I Advanced Microwave Circuits and Systems Advanced Microwave Circuits and Systems Edited by Vitaliy Zhurbenko In-Tech intechweb.org Published by In-Teh In-Teh Olajnica 19/2, 32000 Vukovar, Croatia Abstracting and non-prot use of the material is permitted with credit to the source. Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published articles. Publisher assumes no responsibility liability for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained inside. After this work has been published by the In-Teh, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are an author or editor, and the make other personal use of the work. © 2010 In-teh www.intechweb.org Additional copies can be obtained from: publication@intechweb.org First published April 2010 Printed in India Technical Editor: Sonja Mujacic Cover designed by Dino Smrekar Advanced Microwave Circuits and Systems, Edited by Vitaliy Zhurbenko p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-087-2 V Preface This book is based on recent research work conducted by the authors dealing with the design and development of active and passive microwave components, integrated circuits and systems. It is divided into seven parts. In the rst part comprising the rst two chapters, alternative concepts and equations for multiport network analysis and characterization are provided. A thru-only de-embedding technique for accurate on-wafer characterization is introduced. The second part of the book corresponds to the analysis and design of ultra-wideband low- noise ampliers (LNA). The LNA is the most critical component in a receiving system. Its performance determines the overall system sensitivity because it is the rst block to amplify the received signal from the antenna. Hence, for the achievement of high receiver performance, the LNA is required to have a low noise gure with good input matching as well as sufcient gain in a wide frequency range of operation, which is very difcult to achieve. Most circuits demonstrated are not stable across the frequency band, which makes these ampliers prone to self-oscillations and therefore limit their applicability. The trade-off between noise gure, gain, linearity, bandwidth, and power consumption, which generally accompanies the LNA design process, is discussed in this part. The requirement from an amplier design differs for different applications. A power amplier is a type of amplier which drives the antenna of a transmitter. Unlike LNA, a power amplier is usually optimized to have high output power, high efciency, optimum heat dissipation and high gain. The third part of this book presents power amplier designs through a series of design examples. Designs undertaken include a switching mode power amplier, Doherty power amplier, and exible power amplier architectures. In addition, distortion analysis and power combining techniques are considered. Another key element in most microwave systems is a signal generator. It forms the heart of all kinds of communication and radar systems. The fourth part of this book is dedicated to signal generators such as voltage-controlled oscillators and electron devices for millimeter wave and submillimeter wave applications. This part also covers studies of integrated buffer circuits. Passive components are indispensable elements of any electronic system. The increasing demands to miniaturization and cost effectiveness push currently available technologies to the limits. Some considerations to meet the growing requirements are provided in the fth part of this book. The following part deals with circuits based on LTCC and MEMS technologies. VI The book concludes with chapters considering application of