INTRODUCTION
Background to the research and research problem
Vietnam's economy is increasingly reliant on the service sector, particularly tourism and hospitality, which contributed VND311,117.0bn (9.6% of GDP) and supported 1,899,000 jobs (3.7% of total employment) in 2013 The World Travel & Tourism Council forecasts a growth rate of 6.3% per annum, projecting a contribution of VND299,846.0bn (4.7% of GDP) by 2024 However, a recent survey revealed that only 6% of international tourists would return to Vietnam, citing poor tourism services, inconvenient transport, and inadequate investment as key issues The lack of professionalism among the workforce was identified as a significant factor contributing to these service shortcomings This situation poses a serious challenge to Vietnam's tourism reputation and future goals, necessitating urgent improvements in workforce efficiency and service quality in the industry.
Zeithaml et al (as cited in Tsaur et al., 2003) stated that delivering good quality of service is considered an essential strategy for success and survival in contemporary’s competitive h
2 businesses Additionally, the special feature of a service industry is “the contact and interaction between service providers (employees) and service acceptors (customers)” (Tsaur et al., 2003, p
Tourism and hospitality organizations primarily offer services, with employees serving as essential service providers These employees significantly contribute to the overall service experience, making them integral to the organization's service products Their outstanding performance not only enhances customer satisfaction but also shapes the organization's image in the competitive market.
According to the International Labor Organization (2015), Vietnam's labor productivity is among the lowest in ASEAN due to a workforce characterized by low skills If current productivity growth rates persist, Vietnam is projected to reach the productivity levels of the Philippines by 2038 and Thailand by 2069, with even longer timelines to catch up with other nations Additionally, the tourism sector in Vietnam faces significant challenges, as its workforce lacks the necessary experience, skills, and professionalism to deliver high-quality services Addressing these human resource management issues is crucial for Vietnamese tourism and hospitality organizations to enhance their competitive edge in the industry.
Significant changes in the workplace due to advanced technology in the early 21st century are reshaping the nature of work, enabling tourism and hospitality workers to operate from virtual offices and connect with global businesses This shift fosters greater expressions of individualism, freedom, responsibility, and autonomy among employees Organizations are increasingly focused on competitive efficiency, emphasizing cost reduction, employee self-management, and continuous improvement in work efficiency.
Effective self-management among service employees is crucial for success in tourism and hospitality organizations These companies recognize that employees prefer to work with them rather than merely for them Therefore, traditional hierarchical control should be replaced by internal motivation Building a trusting environment is essential for subordinates, managers, and teams to foster self-management and collaboration.
Human resource development is crucial for gaining a competitive edge in the new economy, as noted by Silva (1997) Many affluent Asian economies have adapted to foster creative and self-managing individuals who enhance organizational competitiveness However, organizations in transitioning countries like Vietnam face challenges in leveraging employee self-management for improved competitiveness, leading to a need for employees at all levels to develop self-leadership skills (Chaijukul, 2010) The concept of self-management has been extensively explored in managerial literature, encouraging executives to implement these principles and nurture their teams (Manz & Sims, 1980; Cohen et al., 1997; Castaneda et al., 1999; Neck & Houghton, 2006) Allred et al (as cited in Castaneda et al., 1999) emphasize that self-management skills are essential for success in 21st-century careers In the tourism and hospitality industry, management styles that are directive or arbitrary can negatively impact organizational performance, highlighting the importance of cultivating self-managed, independent, and socially adept employees (Kusluvan et al., 2003).
The performance and efficiency of HR functions are significantly influenced by four key skills and an individual's willingness to adhere to rules (p.39) Karoly (1993) emphasizes the importance of high self-management, interpersonal awareness, and collaborative abilities However, Vietnam's tourism and hospitality sector operates within a high power distance culture (Hofstede, as cited in Swierczek & Thai, 2003), characterized by hierarchical and autocratic management styles This creates a clear distinction between subordinates and managers, with performance evaluations strictly aligned to bureaucratic norms Consequently, employees often have limited opportunities to exercise their leadership and self-management skills (Quang & Vuong, 2002) To enhance employee autonomy and maximize their potential, tourism and hospitality organizations in Vietnam and across Asia face the challenge of fostering a work environment that encourages self-management and performance outcomes.
Numerous studies have explored subordinates' perceptions regarding self-management, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job performance, yet they often analyze these concepts in isolation (Kusluvan, 2003; Seibert et al., 2004; Neck & Houghton, 2006; Chaijukul, 2010) Research focusing on these issues within Vietnam, characterized by a high power distance culture, remains limited Notable works include Schwenkel and Leshkowich (2012), who examined self-management in public and private organizations under neoliberalism, and Tran and Hanh (2012), who investigated factors affecting diabetes self-management among adults with type 2 diabetes in Vietnam Additionally, Dang (2010) explored learner autonomy in English as a Foreign Language studies.
