The automotive industry and european integration

A J Jacobs The Automotive Industry and European Integration The Divergent Paths of Belgium and Spain Tai ngay!!! Ban co the xoa dong chu nay!!! The Automotive Industry and European Integration A. J. Jacobs The Automotive Industry and European Integration The Divergent Paths of Belgium and Spain A. J. Jacobs Department of Sociology East Carolina University Greenville, NC, USA ISBN 978-3-030-17430-9    ISBN 978-3-030-17431-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17431-6 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 This work is subject to copyright All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Acknowledgments I would like to thank the Brussels Centre for Urban Studies at Vrije Universiteit Brussel for the research fellowship that laid the foundation for this book In particular, I must recognize Bas Van Heur and Elvira Haezendonck for their efforts during my stay in Brussels in 2017 Whereas Dr Van Heur guided my path, it was Dr Haezendonck who unselfishly set up my initial meetings with auto company officials I also want to acknowledge the center’s Elena Solonia for her friendly logistical support, and Stefan DeCorte, Michael Ryckewaert, and Michel Van Meeteren for sharing their wisdom on the topic Next, I would like to recognize Andreas Cremer, Jo Declercq, Francis Luyckx, Ivo Van Hauten, Isabelle Van Looy, and Eric Van Landeghem for their invaluable insight, and Ezequiel Aviles-Munoz, Ivan Borovcanin, Mio Bosnic, Mark DeMey, Ron Dubois, Pepe Perez, Michael Retour, Marivi Ricart, Rafael and Lola Salas, Claudia Torres-Rivas, and Paul Waley for their assistance in gathering information Similarly, I want to offer special thanks to Marcus Ballenger at Palgrave for believing in my project, and Jacqui Young and Jazmine Robles for their editorial assistance Finally, I send extra hugs to Shuko and Ruiko for their never-ending patience and support! v Contents Part I Overview and Background   1 1 The Beginnings of the European Union and Overview of the Book  3 2 Car Production and the Four Phases of European Integration, 1958–2017  19 Part II Foreign Carmaker Assembly Plants in Belgium  51 3 Introduction to Part II: The Early Belgian Car Industry 53 4 Ford Motor in Belgium 63 5 General Motors in Belgium 89 6 A History of Renault Haren-Vilvoorde121 7 The Multiple Roads to VW’s Audi Brussels in Forest139 vii viii  Contents 8 Volvo and Other Foreign Carmakers in Belgium157 9 Conclusion to Part II: The Future of the Belgian Car Industry175 Part III Foreign Carmaker Assembly Plants in Spain 181 10 Introduction to Part III: The Early Spanish Carmakers183 11 Ford Motor in Spain193 12 General Motors in Spain, 1925–2017225 13 Renault Valladolid and Palencia249 14 A History of VW’s Spanish Car Plants, Part I: 1940–1989283 15 A History of VW’s Spanish Car Plants, Part II: 1989–2018317 16 PSA Peugeot Citroen’s Car Plants in Spain Part I: 1951–1989345 17 PSA Peugeot Citroen’s Car Plants in Spain Part II: 1989–2018369 18 Conclusion to Part III: The Future of the Spanish Car Industry397 Part IV Future of the Car Industry in an Expanding or Brexit EU 403 19 EU Expansion, Brexit, and Near-Term Prospects for European Car Plants 405 I ndex445 List of Tables Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 2.4 Table 2.5 Table 2.6 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 9.1 Table 10.1 Table 10.2 Table 10.3 Table 18.1 Table 19.1 Table 