microwaves in measurement and sensing systems. This includes topics related to six-port reectometers, remote network analysis, inverse scattering for microwave imaging systems, spectroscopy for medical applications and interaction with transponders in medical sensors. Editor Vitaliy Zhurbenko VII Contents Preface V 1. Mixed-modeS-parametersandConversionTechniques 001 AllanHuynh,MagnusKarlssonandShaofangGong 2. Athru-onlyde-embeddingmethodforon-wafer characterizationofmultiportnetworks 013 ShuheiAmakawa,NoboruIshiharaandKazuyaMasu 3. CurrentreusetopologyinUWBCMOSLNA 033 TARISThierry 4. Multi-BlockCMOSLNADesignforUWBWLANTransform-Domain ReceiverLossofOrthogonality 059 MohamedZebdi,DanielMassicotteandChristianJesusB.Fayomi 5. FlexiblePowerAmplierArchitecturesforSpectrum EfcientWirelessApplications 073 AlessandroCidronali,IacopoMagriniandGianfrancoManes 6. TheDohertyPowerAmplier 107 PaoloColantonio,FrancoGiannini,RoccoGiofrèandLucaPiazzon 7. DistortioninRFPowerAmpliersandAdaptiveDigitalBase-BandPredistortion 133 MazenAbiHussein,YideWangandBrunoFeuvrie 8. Spatialpowercombiningtechniquesforsemiconductorpowerampliers 159 ZenonR.Szczepaniak 9. FieldPlateDevicesforRFPowerApplications 177 AlessandroChini 10. ImplementationofLowPhaseNoiseWide-BandVCOwith DigitalSwitchingCapacitors 199 Meng-TingHsu,Chien-TaChiuandShiao-HuiChen 11. IntercavityStimulatedScatteringinPlanarFEMasaBase forTwo-StageGenerationofSubmillimeterRadiation 213 AndreyArzhannikov VIII 12. Complementaryhigh-speedSiGeandCMOSbuffers 227 EsaTiiliharju 13. IntegratedPassivesforHigh-FrequencyApplications 249 XiaoyuMiandSatoshiUeda 14. ModelingofSpiralInductors 291 KenichiOkadaandKazuyaMasu 15. Mixed-DomainFastSimulationofRFandMicrowaveMEMS-based ComplexNetworkswithinStandardICDevelopmentFrameworks 313 JacopoIannacci 16. UltraWidebandMicrowaveMulti-PortReectometerinMicrostrip-SlotTechnology: Operation,DesignandApplications 339 MarekE.BialkowskiandNorhudahSeman 17. BroadbandComplexPermittivityDeterminationforBiomedicalApplications 365 RadimZajíˇcekandJanVrba 18. MicrowaveDielectricBehaviorofAyurvedicMedicines 387 S.R.Chaudhari,R.D.ChaudhariandJ.B.Shinde 19. AnalysisofPowerAbsorptionbyHumanTissueinDeeplyImplantable MedicalSensorTransponders 407 AndreasHennig,GerdvomBögel 20. UHFPowerTransmissionforPassiveSensorTransponders 421 TobiasFeldengut,StephanKolnsbergandRainerKokozinski 21. RemoteCharacterizationofMicrowaveNetworks-PrinciplesandApplications 437 SomnathMukherjee 22. SolvingInverseScatteringProblemsUsingTruncatedCosine FourierSeriesExpansionMethod 455 AbbasSemnaniandManoochehrKamyab 23. ElectromagneticSolutionsfortheAgriculturalProblems 471 HadiAliakbarian,AminEnayati,MaryamAshayerSoltani, HosseinAmeriMahabadiandMahmoudMoghavvemi Mixed-modeS-parametersandConversionTechniques 1 Mixed-modeS-parametersandConversionTechniques AllanHuynh,MagnusKarlssonandShaofangGong x Mixed-mode S-parameters and Conversion Techniques Allan Huynh, Magnus Karlsson and Shaofang Gong Linköping University Sweden 1. Introduction Differential signaling in analog circuits is an old technique that has been utilized for more than 50 years. During the last decades, it has also been becoming popular in digital circuit design, when low voltage differential signaling (LVDS) became common in high-speed digital systems. Today LVDS is widely used in advanced electronics such as laptop computers, test and measurement instrument, medical equipment and automotive. The reason is that with increased clock frequencies and short edge rise/fall times, crosstalk and electromagnetic interferences (EMI) appear to be critical problems in high-speed digital systems. Differential signaling is aimed to reduce EMI and noise issues in order to improve the signal quality. However, in traditional microwave theory, electric current and voltage are treated as single-ended and the S-parameters are used to describe single-ended signaling. This makes advanced microwave and RF circuit design and analysis difficult, when differential signaling is utilized in modern communication circuits and systems. This chapter introduces the technique to deal with differential signaling in microwave and millimeter wave circuits. 