INTRODUCTION
Background
Climate change is significantly impacting natural resources and the environment, as well as the socio-economic activities of countries globally If global warming exceeds 2°C, the resulting changes could become irreversible, leading to severe consequences, particularly for the poorest and most vulnerable populations, including impoverished women, whose livelihoods are at risk (UNDP, 2017).
Vietnam is significantly impacted by climate change, particularly through sea-level rise, which leads to the loss of crops and arable land due to salt-water intrusion and storm surges in coastal areas However, the effects of climate change extend beyond these regions, as there is a lack of understanding and support for the challenges faced by disadvantaged and minority communities in the country's rural and mountainous areas.
Climate change is leading to reduced rainfall and increased droughts in the Northern mountainous regions of Vietnam, exacerbating the risk of natural disasters such as landslides and soil erosion on steep slopes The impact of climate change is expected to be more pronounced in these areas due to high poverty levels, inadequate infrastructure, limited access to technology, and a heavy dependence on natural resources.
In high mountainous regions, the potential for sustainable and resilient livelihoods is often constrained Rural communities, particularly the impoverished, depend heavily on natural resources, rendering them vulnerable to environmental degradation and the impacts of climate change Additionally, developing nations such as Vietnam lack the necessary resources to effectively support their rural poor in adapting to these environmental changes Therefore, implementing robust climate change adaptation strategies is crucial for enhancing the resilience of these communities.
To effectively address the needs identified in the assessment, support measures must focus on minimizing vulnerability and enhancing rural livelihood opportunities It's essential to adopt an integrated approach that acknowledges the impact of climate change on these challenges while empowering communities to improve their adaptive capacity.
A report from the Department of Agriculture and Development in Mai Chau district, Hoa Binh province, reveals that approximately 1,889 households are experiencing water shortages for daily living due to drought conditions, while 140 hectares of agricultural land have been impacted by both droughts and floods.
Pa Co commune is situated in the remote, mountainous area of Mai Chau district, characterized by challenging socio-economic conditions and a complex topography of hills and steep slopes at an elevation of 1,200 meters above sea level, typical of northern mountain regions.
Pa Co's long and narrow terrain, encircled by rocky mountains, features fragile soil and karst rock that cannot retain water As a result, agriculture is limited primarily to corn and galangal, with only one crop cycle possible due to scarce water resources The commune's agricultural challenges are exacerbated by complex and unpredictable climatic conditions caused by climate change, impacting both natural ecosystems and human activities.
The residents of Pa Co commune primarily rely on agriculture, including maize and rice cultivation, as well as upland farming and forest product exploitation Their livelihoods are significantly influenced by weather, climate, and natural conditions Despite this, there is a notable absence of thorough evaluations regarding the resilience of these livelihoods to climate change impacts in this mountainous region.
“Assessment of the climate-resilient livelihood of Hmong’s ethnic in Pa Co commune,
Mai Chau District, Hoa Binh” has been chosen to study.
Research objectives, questions, and hypothesis
This study examines the impact of climate change on the livelihoods of residents in Pa Co commune and explores how the local community has diversified its income sources to adapt to these changes Additionally, it analyzes potential strategies for enhancing the resilience of these livelihoods in the face of ongoing climate challenges.
This research explores the resilience of local livelihoods to climate change and presents innovative livelihood models aimed at enhancing adaptation strategies in the region.
Table 1.1 The research objectives, questions and hypothesis
Research hypothesis Research questions Research
Climate change, particularly extreme weather events such as storms, floods, unusual heat, and hail, has negatively affected people's livelihood activities in Pa Co commune
What is climate change impacting to the livelihoods of local people in Pa Co commune?
To study the climate change effects on the livelihoods of the local people
The local people have relied on five livelihood capitals to develop different ways to adapt to climate change
What are resources for the local people to better adapt to climate change?