This research investigates the reciprocal influence of self-management on psychological empowerment and self-efficacy, and subsequently examines its impact on job performance within the tourism and hospitality industry in Vietnam.
Research objectives
This study aims to explore how self-management influences psychological empowerment and self-efficacy, ultimately affecting job performance among employees in Ho Chi Minh City's tourism and hospitality sector in Vietnam Specifically, it investigates the interconnectedness of these factors within this industry context.
- The relationship between self-management and psychological empowerment;
- The relationship between self-management and self-efficacy;
- The relationship between psychological empowerment and job performance;
- The relationship between self-efficacy and job performance;
- The relationship between self-management and job performance.
Research methodology and research scope
This research involved two phases: a qualitative study and a quantitative study The questionnaire was translated from English to Vietnamese, and in-depth interviews with six participants were conducted to refine the items to better reflect Vietnamese cultural characteristics and enhance the official questionnaire For the quantitative phase, data was gathered using a convenience sampling method and a self-administered survey The collected data was analyzed using SPSS 16 and Amos 22, with Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) employed to assess reliability and validity, followed by Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to evaluate the proposed model.
This research focuses on Vietnamese employees in the tourism and hospitality industry in Ho Chi Minh City, one of Vietnam's largest cities, where many travel agencies and hotels are concentrated The study's respondents include tour guides, tour operators, and hotel staff.
Research significance
Research findings indicate that Vietnamese organization managers should focus their positioning strategies not only on management but also on subordinates Additionally, it is crucial for organizations to implement effective human resource management (HRM) strategies that promote employee self-management and improve job performance within the tourism and hospitality industry.
Research structure
This thesis is structured into five chapters The introduction outlines the research background, problem, objectives, significance to management practice, and methodology for data analysis The second chapter reviews relevant literature, synthesizing theories on job performance, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and self-management, while also presenting the conceptual model and hypotheses The third chapter details the research methodology employed to empirically test the model Chapter four showcases the data analysis results and discusses their relevance to the research questions and hypotheses The final chapter concludes with insights on the research hypotheses and problems, offers implications for theories and policies, and identifies limitations for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Job performance
Job performance is a crucial dependent construct that encompasses the overall expected value derived from an employee's behaviors over time (Motowidlo et al., 1997) It extends beyond mere abilities outlined in job descriptions to emphasize behaviors that enhance organizational effectiveness Job performance can be categorized into task performance and contextual performance, forming a process that translates employee behavior into organizational value Service organizations must evaluate both work-related outcomes and performance-related behaviors to assess service performance effectively (George, as cited in Huang & Hsuch, 2014) Additionally, Newman and Maylor (as cited in Huang & Hsuch, 2004) created measurement scales for job performance, distinguishing between behavioral performance (such as attendance and work quality) and service performance (including customer satisfaction and return rates) In the tourism and hospitality sectors, the interaction between service providers and customers hinges on employees' capabilities, motivation, and commitment to meeting customer needs, significantly impacting organizational outcomes.
Effective management of employee attitudes and behaviors is crucial for the success of tourism and hospitality organizations, as highlighted by Fulford & Enz (cited in Patah et al., 2009) and supported by Kusluvan (2003).
To ensure high-quality service delivery in Vietnam's tourism and hospitality sector, organizations must establish appropriate criteria that promote employee behaviors aligned with desired outcomes This study emphasizes behavioral performance, as it provides insights into specific subordinate behaviors that enhance engagement and contribute to key organizational outcomes, including productivity, efficiency, and quality.
Psychological empowerment
Empowerment is understood as a social process that enables individuals to gain control over themselves (Page & Czuba, 1999) Research indicates that sharing power and control between managers and subordinates can enhance organizational effectiveness (Kanter, 1979) Many scholars equate empowerment with the delegation of power (Conger & Kanungo, 1988), yet it is a broader concept that encompasses individual psychological experiences (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Thomas & Velthouse, 1990) Furthermore, the true benefits of empowerment lie in fostering internal behaviors that help employees perceive their own empowerment (Wilkinson, 1998; Siegal & Gardner, 2000) According to expectancy theory, enhancing subordinates' motivation is essential for increasing their effort in achieving organizational goals.