2. Differential Signal Differential signaling is a signal transmission method where the transmitting signal is sent in pairs with the same amplitude but with mutual opposite phases. The main advantage with the differential signaling is that any introduced noise equally affects both the differential transmission lines if the two lines are tightly coupled together. Since only the difference between the lines is considered, the introduced common-mode noise can be rejected at the receiver device. However, due to manufacturing imperfections, signal unbalance will occur resulting in that the energy will convert from differential-mode to common-mode and vice versa, which is known as cross-mode conversion. To damp the common-mode currents, a common-mode choke can be used (without any noticeable effect on the differential currents) to prevent radiated emissions from the differential lines. To produce the electrical field strength from microamperes of common-mode current, milliamperes of differential current are needed (Clayton, 2006). Moreover, the generated electric and magnetic fields from a differential line pair are more localized compared to 1 AdvancedMicrowaveCircuitsandSystems2 those from single-ended lines. Owing to the ability of noise rejection, the signal swing can be decreased compared to a single-ended design and thereby the power can be saved. When the signal on one line is independent of the signal on the adjacent line, i.e., an uncoupled differential pair, the structure does not utilize the full potential of a differential design. To fully utilize the differential design, it is beneficial to start by minimizing the spacing between two lines to create the coupling as strong as possible. Thereafter, the conductors width is adjusted to obtain the desired differential impedance. By doing this, the coupling between the differential line pair is maximized to give a better common-mode rejection. S-parameters are very commonly used when designing and verifying linear RF and microwave designs for impedance matching to optimize gain and minimize noise. Although, traditional S-parameter representation is a very powerful tool in circuit analysis and measurement, it is limited to single-ended RF and microwave designs. In 1995, Bockelman and Einsenstadt introduced the mixed-mode S-parameters to extend the theory to include differential circuits. However, owing to the coupling effects between the coupled differential transmission lines, the odd- and even-mode impedances are not equal to the unique characteristic impedance. This leads to the fact that a modified mixed-mode S- parameters representation is needed. In this chapter, by starting with the familiar concepts of coupling, crosstalk and terminations, mixed-mode S-parameters will be introduced. Furthermore, conversion techniques between different modes of S-parameters will be described. 