectly conveys another.

The analysis of attitude polarity reveals that while there are differences in the total instances of positive and negative attitudes in EEOAs and VEOAs, both corpora share commonalities Positive attitudes slightly outnumber negative ones, with Judgement items being the most prevalent in both groups, followed by Appreciation, and Affect being the least represented Interestingly, the implicit group displays a higher frequency of negative instances, suggesting that authors often employ allegorical expressions to convey criticism subtly Overall, the discourse tends to be predominantly positive, despite the presence of negatively charged expressions aimed at aligning readers with negative viewpoints.

Studies on polarity indicate that negative expressions are less common in discourse, with positive language prevailing This dominance of positive expressions is also evident in the tendency to favor upward grading The evaluation of Appreciation can vary depending on the subject being discussed; negative Appreciation is often used when the topic is controversial, while positive evaluations are preferred when addressing audiences or external entities perceived as beneficial Among the criteria of Judgment, Capacity ranks highest in economic opinion discourse, which aims to influence behavior The tone of such discourse affects the balance of positive and negative social esteem, with social esteem being more frequently utilized than social sanction Social esteem involves praise and criticism without legal consequences, whereas social sanction carries potential legal implications The objective nature of opinion discourse, which prioritizes factual information, contributes to the prevalent use of social esteem judgments.

6.1.2 A comparison of realizations of Attitude in EEOAs and VEOAs

The article analyzes how attitude is conveyed both implicitly and explicitly in EEOAs and VEOAs, focusing on their distinct realizations In Section 6.1.2.1, a comparison is made between the lexicogrammatical expressions of explicit attitude, examining both lexical instantiations and grammatical forms Meanwhile, Section 6.1.2.2 explores implicit attitude realizations through various invocation strategies, specifically Provoke, Flag, and Afford.

6.1.2.1 A comparison of the realizations of explicit Attitude in EEOAs and VEOAs

This article compares the explicit attitudes expressed through Affect, Judgement, and Appreciation in EEOAs and VEOAs It highlights the differences in the most frequently utilized categories of Affect, emphasizing the variations in their realizations.

Judgement, and Appreciation are realized in each corpus will serve as an example of the comparison a Difference in lexical instantiations

In EEOAs, the ratio of lexical instantiations to instances is slightly higher compared to VEOAs Conversely, VEOAs exhibit a marginally greater ratio of non-core realizations to lexical instantiations than EEOAs.

A comparison of the lexical instantiations of Attitude in EEOAs and VEOAs reveals that many variations in EEOAs stem from the same root word, differing only in tense and number For example, forms such as "want" and "wants," or "don’t like," "didn’t like," and "doesn’t like," represent variations of the same verbs, while pairs like "expect" and "expects" exhibit a similar pattern In contrast, each lexical instantiation in VEOAs is distinct, highlighting a significant difference in grammatical realizations between the two categories.

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF GRADUATION DEPLOYMENT

In the previous chapter, the concept of Force, a crucial aspect of Graduation, was analyzed This analysis focused on the differences in the use of Force in EEOAs and VEOAs from two angles: the semantic characteristics of Force, including the distribution of its subtypes, and the various realizations of Force.

The effective use of Language expressing Graduation of Force in discourse reflects the appraiser's subjective opinions on entities Analysis of EEOAs and VEOAs reveals consistent patterns in the proportions of Force types, Force Scale, and Meaning types Specifically, Quantification is utilized more frequently than Intensification in both languages, with Intensification of Quality and Quantification of Number representing the highest proportions among Force subtypes.

The analysis of Force Scale indicates that sources indicating up-scale slightly outnumber those indicating down-scale Intensification of Quality reflects the up or down movement of actions, efforts, feelings, and thoughts Quantification of Number assesses the size of a subject on an up/down scale In terms of the Meaning of Force, non-figurative meaning is more prevalent in both languages, although the proportions of different Force realization strategies vary significantly.

Table 6.3 Distribution of Graduation in EEOAs and VEOAs

The distribution of force realization strategies in English EEOAs and Vietnamese VEOAs exhibits a similar trend, predominantly featuring isolated lexemes, followed by semantic infusion and repetition Notably, the English data displays a higher percentage of semantic infusion compared to the Vietnamese data, indicating a significant variation in the quantities of these strategies between the two corpora Additionally, both EEOAs and VEOAs demonstrate a high ratio of grammatical and lexical items, which are the two alternatives for isolated lexemes.

The study highlights the differences in the expression of Force between EEOAs and VEOAs, particularly in the use of Intensification of Quality-Degree It was found that EEOAs utilized more grammatical items for this purpose than VEOAs, with simpler elements like "very" and "quite" being favored for their ease of use These items can effectively modify adjectives and adverbs, enhancing clarity for readers and aligning with the article's informative nature Additionally, both EEOAs and VEOAs exhibited a diverse range of Isolated Lexeme-Lexical items, encompassing both upscale and downscale variations.

Graduation in attitude signifies a heightened level of perspective, utilizing evaluative language to enhance communication effectiveness This approach enables authors to articulate their viewpoints on various subjects, such as economic turmoil and unemployment, while bolstering the persuasiveness of their opinions regarding presidential economic plans.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter explores the similarities and differences in the use of Attitude and Graduation in EEOAs and VEOAs, focusing on semantic features and quantitative data Judgement emerged as the predominant Attitude type in both EEOAs and VEOAs, with implicit and positive Attitude values utilized to assess economic entities through diverse lexico-grammar evaluations The analysis reveals that the deployment of Force in both EEOAs and VEOAs is characterized by a significant emphasis on Intensification of Quality-Degree and Quantification of Number Nonetheless, notable differences exist in how Attitude and Graduation are realized between EEOAs and VEOAs.