To assess the livelihood resilience levels of the local community
Among the livelihood models, the eco-tourism livelihood will be the highest resilience to climate change in the Pa Co commune
What are natural and social features favorable for the local people enhance their livelihood to climate change?
To analyze potentials to improve local livelihood resilience to climate change.
Subject and scope
- The livelihoods activities and models of the local households in Pa Co commune;
- Solutions to enhance the resilience and sustainability of livelihood activities in
The research was conducted in Pa Co commune, Mai Chau District, Hoa Binh Province
Study site: Pa Co commune, Mai Chau district, Hoa Binh province
The fieldwork in the locality is conducted in two distinct periods, focusing on specific content outlined in Table 1.2 This research utilizes statistical data and relevant reports to examine the impacts of climate change, as well as the adaptation strategies employed by the community in Pa Co commune.
Table 1.2 Time, place and research contents of the fieldwork in Pa Co commune
- Board of management for Pa Co Nature Reserve
- Pa Co Commune People's Committee
- Overall assessment of the research and study site selection
- In-depth interview (Leader community - Chairman of the commune, village heads
- Trial interview with households (pilot)
- Board of management for Pa Co Nature Reserve
- To implement the in-depth interview and case study
Literature review
Recent research on climate change resilience has increasingly concentrated on developing nations, particularly in Asia and Africa, with a primary focus on evaluating how climate change affects people's livelihoods.
Gentle & Maraseni (2012) conducted a study on the effects of climate change on poverty, livelihoods, and adaptation practices in rural mountain communities in Nepal, revealing that the severity of climate change impacts is increasing in these areas The research indicates that climate change leads to the degradation of natural resources, threatens food security, and exacerbates social inequality, with the rural poor being the most vulnerable Additionally, Bhadwal et al (2019) found that the effects of climate change on lives and livelihoods vary significantly, with gender being a crucial factor influencing these disparities The study emphasizes that the lack of access to human, financial, and natural capital is a primary driver of vulnerability, particularly along gender lines.
For manufacturing industries, climate change affects supporting infrastructure
Human socio-economic development significantly impacts mountainous ecosystems, increasing the vulnerability of coastal communities Research indicates that the livelihood capital of rural populations in high mountain regions is heavily reliant on natural conditions, making them more susceptible to poverty during extreme weather events or natural disasters Studies such as Tanner (2015) highlight the relationship between livelihoods and climate change, emphasizing the heightened risks and vulnerabilities faced by communities Dev (2012) discusses the repercussions of climate change on rural livelihoods, agriculture, and food security, while Dube & Nhamo (2020) examine climate variability's effects on tourism at Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe Nocera et al (2018) analyze how climate change influences tourist mobility in mountainous areas, focusing on infrastructure and transportation needs Devkota (2013) explores local perceptions of climate change and its effects on tourism-dependent livelihoods in mountain communities, noting that increased climate variability disrupts tourism activities and local businesses.
Researchers globally express growing concern over climate-resilient livelihoods, especially for high mountain tribes in Asia, Latin America, and Africa There is a notable lack of comprehensive research addressing climate-resilient living Rural high mountain communities face greater vulnerabilities compared to urban or inland areas, primarily due to limited resources, particularly financial ones This issue is exacerbated for households reliant on a single income, those with small livelihood sizes, and marginalized groups such as the poor and women.
In Vietnam, international organizations like CARE, SRD, and CRD are focused on researching livelihoods that adapt to climate change CARE, as a pioneering organization, leads community-based climate change adaptation studies Recognizing the significant effects of climate change on food security, income, drinking water, health, and migration, CARE provides a comprehensive approach to adapting livelihoods and establishes criteria for evaluating climate change adaptation models.
The Center for Sustainable Rural Development Organization (SRD) is implementing the project "Sustainable Livelihoods Responding to Climate Change in Northern Vietnam" across Yen Bai, Thai Nguyen, Quang Ninh, and Hoa Binh provinces This initiative addresses four interconnected themes: climate change, irrigation, water supply and sanitation, and land and livelihoods, including value chains and market access Local communities are actively involved in assessments and surveys to evaluate their vulnerabilities, enabling the design of targeted interventions that promote sustainable livelihoods in the face of climate change through both adaptation and mitigation strategies.