19.2 Table 19.3 European Union accession dates and potential members 21 Passenger car production in EEC and Eastern Bloc, 1973–1989 28 Passenger car production in Three Areas of Europe, 1989–200137 New passenger car plants announced/launched in the EU, 2001–201939 Major passenger car plants closed in Western Europe, 2001–201941 Passenger car production in Three Areas of Europe, 2001–201743 List of Belgian plants assembling foreign cars, 1922–2019 56 Belgium’s foreign car plants light vehicle production, 1989–201658 Belgium’s foreign car plants employment, 1989–2016 59 Active and former foreign car plants in Belgium, 1989–2019 176 List of Spanish plants assembling foreign cars, 1920–2019 187 Spain’s foreign car plants light vehicle production, 1989–2016 189 Spain’s foreign car plants employment, 1989–2016 190 Active and former foreign car plants in Spain, 1989–2019 400 Passenger car production in Three Areas of Europe, 1989–2017406 Labor costs among Expanded EU auto-producing nations, 2017410 Changes in number of major car plants in Expanded EU, 2019–2030412 ix PART I Overview and Background CHAPTER The Beginnings of the European Union and Overview of the Book Introduction In the year that the Berlin Wall fell, 1989, Western Europe’s (WE’s) 11 auto-producing nations built 14,906,050 passenger cars Meanwhile, state-led automakers in the former Eastern Bloc nations of Central-Eastern Europe (CEE)—Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, and Poland— produced 703,305 cars Another 445,409 were assembled by state-run firms in the ex-Socialist Southeastern Europe (SEE) nations of Bulgaria, Romania, and Yugoslavia In 2017, however, WE built 12,271,100 cars, or 17.68% less than in 1989 In contrast, CEE nations produced 4,147,740 in 2017 and in SEE to 632,865, for respective gains of 489.75% and 42.09% as compared with 1989 Moreover, unlike in 1989, all the cars assembled in CEE and SEE in 2017 were produced by private Western European, American, Japanese, and Korean companies.1 Enhanced global competition, a major enlargement of the European Union (EU) into the former Eastern Bloc, significant labor cost discrepancies, European Commission-approved State subsidies promoting growth in Eastern European regions, and a related cost-cutting frenzy by global automakers have been among the many factors shaping these dissimilar growth paths These factors, within the context of another expected  Ward’s (1956–2018); OICA (1999–2018); Jacobs (2017); ACEA (2018) Whereas Czechoslovakia encompassed the current nations of Czechia and Slovakia, Yugoslavia traversed today’s Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, and Slovenia © The Author(s) 2019 A J Jacobs, The Automotive Industry and European Integration, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17431-6_1 438  A J JACOBS advantages for WE factories, these plants will also face increasing competition from Turkey, and to a lesser extent Morocco Turkey is the biggest threat, even though it is not expected to achieve accession before 2030: first, because it has had a customs union agreement with the EU covering all industrial goods since December 31, 1995; second, because the EU is easily Turkey’s largest import and export partner, with its primary exports to the EU being machinery and manufactured transport equipment (including vehicles).57 After stagnating between 1989 and 2001, car production in Turkey skyrocketed by 551.81% between 2001 