CONCLUSIONS

CONCLUSIONS

7.1.1 Summary of the subject matter under research

This thesis explores the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in English and Vietnamese economic opinion articles through the Appraisal framework Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, the study analyzed 2,517 Attitude samples and 2,100 Graduation samples from 50 English articles (from The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal) and 1,592 Attitude samples and 1,229 Graduation samples from 50 Vietnamese articles (from The Thoi bao Kinh te Sai gon and Cafef) The systematic data collection and analysis followed established procedures, focusing on the Appraisal framework by Martin and White (2005), which systematically organizes semantic resources for negotiating emotions, judgments, and valuations Key findings of this research will be summarized in the following section.

This article addresses three key research questions regarding the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation in English and Vietnamese economic opinion articles The analysis reveals that both English and Vietnamese articles predominantly focus on state administration, stock market issues, enterprise activities, and banking practices Utilizing the Appraisal framework by Martin and White (2005), the study identifies various subtypes of Attitude and Graduation resources present in these texts The findings highlight the similarities and differences in the representation of Attitude and Graduation between English and Vietnamese economic opinion articles, providing valuable insights into their semantic features.

The study of Attitude reveals its components: Appreciation, Judgment, and Affect Appreciation includes aspects such as Quality, Impact, Complexity, Balance, and Valuation Judgment is categorized into five forms: Normality, Capacity, Tenacity, Veracity, and Propriety Affect is divided into four types: Un/Happiness, Dis/Satisfaction, In/Security, and Dis/Inclination Findings indicate that opinionated language predominantly manifests as Judgment and Appreciation rather than emotional responses While there are variations in the percentages of Attitude subtypes across different language sources, the usage trends remain relatively consistent In both the 50 EEOAs and 50 VEOAs groups, Judgment instances are the most prevalent, followed by Appreciation, with Affect being the least represented.

The analysis indicated that Capacity was the most prevalent subtype in Judgement, while Quality and Valuation were frequently utilized within the Appreciation system This distribution of Attitude subtypes is justified, as evaluations in these opinion discourses rely on an objective assessment of economic issues Consequently, authors seldom employ Authorial and Non-Authorial Affects, which describe an entity's emotions in response to economic events.

The analysis of explicit and implicit dimensions reveals that most attitude values in 50 EEOAs and 50 VEOAs are implicit, predominantly conveying positive meanings This consistency indicates a similar evaluative stance among authors in both languages In opinion discourse, writers prioritize accuracy and coherence to enhance expression, employing language that effectively mirrors their thought processes for optimal cognitive efficiency However, a compelling opinion must also incorporate rich imagery and expressive vocabulary, facilitated by flexible variations in expression and syntactic order, as supported by Warren (1989) When authors aim to criticize or express negative attitudes, they often resort to implicit expressions, allowing readers to interpret the issues themselves These findings align with previous research by Cavasso.

The study on Attitude realizations reveals diverse lexicogrammatical resources for expressing both explicit and implicit Attitude in English and Vietnamese EEOAs and VEOAs, with notable differences In EEOAs, explicit Affect predominantly features core, high-frequency expressions, while Vietnamese data showcases a greater variety of non-core words Core Affect expressions include antonym pairs such as "pleased-sad" and "eager-fear," with Affect mainly realized through Mental Processes and Participants (Attributes) It is primarily conveyed using verbs, adjectives, nouns, and adverbs, as well as through negative constructions Explicit Judgement of Capacity in EEOAs often utilizes Modulation of Readiness, expressed with "can" and "could." Both English and Vietnamese Judgement and Appreciation are represented as Mental Processes and Participants, with Vietnamese adjectives also serving as adverbs due to their unchanging form The research identified all three mechanisms for implicit Attitude—Provoke, Flagg, and Afford—though instances of Provoke Attitude were less frequent Consistent with Martin and White (2005), the findings highlight that Appreciation is not a primary focus in discourse centered on human behavior, serving instead to contextualize Judgement or Affect.

Graduation involves both Force and Focus, with this thesis primarily examining the Force system In both EEOAs and VEOAs, the concept of Graduation predominantly conveys Force meanings, showing a slightly higher occurrence of up-scaling instances compared to down-scaling Force-Intensification is utilized to enhance quality meanings, often exceeding those of processes Additionally, number quantification is the most prevalent, as authors frequently present specific figures related to economic entities to suggest positive or negative evaluations This Force-Quantification bolsters the reliability and persuasiveness of Attitude assessments through various characteristics, such as the quantification of extent (years, periods, spaces) and the quantification of number and mass Force-Intensification of quality reflects the up-scaling or down-scaling of Affect, Judgment, or Appreciation regarding the attributes and behaviors of individuals or objects, while Force-Intensification of process indicates the scaling of actions or efforts Furthermore, several Graduation values associated with Attitude values were explored.

The graduation realizations in the Force's strategies were straightforward and repetitive, enhancing reader comprehension Graduation was achieved through isolated lexemes, semantic infusion, and repetition, with few figurative meanings present Notably, alongside common non-specific numeration like "many" and "some," the use of specific numbers served as a resource for quantification, as supported by Hood (2004) This quantification through numerals can imply value through quantity, although additional co-textual evidence is necessary to establish an evaluative connotation regarding precise amounts.

IMPLICATIONS

The research, while intentionally limited in scope, provides valuable insights into the language of evaluation, particularly applicable in academic settings It highlights the frequent use of Attitude and Graduation in various discourses, enabling writers and speakers to effectively convey their assessments and attitudes toward behaviors, objects, or situations By examining the similarities and differences in the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation between EEOAs and VEOAs, this study contributes significantly to the teaching and learning of evaluative language and aids in the translation of opinion articles.