In 2016, a comprehensive overview of adaptive livelihoods was compiled, highlighting successful examples implemented by NGOs in various communities across the country This document serves as a valuable resource for understanding effective strategies for building resilience in local populations.
The article "Livelihoods Adaptation to Climate Change: Evaluation Criteria and Examples" by the Vietnam Network of Non-Governmental Organizations and CC (VNGO&CC), along with the Working Group on CC (CCWG) and the Department of Meteorology, Hydrology, emphasizes the importance of evaluating adaptation strategies for livelihoods affected by climate change It outlines key criteria for assessing these strategies and provides practical examples that demonstrate effective adaptation measures By focusing on local contexts and community involvement, the article highlights the need for sustainable practices that enhance resilience against climate impacts.
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment is collaborating with various organizations to implement strategies addressing climate change (CC) This document serves as a vital resource for NGO staff engaged in intervention projects aimed at promoting sustainable livelihoods that are adapted to the impacts of climate change.
The ADDA organization launched the "Climate Change and Ethnic Minorities" (CEMI) project in Northern Vietnam, which ran from 2014 to 2017 across Dien Bien, So La, and Lai Chau provinces This initiative aims to support ethnic minority communities residing in mountainous regions, addressing the impacts of climate change on their livelihoods and promoting sustainable development.
8 to increase the access of ethnic minorities to information about CC and its impact on the planning process to respond to CC, food security and poverty alleviation
Recent studies have increasingly focused on sustainable rural livelihoods, highlighting the importance of indigenous knowledge For instance, Son & Kingsbury (2020) examine the Dao ethnic group's accumulated knowledge in Bac Kan province, Vietnam, emphasizing its integration into adaptation policies that enhance resilience to climate change in indigenous communities Similarly, Ha & Kühling (2020) investigate strategies for promoting climate-resilient livelihoods and secure income for smallholder farmers in Thai Nguyen Province These studies underscore the critical role of indigenous practices and strategic planning in fostering resilience against climate challenges.
A research group from the University of Forestry has explored "Indigenous Knowledge in Agriculture and Forestry Adapting to Climate Change among the Dao People in Bac Me District, Ha Giang Province." This study highlights the significant weather factors impacting the livelihoods of the Dao community The indigenous knowledge employed by the Dao in agricultural practices is crucial for adapting to climate change, enhancing livelihoods, and maintaining ecosystems while reducing community vulnerability Indigenous knowledge serves as a sustainable solution for the Dao community's adaptation efforts (Dong et al., 2020) Additionally, research by Ho et al (2019) emphasizes the complex farming systems and cultural practices developed by the Yao people, rooted in centuries of observation and experimentation, which are relevant to the Dao in Bac Kan Province, Vietnam Furthermore, Huynh et al (2020) investigate the traditional agricultural practices of the Xo Dang ethnic group in central Vietnam, shedding light on the factors that influence farmers' adoption of these practices in response to climate change among ethnic minorities.
In summary: Above studies demonstrated that climate change impacts the livelihoods of local people In particular, agro-forestry livelihoods are the most h
Climate change significantly impacts vulnerable upland communities, whose livelihoods heavily rely on natural resources While existing studies propose solutions for sustainable development and adaptation, many ethnic minority groups remain among the poorest and most susceptible to natural disasters and epidemics Current projects primarily focus on poverty alleviation and climate change adaptation models, but they often lack sustainability once NGOs withdraw due to insufficient funding Research on climate change-responsive livelihoods emphasizes indigenous knowledge and adaptation strategies, yet there is a scarcity of workshops, projects, or studies aimed at building climate-resilient livelihoods in Vietnam Strengthening these livelihoods is crucial for addressing climate change challenges, reducing disaster risks, and promoting sustainable development.