and 2017, from 175,343 to 1,142,906 (see Chap 2).58 During this period, exports of passenger cars into the EU soared from 344,923 in 2006 to 729,738 in 2017, and of all motor vehicles from 561,914 to 1,050,319 This meant that 63.9% of all the cars and 61.9% of all vehicles built in Turkey in 2017 were exported to the EU. With hourly labor costs in manufacturing of just $5.79, and good productivity, the number of cars the Eurasian nation produces and exports to the EU may double by 2030 As shown in Table 19.3, Turkey had five major car assembly plants in 2019 This included (1) the FCA-Koc joint venture’s 400,000-capacity Tofas Bursa, which also builds PSA and Opel/Vauxhall brand vehicles; (2) the 360,000-capacity Oyak-Renault Bursa; (3) the 200,000-capacity Hyundai Assan Izmit; (4) 150,000-capacity Toyota Adapazari in Arifiye, Sakarya Province; and (5) the 100,000–140,000-capacity (50,000, lately) Honda Gebze in Cayirova, Kocaeli Province.59 Honda recently announced that it will close its Gebze Plant by 2021 Nonetheless, by 2025, the number of major car plants in Turkey will rise to eight by 2025 and 12 by 2030 This will include the additions of VW and PSA by 2025, Nissan either by 2025 or by 2030, and Kia, two Chinese carmakers, and expansion at the Ford Otosan LCV factory to raise its annual passenger car capacity to more than 100,000, and one from either Suzuki or an Indian carmaker (Mahindra or Tata) These developments may prevent Nissan from building a second EU plant (Portugal) The potential inhibitors for Turkey are its poor proximity to EU markets, below average infrastructure quality, and continued political strife between its central government and the European Commission  EC (2018b)  Wards (1956–2018); ACEA (2013–2018) 59  Wards (1956–2018); ACEA (2019) 57 58 19  EU EXPANSION, BREXIT, AND NEAR-TERM PROSPECTS FOR EUROPEAN…  439 As for Morocco, its history as a former French colony has resulted in long-established connections French carmakers, dating back to 1959 with Simca (then a Fiat subsidiary) In 2001, the country’s Somaca Casablanca Plant assembled 12,484 CKD car kits cars, including 10,802 for Fiat and 1682 for Renault With the opening of Renault Tangiers in January 2012, car output in Morocco jumped to 341,802 in 2017 During the latter part of this period, passenger cars imports into the EU soared from just 2959 in 2010 to 240,907 in 2017, meaning that 70.48% of all the cars produced in Morocco in 2017 were exported to EU nations.60 As of January 2019, Morocco had one full-fledged car plant, the seven-­ year-­old, 400,000-capacity Renault Tangiers A second, the $630 million, 4500-worker, 200,000-capacity PSA Kenitra Plant in Ameur Seflia launching Peugeot 208 prototypes in July 2018 and was expected to commence serial production in Spring 2019 PSA stated that the factory was necessary to cut costs and reduce its reliance on Europe The new factory was built in the Atlantic Free Trade Zone Kenitra, where manufacturing labor costs were rather high for the North African nation, at $3.34/hour (see Table 19.2) This still was less than 1/8th of the hourly compensation in Spain and 1/15th of that in France Equally shocking in Spain was the news that the new Moroccan plant was assigned PSA Vigo’s share of output of Peugeot 301/Citroen C-Elysee sedans bound for Turkey and northern Africa markets Considering Morocco and the EU were working on expanding their present trade agreement (i.e., EU-Morocco