This thesis offers language learners essential insights into the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation, enhancing their comprehension and application in translation tasks By understanding the functions and characteristics of Attitude and Graduation, learners can effectively navigate related texts Many learners struggle to differentiate between the various types and subtypes of Attitude and Graduation, hindering their ability to grasp the writers' or speakers' intentions The study's findings aim to provide a clearer understanding of these concepts and their classifications, ultimately improving learners' skills in this area.

The study provides language teachers with valuable insights into the semantic features and grammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation, enhancing their teaching methods By leveraging the findings, teachers can guide students in identifying various types and subtypes of Attitude and Graduation Additionally, the thesis offers a rich resource of examples for educators to utilize in translation instruction Ultimately, the research equips teachers to help learners navigate the complexities of Attitude and Graduation realizations, addressing a common source of confusion among students.

The research, while intentionally narrow in focus, provided valuable insights into evaluation language, equipping both students and teachers with essential pedagogical content knowledge This knowledge is crucial for teaching students to write effectively across diverse contexts.

LIMITATIONS

The study presents valuable insights but has inherent limitations It is based on data from 100 articles, which restricts its coverage of diverse economic opinions While the focus is on the use of evaluative language in English and Vietnamese economic articles, a comprehensive exploration of this language's scope was not feasible Additionally, the analysis is confined to the semantic aspects and lexical-grammatical realizations of Attitude and Graduation We trust that our efforts will yield meaningful results for both theorists and practitioners, and we welcome constructive feedback and understanding from colleagues and experts regarding any minor errors.

SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

The study highlights the potential for further exploration of Appraisal deployment in English and Vietnamese, focusing specifically on the semantic features and lexicogrammatical realizations of evaluative language related to Attitude and Graduation in English and Vietnamese EEOAs and VEOAs However, it does not address the final Attitude subtype, Engagement, which leaves a gap in the comprehensive understanding of evaluative language within the Appraisal framework Consequently, future research should aim to investigate this aspect to complete the evaluation language landscape.

- Evaluative language of Engagement in English and Vietnamese opinion articles: An Appraisal approach;

- Language and Ideology in English and Vietnamese opinion articles

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Martin, J R (1992) English text: System and Structure Amsterdam: Benjamins Martin, J R (1995) Reading Positions/Positioning Readers: Judgement in English,

Prospect: a Journal of Australian TESOL 10 (2), 27-37

Martin, J R (1997) Analysing Genre: Functional Parameters In Christie, F., & Martin, J R (Ed.), Genres and Institutions: Social Processes in the Workplace and School, London: Continumn

Martin, J R (2000) Beyond exchange: appraisal systems in English In Hunston, S

& Thompson, G (Ed.), Evaluation in Text, pp.142-175 Oxford: University

Martin, J R (2002) Meaning beyond the clause: SFL perspectives Annual review of Applied linguistics 22, 52-74

Martin, J R (2014) Evolving systemic functional linguistics: Beyond the clause

Martin, J R (2016) Meaning matters: a short history of systemic functional linguistics Word, 62(1), 35-58

Martin, J R (2018) Interpersonal meaning: Systemic Functional Linguistics perspectives Functions of Language 25(1), 2-19

Martin, J R., & Plum, G (1997) Construing experience: Some story genres

Journal of Narrative and Life History, 7 (1-4), 299-308

Martin, J R & Rose, D (2003, 2007) Working with discourse Meaning beyond the clause (Ed.) London: Continuum

Martin, J R., & White, P R R (2005) The Language of Evaluation: Appraisal in English London: Palgrave

Matthiessen, C M I M., & Guo, E (2020) Matthiessen‘s thoughts on some key issues in systemic functional linguistics Word 66(2), 130-145

McCloskey (1986) The Rhetoric of Economics

Millar, N., & Hunston, S (2015) Adjective, communities, and taxonomies of evaluative meaning Functions of language 22(3), 297-331

Montanari, F (2012) Forms of Economic discourse, the crisis, and financial market Analysis and research perspectives from Actor Network Theory to Semiotic Sociologica,1-21

Ngo, T., Unsworth, L (2015) Reworking the appraisal framework in ESL research: refining attitude resources Functional Linguist, 2 (1) https://doi.org/10.1186/s40554-015-0013-x

Nguyễn, Thụy Phương Lan (2018) conducted a transitivity analysis in English economics, published in the VNU.ULIS Graduate Research Symposium, highlighting key linguistic features in specialized journals Additionally, Nguyễn, Thị Kim Ngân and Nguyễn, Thị Hương Lan (2020) performed a preliminary study on attitudes in English and Vietnamese media texts through the lens of Appraisal theory, featured in the VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, which emphasizes the comparative analysis of media discourse Their research contributes valuable insights into the linguistic dynamics of economic and media texts.

Oktaviantia, I N, & Adnanb, A (2020) A corpus study of verbs in opinion articles of The Jakarta Post and the relation with text characteristics English Language Teaching Educational Journal, 3(2), 108-117

Oteiza, T (2009) Evaluative patterns in the official discourse of human rights in Chile: giving value to the past and building historical memories in soceity

Oteiza, T (2017) The appraisal framework and discourse analysis, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313553051_The_appraisal_framewo rk_and_discourse_analysis

Paradis, C (2000) It's well weird: Degree Modifiers of Adjectives Revisited: The Nineties In John M Kirk (Eds.) Corpora galore, Analyses and Techniques in Describing English, pp 147-160, Papers from the Nineteenth International

Conference on English Language Research on Computerised Corpora (ICAME 1998) Amsterdam: Rodopi

Pounds, G (2010) Attitude and subjectivity in Italian and British hard news reporting: The construction of a culture-specific ―reporter‖ voice Discourse Studies, 12(1), 106-137

Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G & Svartvik, J (1972) A Grammar of Contemporary English London: Longman

Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G & Svartvik, J (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Harlow: Longman

Read, J., and Carroll, J (2012) Annotating Expressions of Appraisal in English

Richards, J C., Platt, J and Platt, H (1992) Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics London: Longman

Stonecipher, H.W (1990) Editorial and Persuasive Writing: Opinion Functions of the News Media Hastings House

Thompson, G & Alba-Juez, L (Ed.) (2014) Evaluation in the context Amsterdam:

Thompson, E A., White, P R., & Kitley, P (2008) ―Objectivity and ―Hard news‖ reporting across cultures: comparing the new report in English, French, Japanese and Indonesian journalism Journalism Studies 9(2), 1-26

Thompson, G (2014) Affect and emotion, target-value mismatches, and Russian dolls: Refining the Appraisal model In Thompson, G & Alba-Juez, L (Ed.)

Evaluation in the context, pp.47-66, Amsterdam: John Benjamins

Tim, P V (2011) A mirror of the times Journalism Studies, 12(5), 575-589, DOI: 10.1080/1461670X.2010.536449

Veel, R (1998) The greening of school science: Ecogenesis in secondary classrooms In Martin, J R & Veel, R (Ed.), Critical and Functional Perspective on Discourses of Science, pp.114-151, London: Routledge

Walliman, N (2011) Research Methods - The Basics London and New York:

Wang and An (2013) conducted a study examining the use of appraisal in Chinese academic book reviews, highlighting the significance of evaluative language in academic discourse Similarly, Warren (1989) analyzed the language employed by economists, emphasizing how discourse shapes the understanding of economic concepts Both studies contribute to the understanding of specialized language in different academic fields, providing insights into how language influences interpretation and communication within scholarly contexts.

Wati, E.P., Tallapessy A., Diana, S., (2015) Bias and power: Appraisal in media discourse Publika Budaya, 1(3), 65-71

White, P R R (1997) Death, disruption and the moral order: the narrative impulse in mass ―hard news‖ reporting In F Christie & J R Martin (Ed.), Genres and

Institutions: Social Processes in the Workplace and School, pp.101-133 London: Continuum

White, P R R (1998) Telling Media Tales: The News Story as Rhetoric Doctoral Thesis, Dept of Linguistics, Faculty of Arts, University of Sydney

White, P P R (2000), Dialogue and Inter-Subjectivity: Reinterpreting the Semantics of Modality and Hedging In Coulthard, M., Cotterill, J., & Rock,

F (Ed.), Working With Dialog, pp 67-80, Tubingen: Max Neimeyer Verlag

White, P R R (2001) The appraisal website Available online at http://www.Grammatics.com/ appraisal/

White, P R R (2002) Appraisal In Jef Verschueren et al (Ed.) Handbook of pragmatics, pp.1-27 Amsterdam: Benjamins

White, P R R (2003a) Beyond modality and hedging: A dialogic view of the language of Intersubjective stance Appraisal (Special edition of Text) 23(2),

White, P R R (2003b) Appraisal: The language of evaluation and stance In Verschueren, J., & Ostman, J O., Blommaert, J., & Bulcaen, C (Ed.), The Handbook of Pragmatics Online, Amsterdam: John Benjamins

White, P R R (2004) Subjectivity, evaluation and point of view in media discourse In Coffin, C (Ed.), Applying English grammar: Functional and corpus approaches, pp.229-246 London: Arnold

White, P R R (2006) Evaluative Semantics and Ideological Positioning in Journalistic Discourse: a new framework for analysis In Lassen, I., Strunck, J

& Vestergaard, T (Ed.), Mediating Ideology in Text and Image: ten critical studies, pp.37-68 Amsterdam: John Benjamins

White, P R R (2015) Appraisal theory In Karen T., Cornelia I., & Todd S (Ed.),

International encyclopedia of language and social interaction, pp.1–7

In their study, Wiebe, Wilson, and Cardie (2005) explore the annotation of opinions and emotions in language, contributing to the field of language resources and evaluation Similarly, Zaidi and White (2021) examine attitudinal positioning in journalistic commentary, specifically analyzing the editorial responses to the killing of Osama bin Laden in politically charged contexts Their findings highlight the complexities of expressing opinions in sensitive situations, emphasizing the role of language in shaping public perception and discourse.

Zhang, X (2016), Positive Discourse Analysis of Attitude System in Economic News International Journal of Arts and Commerce, 5(7), 12-17

Diệp, Quan Ban (1989) Ngữ pháp Tiếng Việt phổ thông (tập2) Nxb Đại học &

Diệp, Quang Ban (2004) Ngữ pháp Việt Nam, Nxb Đại học Sư phạm Đỗ, Hữu Châu (2007) Đại cương ngôn ngữ học, Nxb Giáo dục

Hoàng, Đình Cúc, & Đức, Dũng (2007) Những vấn đề của báo chí hiện đại Nxb

Hoàng, Phê (1984) Toán tử logic-tình thái Tạp chí Ngôn ngữ số 4 Viện Ngôn ngữ Huỳnh, Thị Chuyên (2014) Ngôn ngữ Bình luận trong báo in tiếng Việt hiện nay

Luận án Tiến sĩ chuyên ngành Ngôn ngữ học Viện Hàn Lâm Khoa Học Xã hội Việt Nam

Hữu, Quỳnh (1980) Ngữ pháp Tiếng Việt hiện đại Nxb Giáo dục

Lê, Biên (1993) Từ Vựng Tiếng Việt hiện đại Nxb Đại học Sư phạm Hà nội 1

Lê, Quang Thiêm (2008) Nghiên cứu đối chiếu các ngôn ngữ Hà Nội: nxb Đại học Quốc gia

Ngô, Thị Bích Thu (2013) The deployment of the language of evaluation in English and Vietnamese spoken discouse PhD Thesis University of New England,

Nguyễn Anh Quế (1988) đã nghiên cứu về hư từ trong Tiếng Việt hiện đại, xuất bản bởi Nxb Khoa học xã hội Trong khi đó, Nguyễn Hồng Sao (2010) đã thực hiện luận án Tiến sĩ tại Trường Đại học Khoa học xã hội và nhân văn, so sánh ngôn ngữ báo chí giữa tiếng Việt và tiếng Anh qua một số thể loại.