1.4.3 Studies in the study site
Two international NGOs have implemented the projects to help ethnic minorities here in production and livelihood activities in Mai Chau district, Hoa Binh province
Since 2012, World Vision has been implementing projects in Mai Chau, focusing on agricultural production models tailored for families with young children In addition to livelihood support, the organization has initiated disaster management and capacity-building projects aimed at enhancing community knowledge on disaster prevention, mitigation, and climate change adaptation These efforts align with World Vision's overarching goal of regional development, emphasizing a holistic approach rather than solely concentrating on climate change-adapted livelihood projects.
Good Neighbors is spearheading the Green Light Eco project, which targets four key initiatives: enhancing the waste treatment system, constructing a playground from recycled materials for children, and executing a comprehensive environmental protection strategy Additionally, the project aims to establish a recycling livelihood group to promote sustainable practices.
10 a mountainous district in the North and is heavily affected, unfortunately, there is currently no specific study on livelihoods affected by CC in this area
Overview of research area
Mai Chau is a highland district of Hoa Binh province, 65 km far from the west of the provincial capital, with a natural area of 56,982.81 ha, the boundaries are determined as follows:
The North borders on Da Bac district, Hoa Binh province;
To the south, it borders Quan Hoa district, Thanh Hoa province;
The East borders Tan Lac district, Hoa Binh province;
The West borders Van Ho district, Son La province
Pa Co commune is a remote and challenging area located 38 km north of Mai Chau district, covering a total natural area of 19,727.79 hectares It shares borders with Chieng Yen commune in Son La province to the east, Na Meo and Bao La communes to the south, Cun Pheo and Hang Kia communes to the west, and Long Luong commune in Son La province to the north.
Mai Chau's topography is quite complex, divided by a system of high mountains and creeks and streams According to topographical characteristics, it can be divided into two distinct regions:
Lowland: Distributed along Xia stream, Mun stream and National Highway 15, with an area of nearly 2,000 hectares, relatively flat terrain, fertile soil
Upland is a region encompassing eight communes and covering over 400 km², characterized by its high mountains and rugged terrain With an average altitude of 800 to 900 meters above sea level, the highest peak reaches approximately 1,200 meters in the Pa area.
Co commune), the lowest point is 220m (Mai Chau town) The average slope is from
30 o to 35 o Overall, Mai Chau's topography is lower in the direction from Northwest to Southeast
The topography of Pa Co commune is quite complicated, mainly consisting of consecutive high hills, steep slopes, alternating with small valleys with fairly flat terrain
The commune, situated at an average altitude of 1,200 meters, primarily focuses on crop production despite its challenging geography, characterized by steep and rocky hills This terrain complicates agricultural development and livelihoods, as the available land for farming is minimal and fragmented Additionally, water resources are scarce, relying mainly on rainfall, which contributes to low productivity in both crops and livestock.
The terrain is strongly dissected, the steep slope is an advantage to create a majestic natural landscape with valleys, ravines, etc c) Climate
Pa Co commune in Mai Chau district is in the subtropical monsoon climate in the high mountains, divided into 2 seasons per year: Wet season and dry season
The rainy season spans approximately six months, from mid-April to mid-October, bringing around 1,400mm of rainfall, which constitutes 90% of the annual total During this period, average temperatures range between 19°C and 23°C, creating a cool and refreshing atmosphere.
The rainy season in this region spans from June to September, contributing approximately 1,076mm of rainfall, which represents 70% of the annual total Among these months, August experiences the highest precipitation, averaging 331.4mm Overall, the annual average rainfall is around 1,500mm, which is relatively low compared to other areas in the country.
The dry season lasts approximately six months, beginning in mid-October and extending to April, with total rainfall around 160mm, which represents only 10% of the annual precipitation During this period, temperatures drop, resulting in colder weather, particularly in the months of December, January, and February.