9 task would lead to the expected performance and that expected performance would lead to desired outcomes
This study emphasizes psychological empowerment, a concept that has received less focus compared to its structural counterpart Drawing on Thomas and Velthouse (1990), Spreitzer (1995) defines psychological empowerment as a set of motivational cognitions influenced by the work environment, reflecting an individual's active engagement in their work role The research validates scales measuring four key constructs of psychological empowerment: impact, meaning, competence, and self-determination In the tourism and hospitality industry, meaning pertains to the significance of work goals to employees, while competence relates to an individual's confidence in their ability to feel empowered Self-determination assesses employees' autonomy in initiating and maintaining work behaviors, and impact gauges the extent to which an individual can affect strategic, administrative, or operational outcomes at work.
Research shows that components such as perceived control, competence, and goal internalization significantly influence managerial effectiveness and innovative behaviors In the tourism and hospitality industry, psychological empowerment is a growing concern, as highlighted by studies from Patah et al (2009) and Chiang & Hsieh (2012) These researchers note that customers come from diverse backgrounds—varying in culture, age, gender, and education—which leads to differing expectations of service quality Consequently, even with standardized processes, predicting customer responses during service operations remains challenging for travel and hospitality organizations Psychological empowerment reflects the extent to which employees can influence customer experiences.
To enhance service quality in the tourism and hospitality sectors, managers should empower their subordinates to make quicker decisions Although the concept of psychological empowerment may be new to many Vietnamese managers, it plays a crucial role in improving employee performance Exploring Spreitzer's (1995) four-dimensional constructs of psychological empowerment is particularly relevant for the service industry in Vietnam, as it can lead to more effective management and better customer experiences.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is the belief in one's ability to organize and execute behaviors necessary for achieving specific goals (Bandura, 1982) It reflects confidence in handling tasks and environmental challenges According to Bandura and other researchers, self-efficacy is influenced by two key expectancies: outcome expectancies, which are beliefs about the results of certain behaviors, and self-efficacy expectancy, which is the belief in one's capability to perform those behaviors Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995) developed a ten-item Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale to measure this optimistic self-belief, emphasizing successful coping and stable internal attributions for success Additionally, Karatepe et al (as cited in Kusluvan, 2003) found that traits like competitiveness, self-efficacy, and effort significantly predict the performance of frontline employees.
In the hospitality industry, employees often interact directly with customers, making personal confidence crucial for effectively addressing customer needs and concerns Therefore, the self-efficacy of subordinates emerges as a significant factor worthy of exploration in this study.
Self-management
Self-management, also known as self-control or self-leadership, refers to the proactive regulation by employees of their work environment and personal behaviors, leading to productive, goal-oriented actions (Cohen et al., 1997) This concept emphasizes the individual application of behavior change strategies to achieve desired outcomes, highlighting the importance of employees taking responsibility for their actions and decision-making processes.
Self-management is a crucial process that enables individuals to achieve personal goals and effectively influence others As noted by Aldag et al (1983), it involves the ability to proactively shape situations and manage one's own destiny This process empowers individuals to employ appropriate behavioral and cognitive strategies for self-guidance and motivation, leading to successful task completion (Manz & Sims, 1980; Manz & Neck, 2004) Essentially, self-management encompasses taking personal accountability and fostering a stimulating work environment by retaining self-directed and talented individuals (Gapp, 2004) Covey (as cited in Bergen et al., 2002) emphasizes the importance of practicing self-management consistently.
The "principle-centered, character-based" agenda emphasizes seven essential habits for personal and professional growth Firstly, it advocates for choosing the right means and ends in life while taking personal responsibility for one's actions Secondly, it stresses the importance of being goal-oriented Thirdly, it encourages prioritizing tasks effectively to maintain balance Fourthly, it promotes a win/win mindset in interactions Fifthly, it highlights the need to become a better listener Lastly, it emphasizes continuous self-improvement and striving for excellence.
12 generate teamwork among individuals with unique abilities and potential Value differences; (7) have self-renewal (mental, spiritual, social/emotional, and physical)
Increasing employee self-management can significantly reduce organizational costs in terms of both time and money compared to traditional management approaches (Luthans & Kreitner, 2002; Manz & Sims, 1980; Kirkman et al., 1996) It is considered essential for effective management, as a lack of self-management can lead to poor task performance and diminished employee ownership of their roles (Luthans & David, 1979) Therefore, developing self-management skills not only benefits individual employees but also enhances overall organizational performance (Manz & Sims, 1980).
Self-management, a concept evolved from the self-control theories of Thoresen & Mahoney and Mills, has gained prominence over the last fifty years In self-managing environments, employees take on responsibilities traditionally held by managers, such as exhibiting desirable behaviors, following personal instructions, and controlling performance outcomes This shift empowers individuals to engage actively in hiring, socializing, developing, and rewarding processes within their roles Manz & Sims developed a self-management model comprising six key components: self-observation, self-goal setting, self-reinforcement, self-criticism, self-expectation, and self-rehearsal, measured by a 22-item scale In the tourism and hospitality industry, self-observation plays a crucial role by providing insights into individual performance and activities, facilitating necessary corrections.