2.1 Coupling and Crosstalk Like in single-ended signaling, differential transmission lines need to be correctly terminated, otherwise reflections arise and distortions are introduced into the system. In a system where parallel transmission lines exist, either in differential signaling or in parallel single-ended lines, line-to-line coupling arises and it will cause characteristic impedance variations. The coupling between the parallel single-ended lines is also known as crosstalk and it is related to the mutual inductance (L m ) and capacitance (C m ) existing between the lines. The induced crosstalk or noise can be described with a simple approximation as following ܸ ௦ ൌ ୫ ୢ୍ ౚ౨౬౨ ୢ୲ (1) ܫ ௦ ൌܥ ௗ ೝೡೝ ௗ௧ (2) where V noise and I noise are the induced voltage and current noises on the adjacent line and V driver and I driver are the driving voltage and current on the active line. Since both the voltage and current noises are induced by the rate of current and voltage changes, extra care is needed for high-speed applications. The coupling between the parallel lines depends firstly on the spacing between the lines and secondly on the signal pattern sent on the parallel lines. Two signal modes are defined, i.e., odd- and even-modes. The odd-mode is defined such that the driven signals in the two adjacent lines have the same amplitude but a 180 degree of relative phase, which can be related to differential signal. The even-mode is defined such that the driven signals in the two adjacent lines have the same amplitude and phase, which can be related to common- mode noise for a differential pair of signal. Fig. 1 shows the electric and magnetic field lines in the odd- and even-mode transmissions on the two parallel microstrips. Fig. 1a shows that the odd-mode signaling causes coupling due to the electric field between the microstrips, while in the even-mode shown in Fig 1b, there is no direct electric coupling between the lines. Fig. 1c shows that the magnetic field in the odd-mode has no coupling between the two lines while, as shown in Fig. 1d, in the even-mode the magnetic field is coupled between the two lines. a. electric field in odd-mode b. electric field in even-mode c. magnetic field in odd-mode d. magnetic field in even-mode Fig. 1. Odd- and even-mode electric and magnetic fields for two parallel microstrips. 2.2 Odd-mode The induced crosstalk or voltage noise in a pair of parallel transmission lines can be approximated with Equation 1. For the case of two parallel transmission lines the equation can be rewritten as following ܸ ଵ ൌܮ ௗூ భ ௗ௧ ܮ ௗூ మ ௗ௧ (3) ܸ ଶ ൌܮ ௗூ మ ௗ௧ ܮ ௗூ భ ௗ௧ (4) where L 0 is the equivalent lumped-self-inductance in the transmission line and L m is the mutual inductance arisen due to the coupling between the lines. Signal propagation in the odd-mode results in I 1 = -I 2 , since the current is always driven with equal magnitude but in opposite directions. Substituting it into Equations 3 and 4 yeilds ܸ ଵ ൌ ሺ ܮ െܮ ሻ ௗூ భ ௗ௧ (5) Current into the page Current out of the p a g e [...]... that Tmeas = TL Tdut TR , (1) Tthru = TL TR (2) The S-matrix and T-matrix of a 2-port are related to each other through S= T= S 11 S 21 S12 S22 T12 T22 T 11 T 21 = = 1 T 11 1 S 21 det T − T12 T 21 1 1 S 11 −S22 − det S Suppose now that the Y-matrix of the THRU is given by Ythru = y 11 y12 y12 y 11 , (3) (4) (5) Note that in (5), reciprocity (y 21 = y12 ) and reflection symmetry (y22 = y 11 ) are assumed (5) can... S12 + S22 ) , 2 11 ( 41) Seo = Se1o1 Se2o1 Se1o2 Se2o2 = 1 (S + S 21 − S12 − S22 ) , 2 11 (42) Soe = So1e1 So2e1 So1e2 So2e2 = 1 (S − S 21 + S12 − S22 ) , 2 11 (43) Soo = So1o1 So2o1 So1o2 So2o2 = 1 (S − S 21 − S12 + S22 ) 2 11 (44) = KVe/o SKVe/o , (40) If the 4-port in question is symmetrical about the horizontal line shown in Fig 7(a), the offdiagonal submatrices Seo and Soe are zero, meaning that the... 0 0 1 0 1/ 2 0 0 1 0 0 1/ 2 2 0 0 = KVe/o √ KVc/d = 1 0 1/ 2 0 0 0 1/ 2 0 √ 0 1 0 1/ 2 0 0 0 1/ 2 √ 1/ 2 0 0 0 1/ 2 0 1 0 √ 0 1/ 