Nguyễn Tài Cẩn's 1998 work, "Ngữ pháp tiếng Việt," published by Đại học Quốc gia in Hanoi, provides a comprehensive overview of Vietnamese grammar Additionally, Nguyễn Thị Thu Hiền's 2014 article, "An expansion resources analysis of English and Vietnamese Political Editorials in the light of Appraisal theory," published in the Journal of Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, explores the application of Appraisal theory to analyze political editorials in both English and Vietnamese, highlighting key linguistic strategies and their implications.

Trần, Quang (2000) Các thể loại chính luận báo chí Nxb Chính trị Quốc gia, Hà Nội

Trần, Thị Hồng Vân., & Thompson, E (2008) The nature of Reporter Voice in a

Vietnamese Hard new story In Thompson, E., & White, P R R (Ed.)

Communicating Conflict: Multilingual Case Studies of the News Media, pp

Trần, Văn Phước (2019) đã nghiên cứu sự lựa chọn ngôn ngữ trong việc đánh giá tình cảm qua một số truyện ngắn Việt Nam, được công bố trong tạp chí Ngôn ngữ và đời sống Bài viết nhấn mạnh tầm quan trọng của ngôn ngữ trong việc thể hiện cảm xúc và ý nghĩa trong văn học Đồng thời, Út Dương (2020) cung cấp hướng dẫn về việc sử dụng ngôn ngữ đúng cách trong báo chí, nhằm nâng cao chất lượng thông tin truyền thông.

Võ, Duy Đức (2010) Language and Ideology In English And Vietnamese Business Hard News Reporting - A Comparative Study The Southeast Asian Journal of

Võ, Duy Đức (2011) Style, structure and ideology in English and Vietnamese business hard news reporting: A comparative study Ph.D Thesis, University of Adelaide, School of Humanities

Võ, Duy Đức (2017) Appraisal – an Approach to discourse analysis Tạp chí Khoa học Ngôn ngữ và Văn hóa 1(1)

Vũ, Quang Hào (2007) Ngôn ngữ báo chí Hà Nội: Nxb Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội

[1] https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/23/opinion/trump-convention-economy.html

[2] https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/23/opinion/trump-economy.html

[3] https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/14/opinion/trump-economy-stock- market.html

[4] https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/05/opinion/trump-economy.html

[5] https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-economic-risks-of-trumps-premature- tweeting-1527892227

[6] https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/08/opinion/biden-corporate-taxes.html

[7] https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/11/opinion/economic-nationalism-biden- trump-trade.html

[8] https://www.wsj.com/articles/bidens-tax-plan-would-spur-economic-growth-11601938942?cx_testId=3&cx_testVariant=cx_4&cx_artPos=0&mod=WTRN# cxrecs_s

[9] https://www.wsj.com/articles/welcome-to-joe-bidens-boom-economy-

[10] https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-biden-plan-for-economic-sclerosis-

[11] https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/04/opinion/sanders-stock-buybacks.html

[12] https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/17/opinion/shutdown-recession.html

[13] https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/18/opinion/index-fund.html

[14] https://www.wsj.com/articles/its-a-good-time-to-stock-up-11586299677

[15] https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-good-year-for-stakeholder-capitalism-

[16] https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/03/opinion/stock-market.html

[17] https://www.wsj.com/articles/lessons-from-a-crazy-year-in-financial- markets-11609410602

[18] https://www.wsj.com/articles/who-got-markets-right-in-2019-11575985945

[19] https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/19/opinion/amazon-bezos-hq2.html

[20] https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/23/opinion/mutual-funds-shareholder- activism.html

[21] https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/28/opinion/economic-growth- statistics.html

[22] https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/14/opinion/coronavirus-recession.html

[23] https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/16/opinion/coronavirus-economy- debt.html

[24] https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/09/opinion/coronavirus-global- economy.html

[25] https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/10/opinion/shutdown-economy- recession.html

[26] https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-economy-wont-get-healthier-while- america-gets-sicker-11594941259

[27] https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-economy-needs-a-little-more-ppp-

[28] https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-economic-recovery-is-here-rebound-jobs- stock-market-unemployment-biden-aid-package-11622642152

[29] https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/20/opinion/trump-trade-tariffs-china.html

[30] https://www.wsj.com/articles/strong-spending-data-shows-u-s-economy- chugging-ahead-of-europe-and-asia-1528994914

[31] https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/11/opinion/silicon-valley-lobbyists- privacy.html

[32] https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/03/27/opinion/coronavirus- bailout.html

[33] https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/06/opinion/apple-trillion-market-cap.html

[34] https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/26/opinion/corporate-debt-bubble-att- ge.html

[35] https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/02/opinion/corporate-stock-buyback- short-term-profit.html

[36] https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-reckoning-for-indebted-companies-

[37] https://www.wsj.com/articles/amazons-pandemic-success-story-

[38] https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/01/opinion/sunday/t-mobile-sprint- merger-antitrust.html

[39] https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/09/opinion/amazon-new-york- business.html

[40] https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/11/opinion/silicon-valley-regulation.html