Self-goal setting defines specific objectives for tasks, while self-reinforcement and self-criticism enable employees to manage their own rewards and assessments, fostering desirable behaviors and minimizing undesirable ones Self-expectation aligns employees' actions with their projected self-image and social identity Additionally, self-rehearsal prepares employees for tasks in advance These concepts are creatively applied across various management fields, including services and manufacturing, for both individuals and teams, serving as essential criteria to cultivate autonomy, self-motivation, and self-leadership among employees.
Self-management is increasingly vital for employees in the tourism and hospitality industry, especially in the context of modern managerial styles that prioritize flexibility over traditional hierarchies (Kusluwan, 2003) In Vietnam, where managers often limit opportunities for subordinates to develop self-management skills (Quang & Vuong, 2002), understanding the impact of self-management on job performance becomes essential This study aims to explore how self-management influences employee performance within this dynamic sector.
Self-management, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job performance
Numerous studies have explored the connections between self-management, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job performance across individual, team, and organizational levels According to Manz and Sims (1980), self-management by employees plays a crucial role in enhancing their own capabilities Additionally, research by Cohen et al (1997), Karoly (1993), Luthans and David (1979), Neck and Houghton (2006), and Chaijukul (2010) underscores the importance of these factors in driving overall job performance.
(1979), and Bergen et al (2002) state that by taking an active role of self-regulating, subordinates can set their own goals, monitor confident behaviors and self-rewarding for goal achievement
Neck and Houghton (2006) introduced the self-leadership performance mechanism model, illustrating how self-leadership strategies, such as self-management and natural reward strategies, positively influence performance outcomes like psychological empowerment, trust, creativity, and self-efficacy across all organizational levels Research by Seibert et al (2011) highlights that managerial practices and self-management are key factors that foster employees' feelings of psychological empowerment Furthermore, historical studies indicate that psychological empowerment often results from effective self-management (Spreitzer, 1995; Ryles, 1999) Notably, Reynolds (2002) found in the tourism and hospitality sector that employee self-management significantly predicts psychological empowerment.
According to Sarkar et al (2006), self-efficacy strongly associates with self-management across both race/ethnicity and health literacy levels Self-efficacy is believed by Lorig et al
Self-management significantly influences an individual's self-confidence and self-control regarding their capabilities and actions Bandura (1982) emphasizes that a person's belief in their ability to perform tasks enhances their self-efficacy Research by Chaijukul (2010) in Thai private organizations, similar to those in Vietnam, demonstrates that self-management directly impacts self-efficacy Thus, the literature supports the hypothesis that self-management is crucial for enhancing self-efficacy.
H1 Employee self-management has a positive impact on psychological empowerment H2 Employee self-management has a positive impact on self-efficacy
Job performance reflects an individual's direct and indirect contributions to organizational goals, influenced by various factors (Covey, as cited in Bergen et al., 2002) Research indicates a strong positive relationship between self-management and job performance, with Neck and Houghton (2006) emphasizing its significant impact Studies by Kolz et al (1998) and Latham et al (2008) further demonstrate that cognitive abilities, including self-management skills, correlate positively with job performance In the tourism and hospitality industry, self-management is considered a crucial internal competency that enhances employees' ability to perform effectively (Kusluvan, as cited in Kusluvan et al., 2003).
Psychological empowerment is defined as a set of cognitions that fosters intrinsic motivation, significantly influencing employee job satisfaction and in-role performance (Thomas & Velthouse, 1990) Each dimension of empowerment correlates positively with high performance, as empowered individuals experience self-efficacy, leading to increased innovation and a greater expectation of success in their work (Redmon et al.).
Research indicates that psychological empowerment is positively correlated with work unit performance Employees who experience a high level of empowerment tend to exhibit strong self-esteem, leading to improved professional performance and career advancement Additionally, a study by Seibert et al (2004) suggests a notable relationship between psychological empowerment and individual performance.
Psychological empowerment significantly influences job performance, as it fosters feelings of loyalty and enhances perceived productivity (Fulford & Enz, 1995; Kirkman & Rosen, 1999) This concept can be defined as motivational cognitions that encapsulate an employee's proactive engagement, ultimately driving individual performance.