Month I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII Year
(Source: Department of Natural Resources and Environment of Hoa Binh province, 2016)
The temperature during the summer months (April to October) peaks at 28.4°C in July, significantly higher than the winter temperatures, which range from 17.3°C to 22.1°C The overall average temperature for the entire period is 23.8°C.
Some climate indicators of Hang Kia commune are as follows (according to Van Ho-Son La meteorological station):
- Average air temperature for the whole year: 18.5 o C;
- Average number of sunny hours in the whole year: 1,905 hours;
- Average number of rainy days in the whole year: 179 days;
- The average air hiddenness of the whole year: 85%;
- Average wind speed for the whole year: 2m/s;
- Average number of days with fog in the whole year: 95 days; h
- Average number of days with drizzle in the whole year: 60 days
Pa Co commune, situated next to Van Ho district in Son La province, experiences a climate characterized by low temperatures, making it cooler than other areas in Mai Chau district The region enjoys low rainfall and a generally sunny atmosphere, contributing to its unique weather conditions.
The commune's climate and weather conditions are predominantly conducive to the cultivation of terrestrial crops like maize, as well as various fruit trees, and support the growth of forests and livestock farming, including buffaloes, cows, pigs, and poultry However, these favorable conditions are also accompanied by challenges, such as drought and water shortages during the dry season, which can impact both agricultural production and daily life.
The commune, situated at an average altitude of 1,200 meters above sea level, faces significant challenges regarding its water supply due to its steep hills, rocky mountains, and karst geological structure, which cannot retain water The community primarily depends on seasonal rainfall for both daily living and agricultural production During the dry season, water sources are limited to reservoirs and some underground mines, with small streams only flowing during the rainy season This persistent lack of water for everyday needs and production activities has become a critical barrier to the socio-economic development of the commune in recent years.
Figure 1.2 Landscapes in Pa Co commune
Mai Chau boasts stunning natural beauty, featuring ancient forests, rivers, lakes, majestic mountains, and a variety of caves and waterfalls that create a picturesque landscape The region is known for its refreshing climate, vibrant white banyan and crimson peach blossoms, charming stilt houses, and welcoming locals Additionally, Mai Chau is celebrated for its rich folklore, unique festivals, diverse cuisine, and traditional handicrafts, all of which highlight the area’s cultural heritage and contribute to its appeal as a top tourist destination.
The soil in Mai Chau predominantly consists of red soil and humus, which together make up 92.02% of the region's natural area This soil features a favorable texture and exhibits relatively high natural fertility However, the steep slopes and highly dissected terrain contribute to a light mechanical composition, increasing the risk of soil erosion.
The soil system in Mai Chau is derived from both ancient and young rocks, primarily composed of metamorphic sedimentary materials such as shale, sandstone, and neutral igneous limestone However, prolonged mining activities in certain areas have led to significant soil erosion, exposing gravel and impacting the landscape.
18 soils, in Mai Chau district, there are also some feralite soils modified by wet rice cultivation and alluvial soil
The challenging soil characteristics hinder the construction of tourism facilities and infrastructure, necessitating restrictions on development in steep slope areas, particularly along hills and mountains prone to erosion Additionally, preserving forest ecosystems is crucial for maintaining ecological balance.
Figure 1.3 Hang Kia and Pa Co nature reserve
Mai Chau boasts rich forest resources, primarily consisting of diverse natural forests with numerous tropical tree species, including valuable hardwoods and bamboo, particularly within the Pa Co commune located in the Hang Kia and Pa Co nature reserve The commune encompasses a total forestry land area of 1,714.96 hectares, with 1,683.54 hectares of forest land, representing 71.69% of the commune's total natural land area This includes 1,632.99 hectares of special-use natural forest (69.54% of the land) and 50.55 hectares of natural production forest (2.15% of the land) The region is home to a variety of precious tree species such as Po Mu, Red Pine, Gnat, Mussels, and Tau, while plantations primarily consist of indigenous trees like Xoan and other scattered plants established in recent years.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND METHODS
Methodology
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is an effective methodology that empowers poor farmers to actively identify and articulate the challenges they encounter, along with their strengths and opportunities This approach facilitates a deeper understanding of their needs in addressing climate change and fostering sustainable livelihoods By encouraging stakeholder ownership of the assessment results, PRA enhances the likelihood of their support and participation in related projects.