[41] https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/28/opinion/fed-fossil- fuels.html?smidnytimes&smtyp=cur&fbclid=IwAR0x06SCB9I4a- mDuXlRgNBFmxK9OjPAbwwTJusn7h39nqyXlSxN40rg4rI

[42] https://www.wsj.com/articles/main-street-program-is-too-stingy-to-banks- and-borrowers-

11595284266?cx_testId=3&cx_testVariant=cx_4&cx_artPos=5&mod=WTRN# cxrecs_s

[43] https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-fed-lacks-precision-inflation-tools-

11622153546?cx_testId=3&cx_testVariant=cx_4&cx_artPos=6&mod=WTRN# cxrecs_s

[44] https://www.wsj.com/articles/interest-rates-wont-work-against-coronavirus- 11583766853?cx_testId=3&cx_testVariant=cx_4&cx_artPos=5&mod=WTRN# cxrecs_s

[45] https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-is-rightthe-fed-is-still-tightening-

[46] https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-fed-is-anything-but-crazy-1539815901

[47] https://www.wsj.com/articles/fed-policy-is-smothering-private-lending-

[48] https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/20/opinion/trump-bank-regulation.html

[49] https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/10/opinion/jerome-powell-federal- reserve.html

[50] https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/23/opinion/congress-dodd-frank- banks.html

[51] https://thesaigontimes.vn/quan-ly-nha-nuoc-trong-dich-benh/

[52] https://thesaigontimes.vn/dung-nhung-chua-nen-lam/

[53] https://thesaigontimes.vn/giam-thue-cho-nguoi-lao-dong-cung-la-kich-thich- kinh-te/

[54] https://thesaigontimes.vn/giai-doan-khung-hoang-cung-la-luc-'san'-nhan-tai/

[55] https://thesaigontimes.vn/su-dieu-chinh-can-thiet-voi-cac-chinh-sach-hau- covid/

[56] https://thesaigontimes.vn/khong-le-nha-nuoc-cung-danh-bo-tay/

[57] https://thesaigontimes.vn/qua-cam-on-gi-ma-tri-gia-toi-3-trieu-do-la/

[58] https://thesaigontimes.vn/tham-nhung-tu-thieu-minh-bach-thong-tin/

[59] https://vanhoadoanhnghiepvn.vn/sao-khong-thay-hinh-bong-cua-thanh-tra- kiem-tra/

[60] https://thesaigontimes.vn/dau-lang-tu-vu-to-cao-dua-hoi-lo-cua-tenma-viet- nam/

[61] https://thesaigontimes.vn/chuyen-gia-nhan-dinh-ty-gia-van-on-dinh-sau- thong-diep-cua-fed/

[62] https://thesaigontimes.vn/khi-long-tham-chien-thang-noi-so-hai/

[63] https://thesaigontimes.vn/dong-tien-nhan-roi-bi-cuon-theo-con-say-cua-nha- dau-tu-chung-khoan/

[64] https://thesaigontimes.vn/luc-day-thi-truong-chung-khoan-tu-nha-dau-tu-ca- nhan/

[65] https://thesaigontimes.vn/dieu-gi-dang-xay-ra-voi-thi-truong-chung-khoan- tuan-qua/

[66] https://thesaigontimes.vn/mat-da-dau-nam-dung-qua-bi-quan-khong-can-voi- vang/

[67] https://thesaigontimes.vn/mua-co-phieu-quy-don-thuoc-chong-dich-cap-toc- cua-doanh-nghiep/

[68] https://thesaigontimes.vn/thi-truong-chung-khoan-dien-bien-the-nao-trong- cac-dai-dich/

[69] https://thesaigontimes.vn/mat-da-dau-nam-dung-qua-bi-quan-khong-can-voi- vang/

[70] https://thesaigontimes.vn/nguon-cung-co-phieu-o-at-thi-truong-lieu-co-mat- can-bang/

[71] https://cafef.vn/tstran-dinh-thien-kinh-te-viet-nam-on-dinh-rat-cao-

[72] https://cafef.vn/pgsts-tran-dinh-thien-nen-kinh-te-dung-day-sau-covid-19-se- duoc-thay-mau-boi-nhung-doanh-nghiep-khoi-nghiep-moi-

[73] https://cafef.vn/giai-quyet-dau-tu-cong-la-then-chot-giup-nen-kinh-te-thoat- khoi-rui-ro-20200717135520408.chn

[74] https://cafef.vn/chien-tranh-thuong-mai-my-trung-co-hoi-cho-viet-nam-thuc- day-cai-cach-20181011110200065.chn

[75] https://cafef.vn/nhieu-ky-vong-cho-kinh-te-viet-nam-trong-nam-moi-

[76] https://cafef.vn/don-nen-lam-phat-nam-2018-se-tao-ap-luc-lon-cho-nam-sau- 20181008172219187.chn

[77] https://thesaigontimes.vn/cai-quan-trong-hon-voi-nen-kinh-te-viet-nam-bi- lang-quen/

[78] https://thesaigontimes.vn/nhanh-chong-khoi-phuc-va-gia-tang-niem-tin-xa- hoi-trong-mua-dich/

[79] https://thesaigontimes.vn/du-lieu-co-la-van-de-phat-trien-cua-viet-nam/

[80] https://cafef.vn/de-kinh-te-tu-nhan-tro-thanh-dong-luc-cua-nen-kinh-te- 20190501072327848.chn

[81] https://thesaigontimes.vn/nuoc-mat-doanh-nhan/

[82] https://thesaigontimes.vn/can-co-chinh-sach-don-lan-song-moi/

[83] https://thesaigontimes.vn/than-phan-hang-viet-doanh-nghiep-viet/

[84] https://thesaigontimes.vn/khong-con-phan-biet-chim-se-va-dai-bang-nua/

[85] https://thesaigontimes.vn/doanh-nghiep-tra-gia-vi-no-cua-nha-nuoc/

[86] https://thesaigontimes.vn/co-nhan-don-dau-thi-moi-thuc-tinh/

[87] https://cafef.vn/co-phan-hoa-doanh-nghiep-nha-nuoc-con-tinh-trang-binh- moi-ruou-cu-20181130150719604.chn