Research by Conger et al (1988) and Block highlights that employees who boost their self-efficacy can enhance their performance outcomes Bandura (1982) supports this by showing that higher perceived self-efficacy correlates with improved performance accomplishments Studies by Stajkovic et al (1998) and Locke et al (1984) confirm a significant link between self-efficacy and work-related performance Seibert et al (2004) further emphasize the critical role of psychological empowerment and self-efficacy in mediating the effects of leadership, self-management, and work design on job performance and employee commitment Prussia et al (1998) demonstrate a strong relationship between self-leadership behaviors and self-efficacy, with self-efficacy fully mediating the link to work performance Chaijukul (2010) extends this by showing that self-leadership, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job satisfaction collectively influence job performance, while psychological empowerment and self-efficacy mediate the relationship between self-leadership and job performance Therefore, tourism and hospitality organizations should focus on enhancing employees' self-management competencies to leverage psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job performance effectively This study aims to test these hypotheses while excluding the mediating roles of psychological empowerment and self-efficacy.
H3 Psychological empowerment has a positive impact on job performance
H4 Self-efficacy has a positive impact on job performance
H5 Self-management has a positive impact on job performance
Conceptual model
The conceptual model illustrated in Figure 1 highlights the significant influence of self-management on psychological empowerment and self-efficacy, ultimately enhancing job performance among employees in the tourism and hospitality industry It suggests that effective self-management leads to improved psychological empowerment and self-efficacy, which in turn positively affects overall job performance.
These are all hypotheses that were proposed in the study:
H1 Employee self-management has a positive impact on psychological empowerment H2 Employee self-management has a positive impact on self-efficacy
H3 Psychological empowerment has a positive impact on job performance
H4 Self-efficacy has a positive impact on job performance
H5 Self-management has a positive impact on job performance
This chapter provides a theoretical foundation for the concepts within the model, highlighting the impact of six self-management dimensions—self-observation, self-goal setting, self-reinforcement, self-criticism, self-expectation, and self-rehearsal—on psychological empowerment and self-efficacy It also examines how these factors, along with self-management, influence job performance The relationships among these variables have been validated by numerous scholars, leading to the formulation of five research hypotheses The following chapter will outline the methodology employed to analyze the data and test these hypotheses.
METHODOLOGY
Research design
The tourism and hospitality industry, characterized by intangibility, inseparability, variability, and perishability, necessitates employees to possess strong self-management competencies to excel in their roles (Kotler et al., 2006; Kusluvan et al., 2003) To investigate this, a two-phase study was conducted in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam's largest urban center, where many travel agencies and hotels are located The research included a qualitative study through in-depth interviews with six employees from various sectors within the industry, such as hotels, restaurants, and travel agencies The survey questionnaire was initially created in English and subsequently translated into Vietnamese with assistance from English experts Each interview was held in convenient locations, and the researcher engaged with participants by reading measurement scale items and clarifying any misunderstandings to enhance comprehension and gather valuable feedback.
20 interviewee The in-depth interviews followed by one by one until the researcher got no more suggestions
Following the feedback from respondents, the survey questionnaire was revised for clarity and comprehension (refer to Appendices A, B, and C) Subsequently, a self-administered quantitative survey utilizing convenience sampling was executed to gather data for testing the research hypotheses.
Research Model & Hypotheses Literature Review
Participants completed a survey using a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from "strongly disagree" (1) to "strongly agree" (7) The questionnaire was distributed through electronic mail, Google surveys, and hard copies Data analysis was conducted using SPSS and AMOS to evaluate the measurement and structural models.
As mentioned above, the final questionnaires consisted of four measurement scales: self- management, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job performance
Job performance was measured by five items, accessing quality, productivity, and quality of work life, costs, & safety (Becker et al., 1996)
Job Performance (adapted from Becker et al., 1996) Coding
1 I completed work in a timely and effective manner JobP1
2 I completed tasks in an unsatisfactory manner (reverse-coded) JobP2
3 I feel happy with my quality of work JobP3
4 I did my job better than others JobP4
5 Overall, I satisfied with my job performance JobP5
The Psychological Empowerment Instrument (PEI), developed by Spreitzer in 1995, was adapted for the Vietnamese context by removing irrelevant items and enhancing clarity for respondents This measurement scale encompasses four key components: meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact Specifically, the meaning component is assessed through three items that capture the value of one's work.
The study assessed employee engagement through three key dimensions: goal clarity, competence, and autonomy Competence was evaluated based on individual beliefs in their capabilities, while autonomy focused on self-determination in initiating and sustaining work behaviors Additionally, the impact was measured by the extent to which employees can influence strategic, administrative, or operational outcomes in their roles.