22 that arise Local people's involvement is critical in the development of project designs because it preserves local techniques and supports ecological, economic, and policy sustainability
Interdisciplinary research is essential for understanding complex issues like climate change and its impact on livelihoods, as it requires analyzing data from various perspectives, including geographical, economic, and social characteristics In Pa Co commune, a comprehensive analysis reveals the interconnectedness of climate change effects across multiple fields, emphasizing that individual industry approaches are insufficient This research methodology, rooted in the collaboration of humanities and social sciences, aligns with Margaret Mead's definition of interdisciplinary research as involving cooperation among multiple disciplines Adopting a holistic approach allows for a more integrated understanding of the challenges posed by climate change.
Livelihood encompasses various aspects of society, and limiting research to a single area can obscure the complexity of the issues at hand A narrow focus on one specialized framework may lead to a distorted understanding of the phenomena involved.
Secondary data collection involved synthesizing information from various sources, including books, newspapers, previous theses, and reports related to livelihoods and resilience in the context of climate change, both domestically and internationally These references were crucial for outlining the theoretical framework and guided the selection of research sites for comparative analysis.
This article explores research methods and principles for developing a resilience index assessment and evaluating the impact of climate change It aims to establish a comprehensive research framework and methodology that will guide the thesis direction, utilizing surveys to gather essential data for analysis.
Data and documents related to Mai Chau district and Pa Co commune are provided mainly by MONRE, district and commune:
Recent data on the climate and weather conditions in Mai Chau district, including temperature, precipitation, storms, floods, and extreme weather events, has been recorded primarily by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE, 2020) and the Hoa Binh Center for Natural Resources This information is crucial for identifying and predicting climate change impacts in the region.
From 2001 to 2020, data on daily rainfall, average temperature, and maximum temperature at Mai Chau station were collected from the Hoa Binh Provincial Hydro-meteorological Station This data is essential for analyzing annual temperature and precipitation variations, as well as trends in rainfall and temperature Additionally, it helps determine the frequency of very cold days, extreme cold days, hot days, and heavy rainfall days in Mai Chau during this period.
- The 5-year socio-economic summary report of Mai Chau district and Pa Co
2019 is used to determine socio-economic conditions, environment, livelihood activities, and development strategies regional development of Mai Chau district;
- Mai Chau district statistical yearbook Report on tourism planning in Mai Chau district with a vision to 2030 and other reports of NGO
Primary data collection was conducted using various sociological research methods, including observation, in-depth interviews, household surveys, case studies, and focus group discussions The study was centered in Pa Co commune, chosen for its distinctive features that illustrate the impacts of climate change.
Observations are shown through photographs, sources of livelihoods (houses, infrastructure, etc.), activities of livelihoods of local people affected by climate change / natural disasters
This study used a SWOT analysis to develop a tourism model for Pa Co commune From there, analyze and suggest how to apply this analysis to build a tourism h
24 model in the virtual community Through SWOT analysis, to help the Hmong community in Pa Co improve their livelihoods more sustainably
The SWOT analysis method was employed in the report to identify and assess the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and challenges faced by the community This approach focuses on livelihood activities, serving as a foundation for proposing effective solutions and strategies aimed at enhancing climate change adaptation in Pa Co commune.