2 0 1 0 1/ 2 √ 0 0 = KVe/o KIc/d = 1/ 2 0 1 0 0 0 2 √ 0 0 1/ 2 0 1 0 0 0 2 Vc1 Ic1 I1 + I3 (V1 + V3 )/2 Vc2 (V2 + V4 )/2 Ic2 I2 + I4 , ic/d = vc/d = Vd1 = Id1 = ( I1 − I3 )/2 V1 −... consistent with the even mode and the odd mode used in microwave engineering (Pozar, 2005) and transmission line theory (Bakoglu, 19 90; Magnusson et al., 20 01) From (26), = 1 2 (34) KVe/o SKVe/o = Se/o S 11 + S 21 + S12 + S22 S 11 − S 21 + S12 − S22 S 11 + S 21 − S12 − S22 S 11 − S 21 − S12 + S22 Extension of the even/odd transformation to 4-ports is straightforward as follows V1 I1 V I v = 2 ... networks 21 Let S be the conductor-domain 4 × 4 scattering matrix as measured by a VNA S 11 S12 S13 S14 S S22 S23 S24 S 11 S12 S= = 21 S 31 S32 S33 S34 S 21 S22 S 41 S42 S43 S44 (39) From (26) and (32), the S-matrix in the even/odd domain, Se/o , is given by the following orthogonal transformation Se/o = See Soe Seo Soo See = Se1e1 Se2e1 Se1e2 Se2e2 = 1 (S + S 21 + S12 + S22 ) , 2 11 ( 41) Seo... collectively appear when seen from far away Since KU = KVe/o and KP = 1n as shown in (47) and (48), according to (25), Z0c/d is not equal to Z0 If, for example, 50 0 Z0 = , ( 51) 0 50 then Z0c/d = 25 0 0 10 0 (52) From (26), Sc/d = = 1 2 (53) KVe/o SKVe/o = Se/o S 11 + S 21 + S12 + S22 S 11 − S 21 + S12 − S22 S 11 + S 21 − S12 − S22 S 11 − S 21 − S12 + S22 (54) Extension of the common/differential transformation... 0 S 21 10 −20 −30 Model Measurement 1 S 11 −3 −2 −40 −4 0. 01 0 .1 1 10 10 0 Frequency [GHz] Phase [deg.] 0 Magnitude [dB] Magnitude [dB] PAD left PAD right Fig 3 Lumped-element Π-model of THRU (Ito & Masu, 2008) 0 S 21 60 S 11 120 18 0 0. 01 0 .1 1 10 10 0 Frequency [GHz] Fig 4 Measured and modeled (Fig 3) S-parameters of the THRU pattern (Ito & Masu, 2008) In terms of transfer matrices (Mavaddat, 19 96),... , (28) 1 KVe/o = KIe/o = √ 2 1 Ve ve/o = = √ Vo 2 1 0 0 1 V1 + V2 V1 − V2 , (29) , (30) 20 Advanced Microwave Circuits and Systems (a) 1 2 4 general 4-port 3 (b) e1 o1 2-port 2-port e2 o2 Fig 7 (a) General 4-port (b) 4-port consisting of a pair of uncoupled 2-ports ie/o = Ie Io 1 = √ 2 I1 + I2 I1 − I2 ( 31) 1 Note that KVe/o is orthogonal (KT Ve/o = KVe/o ) and, therefore, KU = KVe/o , KP = 1 n (32)... through (18 ) If the THRU is split into symmetric halves according to the Π-equivalent in Fig 1( b), YL = Y + 2Z 1 −2Z 1 −2Z 1 2Z 1 (6) A thru-only de-embedding method for on-wafer characterization of multiport networks 17 Magnitude [dB] 0 .15 0 .10 S 21 0.05 0 −0.05 S 12 −0 .10 −0 .15 0 S 11, S22 20 40 60 80 Frequency [GHz] 10 0 Phase [deg.] 1. 0 S 21 0 S 12 1. 0 0 20 40 60 80 Frequency [GHz] 10 0 Fig 5... magnitude of S 11 is −33.7 dB (Ito & Masu, 2008) and YR = 2Z 1 −2Z 1 −2Z 1 Y + 2Z 1 , (7) respectively The parameters in Fig 1( b) are then given by Y = y 11 + y12 , (8) Z = 1/ y12 (9) The characteristics of the DUT can be de-embedded as − − Tdut = TL 1 Tmeas TR 1 (10 ) For the procedure to be valid, it is necessary, at least, that the de-embedded THRU that does nothing That is, S 11 and S22 should . I Advanced Microwave Circuits and Systems Advanced Microwave Circuits and Systems Edited by Vitaliy Zhurbenko In-Tech intechweb.org Published by In-Teh In-Teh Olajnica 19 /2, 32000. authors dealing with the design and development of active and passive microwave components, integrated circuits and systems. It is divided into seven parts. In the rst part comprising the rst two. 2 91 KenichiOkada and KazuyaMasu 15 . Mixed-DomainFastSimulationofRF and Microwave MEMS-based ComplexNetworkswithinStandardICDevelopmentFrameworks 313 JacopoIannacci 16 . UltraWideband Microwave Multi-PortReectometerinMicrostrip-SlotTechnology: Operation,Design and Applications