Psychological Empowerment (adapted from Spreitzer, 1995) Coding Meaning
1 The work I do very important to me PEMean1
2 My job activities are personally meaningful to me PEMean2
3 In general, the work I do is meaningful to me PEMean3
1 I am confident about my ability to do my job PECom1
2 I am self-assured that I am well trained to perform my work activities PECom2
3 I have mastered the skills necessary for my job PECom3
1 I have significant autonomy in determining how I do my job PESelfD1
2 I can decide my own how to go about doing my work PESelfD2
3 I have considerable opportunity for independence and freedom in how I do my job
1 My impact about hierarchical structure & information on what happens on my department is large
2 I have a great deal of control about hierarchical structure & information over what happens in my department
3 I have significant influences about hierarchical structure & information over what happens in my department
The scale items, which were adapted from the ten scales of Schwarzer and Jerusalem
In 1995, a set of items was developed to assess self-efficacy, reflecting a general sense of perceived self-efficacy characterized by optimistic self-belief Each item focuses on successful coping strategies and suggests an internal and stable attribution of success.
Self-efficacy (adapted from Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995) Coding
1 It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my goals SelfE1
2 I am confident about my abilities to deal with unexpected events SelfE2
3 When I am confronted with a problem, I can usually find several solutions SelfE3
4 If I am in trouble, I can usually think of a solution SelfE4
The measurement scales for the six components of self-management, developed by Manz and Sims (1987), include self-expectation, self-rehearsal, self-goal setting, self-criticism, self-reinforcement, and self-observation/evaluation, and have been adapted to align with Vietnamese cultural characteristics Self-observation is assessed through three items that capture individual performance and activities for corrective action Self-goal setting is measured by three items that define specific task-related goals Both self-reinforcement and self-criticism are evaluated using six items, with three dedicated to each component, focusing on the self-administration of rewards and critiques to enhance desirable behaviors and mitigate undesirable ones Self-expectation is gauged through three items that ensure employees' actions align with their self-image and projected social identity, while self-rehearsal is also measured by three items to prepare employees in advance for their tasks.
Self-management (adapted from Manz & Sims, 1987) Coding
1 I am aware of level of my performance SMObserv1
2 I know how my performance stands SMObserv2
3 I judge how well I am performing SMObserv3
1 I can define organization goals SMGoal1
2 I can establish task goals SMGoal2
3 I can set goals for personal performance SMGoal3
1 My colleagues praise each other if we have done a job well SMReinf1
2 My colleagues praise each other for good job SMReinf2
3 I feel good about myself if I do a good job SMReinf3
1 If my performance on a job is below par, I am critical of myself SECritic1
2 I am tough of myself if my performance is not up to standard SECritic2
3 I am critical when I do poorly SECritic3
1 I think I can do very well in my job SEExpect1
2 I expect high performance from myself SEExpect2
3 I expect a lot from myself SEExpect3
1 I always go over activity before I attempt it SERehears1
2 I always practice new task before I do it the first time SERehears2
3 I always think how to do a job before I do a job SERehears3
Finally, the completed questionnaire in English version and Vietnamese version were presented in Appendix D and E h
Quantitative study
The study will evaluate the proposed model and hypotheses using data gathered from employees in the tourism and hospitality sector Given time constraints, a convenience sampling method will be employed, utilizing self-administered questionnaires distributed in Ho Chi Minh City.
When determining sample size, it is crucial to ensure that it is sufficiently large to achieve statistical significance According to Hair et al (2009), the minimum sample size required for valid statistical analysis should be at least five times the number of variables involved, ensuring robust and reliable results.
The study utilized a model comprising thirty-nine variables, necessitating a sample size of at least 195 observations, derived from distributing 397 questionnaires to participants Ultimately, 371 responses were collected from 62 travel agencies and hotels, resulting in a high response rate of approximately 93.45 percent.
Table 3.1 Source of data collection Source Distributed Collected Response rate Eliminated Valid
A total of 35 questionnaires were deemed invalid due to various reasons: 17 respondents were not affiliated with the tourism and hospitality industry, 8 respondents selected the same option for all questions, and 10 surveys were returned unanswered Ultimately, 336 questionnaires were retained as valid data for this research, which is considered satisfactory in relation to the minimum sample size required.
The author utilized SPSS 16 to calculate Cronbach’s alpha and Amos 20 for conducting Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to assess the reliability of each measurement component and the validity of all scales The reliability among constructs was evaluated using composite reliability (CR), while convergent validity was determined through average variance extracted (AVE) and discriminant validity was assessed via correlation between items (r) For effective measurement, Cronbach’s alpha for each construct should be a minimum of 0.6, factor loading should be at least 0.5, the minimum AVE value should be 0.5, and composite reliability should exceed 0.7 In cases where convergent and discriminant validity were not met, inappropriate items would be removed, and CFA would indicate model fit if CMIN/DF was less than the threshold.