[88] https://cafef.vn/doanh-nghiep-nha-nuoc-va-bong-ma-no-nan-

[89] https://thesaigontimes.vn/chuyen-doi-so-la-ao-giap-giup-doanh-nghiep-vuot- kho-thoi-dich-benh/

[90] https://thesaigontimes.vn/gia-cuoc-van-chuyen-container-lai-len-muc-cao- ky-luc/

[91] https://cafef.vn/ts-nguyen-tri-hieu-than-trong-se-la-tu-khoa-voi-suc-khoe- nganh-ngan-hang-20210422125617497.chn

[92] https://thesaigontimes.vn/chuyen-la-trai-phieu-cua-ngan-hang/

[93] https://thesaigontimes.vn/diem-nhan-chinh-sach-tien-te-nhung-thang-dau- nam-2021/

[94] https://thesaigontimes.vn/dai-ly-ngan-hang-cuoc-choi-moi-dang-thanh-hinh/

[95] https://cafef.vn/xu-ly-no-xau-can-them-chat-xuc-tac-cho-thi-truong-

[96] https://cafef.vn/vi-sao-nhnn-giat-nguoc-ty-gia-trung-tam-

[97] https://cafef.vn/do-dem-suc-khoe-thuc-su-cua-ngan-hang-

[98] https://thesaigontimes.vn/ngan-hang-dau-dau-voi-nguon-nhan-luc-khi-thanh- toan-so-len-ngoi/

[99] https://cafef.vn/mot-nam-thu-thach-su-kien-dinh-20190104101917041.chn

[100] https://thesaigontimes.vn/vi-dien-tu-da-co-lai-chua/

Data collection: 50 EEOAs and 50 VEOAs were numbered E1-E50 and V1-V50 respectively, with the titles of the articles, the publishing year, and the total numbers of Attitude and Graduation samples