This article presents a set of solutions aimed at enhancing community livelihoods in the face of climate change, grounded in theoretical and practical analysis The proposed livelihood strategies focus on sustainable resource use, increasing household income, and ensuring stability and resilience against climate impacts These specific solutions are developed through surveys, assessments, and interviews involving active participation from local residents.
The interview technique utilizes a customizable guide and a checklist of essential questions, allowing for adjustments if any question is deemed inappropriate during the process This approach aims to collect representative and in-depth data, enhancing the understanding of climate change within communities or households.
This research employs structured interviews utilizing two methods: group classification and free listing Participants are categorized into two distinct groups based on their livelihood characteristics: those engaged solely in agriculture and those involved in multiple livelihoods For each group, a set of questions (Appendix A) is designed to assess their knowledge of climate change and adaptation strategies, which informs the development of a comprehensive questionnaire and more detailed interview questions.
During the field trip, unstructured interviews are utilized primarily for two reasons Firstly, they facilitate discussions about the experiences and challenges local people face regarding natural disasters The Hmong community in Pa Co excels in leveraging indigenous knowledge for production and adapting to their environment, making their insights invaluable.
In an exploration of diverse attitudes and reactions, 25 situational questions were posed during unstructured interviews designed to foster a comfortable sharing atmosphere Drawing from my professional experience, I discovered that individuals appreciate being listened to and often engage in lengthy discussions, making this interview format particularly effective Six households from each village were selected for in-depth interviews focused on their production activities, which provided valuable, detailed data for the study All interviews were recorded to serve as evidence for the research.
This research involved two focus group discussions, each consisting of eight members and lasting approximately 90 minutes, aimed at exploring the livelihoods of the Pa Co ethnic people and the effects of climate change on their way of life The discussions sought to identify differences in livelihood strategies and perceptions of climate change between the two groups The first group comprised households reliant solely on land-based activities, while the second group included households with diverse income-generating strategies.
Establishing a set of livelihood resilience indicators
To build resilient livelihoods against climate change, it is essential to focus on five key capital elements This study has synthesized and analyzed various indicators to assess resilience and sustainability both globally and in Vietnam, ultimately evaluating the resilience index of livelihood activities in Pa Co commune.
Household survey livelihood resilience indicators (Quandt et al., 2018)
An assessment framework of livelihood resilience (Speranza et al., 2014)
Climate-resilient livelihood indicators (CARE, 2015)
Set of indicators for monitoring and evaluating local sustainable development for the period 2013-2020
Figure 2.2 Climate-resilient livelihood framework h
The criteria for assessing the resilience of livelihood activities in Pa Co commune, Mai Chau district, Hoa Binh province are evaluated on five main components including:
Table 2.3 Sets of indicators to assess livelihood resilience to climate change in the
Pa Co Commune Components Asset Quantitative indicators
Natural Capital Own farmland (Yes or No)
Soil erosion (rank of severity of soil erosion on farm)
Human capital Labor availability (Number of working members)
Health problems impact on ability to practice livelihoods (Scale from No to very much)
Physical capital Normal and rainy/dry season road conditions (Scale of bad to good)
Accessibility to facilities (schools, hospitals, etc.) within
Ownership of production equipment (own, rent or borrow)
Financial capital Income (Amount of income)
Housing situation (Types of houses)
Access to a bank account (Yes or No)
Social capital Activities with neighbors (Yes or No)
Participation in groups (Numbers of social groups)
Participation in production groups (Yes or No) h
Data processing methods
The thesis employed the Max-Min method, as outlined by Statistics Canada (2003), utilizing Microsoft Excel 2010 to compute the resilience index The necessary monitoring indicators for the research are detailed in the accompanying table.
Table 2.4 Table of collected data
No Collected data Purpose Source
1 The average temperature of years from 2001 to 2020
Know the temperature evolution average from 2001 to
Hoa Binh Center Nature Resource and Environment of Monitoring
2 The average rainfall every year from 2001 to 2020
Know the rainfall pattern average from 2001 to 2020
3 Number of days in the year