The analysis of model fit utilized various indices, including the comparative fit index (CFI), which assesses the discrepancy between observed data and the hypothesized model while addressing sample size issues inherent in the chi-squared test A CFI value of 0.90 or higher is typically regarded as indicative of acceptable model fit Additionally, the non-normed fit index (NNFI), also known as the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), mitigates negative bias, although NNFI values can occasionally exceed the 0 to 1 range Both the normed fit index (NFI) and NNFI should ideally fall between 0 and 1, with a threshold of 0.95 or greater signifying a good model fit Furthermore, the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) addresses sample size concerns by comparing the hypothesized model with optimally selected parameter estimates against the population covariance matrix, with a value of 0.06 or less considered acceptable.
The study demonstrated an acceptable model fit, with an RMSEA value below 8% (Tho & Trang, 2008) Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to evaluate the hypothesized model and calculate the path coefficients for each proposed relationship Additionally, bootstrapping was utilized to reassess the model's suitability and reliability.
The study utilized four measurement scales to establish convergent and discriminant validity, which were analyzed through Confirmatory Factor Analysis prior to testing the hypothesized model using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) The first-order constructs identified were self-efficacy and job performance Additionally, the second-order construct of self-management comprised six sub-components: self-observation, self-goal setting, self-reinforcement, self-criticism, self-expectation, and self-rehearsal Psychological empowerment was also defined as a second-order construct, consisting of four sub-components: meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact.
This chapter outlines the research process, including the construction of measurement scales, sample size calculation, and data analysis methods The study was conducted in two phases: a qualitative phase involving in-depth interviews, followed by a quantitative phase with a main survey The in-depth interviews facilitated modifications to the measurement scale, leading to slight adjustments in the questionnaire prior to the quantitative survey The main survey yielded 336 valid questionnaires for data analysis using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) The subsequent chapter will focus on the data analysis results from the main survey.
DATA ANALYSIS
Respondents’ demographics
The data collected from 62 travel agencies and hotels in Ho Chi Minh City were analyzed using SPSS, revealing key demographic insights summarized in Table 4.1 The analysis showed that 30.1% of respondents came from 19 travel agencies, while 69.9% were from 43 hotels, with a total of 138 and 198 respondents, respectively Gender distribution was relatively balanced, with females representing 55.4% and males 44.6% Notably, a significant portion of the respondents, 64.6%, were young individuals aged 24 to 30, highlighting the youthful nature of the current labor force in the tourism and hospitality industry.
51 years old, with 7.4% respondents were between 19 and 23 years old, 25.9% people were from
Among the respondents, 1.2% were aged between 41 to 50 years, while only 0.9% were older than 50 The monthly income of most participants was relatively low, primarily ranging from 6 million VND to over 13.99 million VND.
A recent survey revealed that the average monthly income of respondents is 29 million VND, with 32.4% earning between 9 to 13.99 million VND and 29.5% earning less than 6 million VND Additionally, 32.4% of respondents reported incomes ranging from 6 to 8.99 million VND, while 18.2% earned more than 14 million VND per month Notably, most individuals in these income brackets are university graduates, indicating a strong understanding of self-management skills among them.
Demographic profile Category Frequency Percentage (%)
4.2.1 CFA for the first-order constructs
Self-efficacy was assessed using four items, and the initial confirmatory factor analysis (C
Figure 4.1 CFA model of Self-Efficacy h
Table 4.2 The first run of CFA (of Self-efficacy and Job performance)
In the initial confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for the job performance construct, the standardized regression weights for JobP1, JobP2, JobP3, and JobP5 were above 0.5, specifically 0.83, 0.81, 0.85, and 0.82, respectively Despite the strong fit of these estimates, JobP4 exhibited a non-significant factor loading of 0.28, which is below the acceptable threshold Consequently, JobP4 was removed from the model, resulting in the job performance construct being effectively measured by the four items: JobP1, JobP2, JobP3, and JobP5, as illustrated in Figure 4.2.
The CFA model of Job Performance was evaluated by the author through the assessment of reliability and convergent validity, utilizing Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability metrics The standardized loadings for the performance constructs exceeded the acceptable threshold of 0.7, indicating robust first-order constructs.