E1 The Truth Behind Trump’s ‘Rocking’ Economy 2020

E2 Trump’s Economy Was Never So Great 2020

E3 How Trump Could Fatally Weaken the Dollar 2018

E4 Trumpism Is Bad for Business 2019

E5 The Economic Risks of Trump’s Premature Tweeting 2018

E6 Biden, Yellen and the War on Leprechauns 2021

E7 Working Out: Economic Nationalism, Biden-Style 2021

E8 Biden’s Tax Plan Would Spur Economic Growth 2020

E9 Welcome to Joe Biden’s Boom Economy 2021

E10 The Biden Plan for Economic Sclerosis 2021

E11 Restricting Stock Buybacks Will Hurt the Economy 2019

E12 The Bond Market Comes to Its Senses 2019

E13 What’s Really in Your Index Fund? 2019

E14 It’s a Good Time to ‘Stock’ Up 2020

E15 A Good Year for Stakeholder Capitalism 2020

E16 The Mystery of High Stock Prices 2020

E17 Lessons From a Crazy Year in Financial Markets 2020

E18 Who Got Markets Right in 2019 2019

E19 The Secret of Amazon’s Success 2018

E20 Why Isn’t Your Mutual Fund Sticking Up for You? 2019

E21 The Way We Measure the Economy Obscures What Is Really

E22 We Need Real Economic Stimulus 2020

E23 This Is How the Coronavirus Will Destroy the Economy 2020

E24 What Was the Last Time an Economy Froze Like This? 2020

E25 The Shutdown Isn’t the Only Threat to the Economy 2019

E26 The Economy Won’t Get Healthier While America Gets Sicker 2020

E27 The Economy Needs a Little More PPP 2020

E28 The Economic Recovery Is Here It’s Unlike Anything You’ve

E29 Why the US Should Drop All Tariffs 2018

E30 Economic Growth in US Leaves World Behind 2018

E31 Why Silicon Valley Lobbyists Love Big, Broad Privacy Bills 2018

No Titles Year E32 These Companies Enriched Themselves Now They’re Getting a

E33 Why Apple Is the Future of Capitalism 2018

E34 When Blue Chip Companies Pile on Debt, It’s Time to Worry 2018

E35 The Myth of Corporate America’s Short-Term Thinking 2020

E39 New York Should Say No to Amazon 2018

E41 Why Is the Fed Spending So Much Money on a Dying Industry? 2020

E42 ‘Main Street’ Program Is Too Stingy to Banks and Borrowers 2020

E43 The Fed Lacks Precision Inflation Tools 2021

E44 How the Federal Reserve Can Ease the Coronavirus Panic 2020

E45 Trump Is Right—the Fed Is Still Tightening 2019

E46 The Fed Is Anything but Crazy 2018

E47 Fed Policy Is Smothering Private Lending 2021

E48 Condemned to Repeat the History of Bank Failures? 2019

E49 Time for the Fed to Cut Interest Rates 2019

E50 Is Congress Getting Nostalgic for Bank Failure? 2018

V1 Quản lý nhà nước trong dịch bệnh 2020

V2 Đúng nhưng chưa nên làm 2020

V3 Giảm thuế cho người lao động cũng là kích thích kinh tế 2020

V4 Giai đoạn khủng hoảng cũng là lúc “săn” nhân tài 2020

V5 Sự điều chỉnh cần thiết với các chính sách hậu Covid 2020

V6 Không lẽ Nhà nước cũng đành bó tay! 2019

V7 “Quà cám ơn” gì mà trị giá tới 3 triệu đô la? 2019

V8 Tham nhũng từ thiếu minh bạch thông tin 2019

V9 Sao không thấy hình bóng của thanh tra, kiểm tra 2019

V10 ‘Dấu lặng’ từ vụ tố cáo đưa hối lộ của Tenma Việt Nam 2020

V11 Chuyên gia nhận định tỷ giá vẫn ổn định sau thông điệp của Fed 2021

V12 Khi lòng tham chiến thắng nỗi sợ hãi? 2021

V13 Dòng tiền nhàn rỗi bị cuốn theo ‘cơn say’ của nhà đầu tư chứng khoán

V14 Lực đẩy thị trường chứng khoán từ nhà đầu tư cá nhân 2021

V15 Điều gì đang xảy ra với thị trường chứng khoán tuần qua? 2019

No Titles Year V16 “Mất đà” đầu năm: đừng quá bi quan, không cần vội vàng! 2020

V17 Mua cổ phiếu quỹ, ‘đơn thuốc’ chống dịch cấp tốc của doanh nghiệp

V18 Thị trường chứng khoán diễn biến thế nào trong các đại dịch 2020

V19 Cảm giác mất mát của chứng khoán bao giờ qua? 2020

V20 Nguồn cung cổ phiếu ồ ạt, thị trường liệu có mất cân bằng? 2020

V21 Kinh tế Việt Nam ổn định rất cao 2019

V22 Phát huy cơ hội phục hồi kinh tế hậu Covid-19 2020

V23 Giải quyết đầu tư công là then chốt, giúp nền kinh tế thoát khỏi rủi ro

V24 Chiến tranh thương mại Mỹ-Trung: Cơ hội cho Việt Nam thúc đẩy cải cách

V25 Nhiều kỳ vọng cho kinh tế Việt Nam trong năm mới 2019

V26 “Dồn nén lạm phát năm 2018 sẽ tạo áp lực lớn cho năm sau” 2018

V27 Cái quan trọng hơn với nền kinh tế Việt Nam bị lãng quên 2021

V28 Nhanh chóng khôi phục và gia tăng niềm tin xã hội trong mùa dịch 2020

V29 Dữ liệu có là vấn đề phát triển của Việt Nam? 2020

V30 Để kinh tế tư nhân trở thành động lực của nền kinh tế 2019

V32 Cần có chính sách đón làn sóng mới 2019

V33 “Thân phận” hàng Việt, doanh nghiệp Việt 2019

V34 Không còn phân biệt “chim sẻ” và “đại bàng” nữa 2020

V35 Doanh nghiệp trả giá vì 'nợ' của Nhà nước! 2020

V36 Có nhận đòn đau thì mới thức tỉnh 2019

V37 Cổ phần hóa doanh nghiệp Nhà nước còn tình trạng “bình mới, rượu cũ”

V38 Doanh nghiệp nhà nước và 'bóng ma' nợ nần 2018

V39 Chuyển đổi số là ‘áo giáp’ giúp doanh nghiệp vượt khó thời dịch bệnh

V40 Giá cước vận chuyển container lại lên mức cao kỷ lục 2021

V41 'Thận trọng' sẽ là từ khoá với sức khoẻ ngành ngân hàng 2020

V42 Chuyện lạ trái phiếu của ngân hàng 2021

V43 Điểm nhấn chính sách tiền tệ những tháng đầu năm 2021 2021

V44 Đại lý ngân hàng – ‘cuộc chơi’ mới đang thành hình 2021

V45 Xử lý nợ xấu: Cần thêm chất xúc tác cho thị trường 2020

V46 Vì sao NHNN “giật ngược” tỷ giá trung tâm? 2019

V47 Đo đếm sức khỏe thực sự của ngân hàng 2021

V48 Ngân hàng đau đầu với nguồn nhân lực khi thanh toán số lên ngôi 2020

V49 Một năm thử thách sự kiên định 2019

V50 Ví điện tử đã có lãi chưa? 2019

APPENDIX 2 Examples of Attitude resources in EEOAs and VEOAs

Table 3 Examples of Attitude resources in EEOAs

Happiness inspires individuals to eagerly engage in similar activities, often leading to expressions of delight and excitement Many people become obsessed with the pursuit of happiness, frequently receiving praise for their efforts It is essential to recognize that one should strive for happiness and be eager to hire those who contribute positively to this pursuit I am pleased to announce that there are ways to find comfort in this journey toward happiness.

In a landscape where humor meets optimism, the recent stock-market debut of Airbnb Inc has left its CEO momentarily speechless, signaling a potential economic turnaround As we emerge from a recession, many are celebrating newfound financial freedom, with individuals proudly declaring, "I’m finally debt free." Meanwhile, it's notable that the companies poised for substantial bailouts were previously experiencing remarkable corporate profitability, highlighting the stark contrast in today's economic climate For investors, the love for index funds continues to grow, reflecting a strategic approach to navigating these changes.

Happiness (-) the pain (E1); sadly (E12); envy (E13); the recent frenzy (E19); sad to say (E26); it can’t be a surprise to anyone (E34); miserable for the companies, frustrated

Security concerns have been raised more than 360 times, reflecting a growing confidence in the market Many analysts, while remaining bullish, have surprisingly made their usual claims about the situation Speculation is rampant, with some expressing amazement at the prevailing optimism As interest rates remain low, there is a tendency for investors to become addicted to the euphoria it brings Despite some overly optimistic views, a boldness is emerging, leading to a more relaxed atmosphere among stakeholders.

(E30); it can’t be a surprise to anyone (E34); wouldn’t have much of a direct impact (E49);

Security (-) amazingly (E1); the public fears (E4); feared, be entering a new era of worries about…, fears of China, have to admit (E7); worries, the battle, wonder, worry