Association Agreement of 2000), and the ramping up of the new Kenitra Plant could lead to further cuts in Spain besides the closing of PSA Madrid.61 Finally, as discussed in Chap 13, Renault recently announced plans to double its Dacia output at its Somaca Casablanca Plant to 160,000 by 2022; Renault acquired the factory in 2003 This, plus possibly an FCA or Chinese factory later in the decade, should raise the number of major car plants in Morocco to four in 2030 VW, which opened an assembly plant in Relizane, Algeria, in May 2017, also is being wooed by the Moroccan Government (see Table 19.3 and Chap 15) The North African nation’s major drawbacks are its poor proximity to EU markets and below average 60  Somaca also produced 5400 Renault and PSA light trucks in 2001 Total motor vehicle exports into the EU jumped from 4904 in 2010 to 264,607, meaning 70.22% of all vehicles produced in Morocco in 2017 were exported to the EU; see ACEA (2013–2018); Somaca (2018) 61  Ward’s (1956–2018); PSA (2018); Sigal (2018) 440  A J JACOBS transport infrastructure quality Neither, however, will inhibit Renault or PSA from greatly expanding their production in the country In sum, the shuttering/downsizing of 16 major car assembling plants in WE will result in the shifting of another 2.5–3.5 million in output eastward during the 2020s This, in turn, will result in the loss of 30,000–40,000 direct auto industry jobs and thousands more at suppliers and other related businesses in WE. Whether the response to this will be a freeze on EU member expansion, protectionism, and insular nationalism, the total disengagement/exit from the EU by some nations, or a more thoughtful response, remains to be seen One thing is for sure, however, an interconnected world economy is here to stay, and there is no turning back now that the horse is out of the barn All nations must realize that they are now interdependent, politically, economically, and socially dependent upon one another The sooner national and local governments and their inhabitants accept this fact, the sooner they can collectively devise progressive, forward-looking strategies that can combat the negative repercussions suffered by those displaced (e.g., to auto workers and their families) by an enlarged EU and ever-expanding global trade That way, the many in all EU nations, and not just a few in affluent and/or low-cost countries, will reap the potential future benefits 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Brondeel, 13, 55, 60, 157 Bulgaria, 3, 6, 8, 20, 27, 35, 38, 40, 45, 340, 424, 432–433, 437 C CEE (Central-Eastern Europe), 3, 4, 11, 15, 19, 34, 36, 38, 40–42, 44, 45, 79, 171, 177, 324, 335, 364, 373–375, 401, 405–407, 411, 417, 419, 422, 425, 429, 434, 435, 437  Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes © The Author(s) 2019 A J Jacobs, The Automotive Industry and European Integration, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17431-6 445 446  INDEX CEEC (Committee for European Economic Cooperation), Chrysler Barreiros Diesel/Chrysler Villaverde, 345, 352–358 (see also PSA (PSA Peugeot Citroen), PSA Madrid (Talbot)) Chrysler Antwerp, 157–158 Chrysler Eurostar Automobilwerk Graz (Liebenau), 36 Chrysler Linwood, 357, 359 Chrysler Ryton (see PSA (PSA Peugeot Citroen)) Chrysler Simca Poissy, 357 (see also PSA (PSA Peugeot Citroen), PSA Poissy; Simca (Societe Industrielle de Mecanique et Carrosserie Automobile)) Citroen