Figure 4.2 CFA model of Job Performance For each construct, the author tested the reliability and convergent validity by calculating composite reliability (CR) and averaged variance extracted (AVE)
Cronbach’α, composite reliability of self-efficacy and job performance were larger than 0.7 (0.78 and 0.90; 0.79 and 0.90 respectively) Thus, reliability of onstructs was acceptable
Summarized of CR, AVE and Cronbach’α (first order constructs)
JobP5 0.82 omposite reliability; AVE: averaged variance extracted
For each construct, the author tested the reliability and convergent validity by calculating
(AVE) values based on efficacy and job 0.79 and 0.90 respectively) Thus, reliability of
(first order constructs) Reliability (CR; AVE)
Cronbach’α=0.78 CR=0.79 AVE=0.55 Cronbach’α=0.90 CR=0.90 AVE=0.69 h
The initial run of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) revealed a low averaged variance extracted (AVE) value for self-efficacy at 0.49, which improved to above 0.5 in the second run following the removal of SelfE1 In contrast, the AVE for Job Performance was strong at 0.69 Overall, the CFA model for the first-order constructs of self-efficacy and job performance demonstrated a good fit with the data, as detailed in Table 4.3.
4.2.2 CFA for second-order constructs
The second-order construct of self-management includes six key sub-components: self-observation, self-goal setting, self-reinforcement, self-criticism, self-expectation, and self-rehearsal The initial run of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) demonstrated a good fit for the model, with a Chi-square value of 41.836, degrees of freedom of 0, and a p-value of 000 The model's fit indices were also strong, featuring a Chi-square/df ratio of 2.849, CFI of 960, TLI of 949, NFI of 940, and RMSEA of 074 Additionally, all items exhibited significant factor loading greater than 0.5, confirming the validity of the construct.
Figure 4.3 CFA model of Self Examining the reliability of self
(CR) values of all sub-components were high (>0.80)
The CFA model of Self-Management demonstrates strong reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability scores exceeding 0.80 Additionally, the analysis confirms robust convergent validity, indicating that the components of self-management are effectively measuring the intended constructs.
The averaged variance extracted (AVE) values for the sub-components of self-management were significant, exceeding 0.5 Furthermore, the correlations between each pair of sub-components were below 0.8, with significance at the 0.001 level These results affirm the reliability, convergent validity, and within-construct discriminant validity of the measurements (Refer to Tables 4.4 and 4.5 for details.)
Table 4.4 Summarized of CR, AVE and Cronbach’α (self-management)
Notes: CR: composite reliability; AVE: averaged variance extracted h
Table 4.5 Correlations (of Self-Management)
SMObserv SMGoal 0.75(0.036) SMObserv SMReinf 0.77(0.035) SMObserv SECritic 0.53(0.046) SMObserv SEExpect 0.61(0.043) SMObserv SERehears 0.61(0.044)
SMGoal SECritic 0.53(0.046) SMGoal SEExpect 0.63(0.043) SMGoal SERehears 0.61(0.043) SMReinf SECritic 0.61(0.043) SMReinf SEExpect 0.66(0.041) SMReinf SERehears 0.70(0.039) SECritic SEExpect 0.77(0.035) SECritic SERehears 0.77(0.035) SEExpect SERehears 0.78(0.034) Note: r(SE): correlations with standard errors
The same as self-management, the model of psychological empowerment fitted data well for the first run of CFA (Chi-square.368; dfH; Chi-square/df=1.966; P=.000; CFI=.987; TLI=.982; NFI=.974; RMSEA=.054) h
Figure 4.4 CFA model of Psychological Empowerment
Figure 4.4 CFA model of Psychological Empowerment Figure 4.4 CFA model of Psychological Empowerment h
The author confirmed the reliability of psychological empowerment, with Cronbach’s α and composite reliability (CR) values exceeding 0.80 for all sub-components The average variance extracted (AVE) values for these sub-components were also acceptable, surpassing 0.5, indicating strong convergent validity Furthermore, the correlations between each pair of sub-components were below 0.8 and significant at the 0.001 level, supporting the reliability, convergent validity, and within-construct discriminant validity of the measurement.
Table 4.6 Summarized of CR, AVE and Cronbach’α (Psychological Empowerment)
Standardized loadings Reliability (CR; AVE)
Notes: CR: composite reliability; AVE: averaged variance extracted h
Table 4.7 Correlation (of Psychological Empowerment)
Note: r(SE): correlations with standard errors
4.2.3 CFA for the final measurement model
In the final measurement model of the CFA, the author excluded SelfE1 and JobP4 due to their factor loadings being below 0.5 (0.39 and 0.28, respectively) Self-efficacy was assessed using three observed items: SelfE2, SelfE3, and SelfE4, while job performance was evaluated with JobP1, JobP2, JobP3, and JobP5 This approach ensured the retention of content validity for the constructs Additionally, the final measurement model demonstrated a good fit to the data, with significant and substantial factor loadings for the remaining items of both first and second-order constructs, exceeding 0.5 (p