Citroen Belgium, 12, 60, 139–142, 360 Citroen Hispania Balaidos (see PSA (PSA Peugeot Citroen), PSA Vigo) Citroen Rennes (see PSA (PSA Peugeot Citroen), PSA Rennes) See also PSA (PSA Peugeot Citroen) CMEA (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance or Comecon), 8, 19, 20, 27, 32, 425, 428, 430 Complete Knock-Down (CKD), 13, 26, 27, 60, 63–65, 89–92, 95, 113, 157, 159, 160, 162, 164, 175, 193–195, 201, 206, 225, 226, 239, 250, 251, 253, 254, 256, 259, 267, 270, 277, 284, 285n4, 300, 339, 353, 354n24, 361, 372, 373, 378, 380, 383, 383n40, 386, 387, 439 Croatia, 36, 45, 427, 435, 437 CUV (Crossover Utility Vehicle), 41, 213, 238, 241, 242, 274–278, 334–336, 338, 339, 377, 380, 390, 401 Czechia (Czech Republic), 35, 36, 38, 40, 42, 324, 326, 335, 340, 373, 374, 384, 401, 406, 415, 418, 424, 428–432 Czechoslovakia, 3, 6, 8, 20, 24, 27, 33, 144, 319, 327, 430, 431 D Dacia, see Renault Daewoo, 36, 100, 110, 231, 237, 425 Daimler Smart Hambach, 416, 434 D’Ieteren, 12, 56 Dongfeng, 14, 239, 240, 243, 274, 369, 376–381, 384, 424 DPCA (Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroen Automobile), 376, 378–380, 383 E Eastern Bloc, 3, 8, 9, 11, 19, 20, 24, 28, 32, 33, 405, 420, 423 EBRD (European Bank of Reconstruction and Development), 34, 40 EEC (European Economic Community), 5, 9–11, 19–33, 68, 69, 124, 158–160, 162, 164, 166, 176, 177, 198, 202, 227, 254, 256, 257, 263, 293, 306, 308–310, 322, 340, 361, 364, 398, 411, 416, 422 ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community), 9–11, 20, 23 EMU (European Monetary Union), 25, 31, 34 EU (European Union), 3–15, 19, 21, 26, 166, 167, 322, 369, 411 Euratom (European Atomic Energy Community), 10, 11, 20, 23  INDEX  Euro Currency, 19, 34 European Commission (EC) Competition Committee, 3, 23, 35, 40, 45, 108, 109, 132, 150, 212, 236, 409, 423, 438 F FASA (Fabricacion de Automoviles SA), see Renault, Renault Valladolid Fiat FCA (Fiat Chrysler Automobiles), 421 Fiat Bielsko-Biala, 32, 33, 300, 420 Fiat/FCA Melfi (Potenza), 421 Fiat/FCA Mirafiori (Turin), 421 Fiat/FCA Pomigliano d’Arco, 421 Fiat/FCA Serbia Kragujevac, 426 Fiat/FCA Tychy, 33, 209, 218, 421, 422 Fiat Termini, 41 Fiat Turin/FCA Grugliasco, 421 Sevelsud, 382 Finland, 6, 26, 34 Ford Motor Company Ford Argentina General Pacheco, 204, 212 Ford Barcelona, 217–219 Ford Brazil Sao Bernardo Campo, 203 Ford Cadiz, 63, 193, 217–219 Ford Cologne (Koln), 26, 64, 67, 68, 70, 71, 78–80, 83, 168, 196, 202, 211, 215 Ford Cork, 71 Ford Craiova, 44, 78, 423 Ford Dagenham, 26, 71, 201, 207, 214 Ford Genk, 12, 42, 64, 82–83, 135, 168–169, 176–178, 205, 211, 212, 215, 216 Ford Halewood (see Jaguar Land Rover (JLR), JLR Halewood (Ford)) 447 Ford Hoboken (Antwerp), 12, 64–67, 69 Ford Otosan Kocaeli, 74 Ford Saarlouis, 70, 73, 78–80, 83, 200–202, 204, 208, 212, 219, 415 Ford Sollers, 78, 213, 214 Ford Trafford Park, 63, 64 Ford Valencia (Almussafes), 13, 73, 74, 78–80, 82, 83, 193, 217–219, 300, 398, 399, 401 France, 4, 6–10, 12, 14, 20, 22–24, 26, 27, 31, 33, 35, 38, 41, 44, 55, 60, 63, 69, 89, 92, 121, 122, 124, 128–133, 139–141, 158, 164, 166, 178, 184–186, 193, 201, 225, 227, 242, 249, 250, 253, 257–262, 264, 266, 270, 274, 275, 286, 345, 347, 349, 350, 352, 353, 355, 357, 360–363, 374, 379, 381–384, 390, 399, 401, 415–416, 437, 439 FSM (Fabryka Samochodow Małolitrazowych) FSM Plant (see Fiat, Fiat Bielsko-Biala) FSM Plant (see Fiat, Fiat/FCA Tychy) FSO (Fabryka Samochodow Osobowych), 33, 425, 434 FSR (Fabryka Samochodow Rolniczych) Tarpan, 33 G GAZ (Gorkovsky Avtomobilny Zavod), 105, 160, 234 GDP (Gross Domestic Product), 408, 416, 423, 425, 427, 431, 435 448  INDEX Germany, 23, 303 East Germany, 3, 8, 20, 27, 32, 33, 35, 36, 40, 42, 96, 98, 143–144, 318, 324, 329, 339, 388, 411, 414, 431 West Germany, 8–10, 20, 22, 26, 27, 31, 33, 35, 44, 66, 68, 70, 92, 123, 143, 144, 219, 306, 307, 411, 414, 433, 435 GM (General Motors) GM Belgium Noorderlaan-1 (Antwerp), 12, 90, 94–97, 177, 228 GM Belgium-Opel Noorderlaan-2 (Antwerp), 12, 41, 90, 94–103, 105, 106, 108–114, 175–178, 228, 229, 231, 234–238 GM Continental, 90–92, 96–98, 227–229 GM International Barcelona, 89, 225–226, 259 GM International Copenhagen, 89, 90, 225 GM-Opel Azambuja, 422 GM-Opel Bochum, 41, 93, 113, 228, 233, 234 GM-Opel Eisenach, 96, 98, 109, 114, 229, 241 GM-Opel Gliwice, 36, 112, 419, 425 GM-Opel Russelsheim, 26 GM-Opel Zaragoza (Figueruelas), 13, 98, 108, 109, 112, 113, 212, 225–233, 241–243, 380, 388 GM-Opel St Petersburg, 388 Vauxhall Ellesmere Port, 98, 101, 228, 231, 238 Vauxhall Luton, 26, 241, 388 GNI (Gross National Income), 408, 423, 425, 427, 431, 435 H Hispano-Suiza, 13, 183–186, 196, 283, 397 Honda Honda Gebze (Cayirova), 438 Honda Swindon, 36, 418 Hungary, 3, 6, 8, 20, 27, 33, 35, 36, 38, 40, 42, 114, 144, 154, 179, 241, 340, 388, 410, 415, 416, 419, 424, 427–429, 433, 434, 437 Hyundai Hyundai Assan Izmit, 438 Hyundai Nosovice, 430, 431 I IMA (Importer of Moteurs et d’Automobiles), 13, 55, 60, 157, 163, 164 IMV (Industrija Motornih Vozil), 129, 291, 433 See also Renault, Renault Revoz Novo Mesto IPMI (Industrial Production-­ Manufacturing Index), 408, 423, 425, 433 Italy, 4, 6–10, 13, 20, 23, 26, 27, 31, 35, 36, 38, 41, 44, 63, 104, 114, 129, 162, 197, 198, 201, 230, 233, 241, 283, 291, 299, 300, 382, 388, 399, 401, 416, 417, 420–422, 437 J Jaguar Land Rover (JLR) JLR Castle Bromwich, 418 JLR Halewood (Ford), 70, 76–82, 418 JLR Nitra, 41, 418, 430, 431 JLR Solihull, 418 Metalurgica Santa Ana Land Rover, 188  INDEX  449 K Karsan Hasanaga, 378, 383 KD Kits (Knockdown Assembly Kits) CKD (Complete Knockdown), 13, 26, 60 SKD (Semi Knock-Down), 144, 163 Kia Kia Zilina, 430 Netherlands, 6–10, 20, 23, 26, 27, 30, 66, 110, 123, 158, 164, 168, 237, 401, 419 Nissan Nissan Motor Iberica Barcelona, 267, 398 Nissan Sunderland, 36, 135, 267, 271, 272, 274, 418–420 L Leyland Triumph Malines, see BL (British Leyland) Litex Motors, 432 Luxembourg Accord, 23 O OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), 22 OEEC (Organisation for European Economic Co-operation), 8–11, 20, 22 Opel, See GM (General Motors) M Magna, 45, 104–109, 234–236, 415, 419, 428, 434 Magna Hoce-Slivnica, 434 Marshall Plan, 5–7, 10 Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz Kecskemet, 416, 426, 429, 432 Mercedes-Benz Rastatt, 415 Mercedes-Benz Vitoria, 399 Merger Treaty (Brussels), 23 Morocco, 24, 45, 273, 277, 278, 346, 373, 384, 385, 391, 401, 407, 411, 416, 425, 436–440 MPV (multi-purpose vehicles/ compact microvans), 41, 72, 78, 82, 168, 169, 211, 213, 215–217, 231, 237, 239, 240, 267, 270–272, 274, 331, 372, 376–380, 389–391, 401, 421 N NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), 10, 20 Naza Automotive Manufacturing (NAM), 378, 383 P Poland, 3, 6, 8, 20, 27, 32, 33, 35, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 73, 89, 98, 144, 178, 206, 209, 218, 231, 238, 243, 297, 300, 301, 324, 326, 340, 374, 391, 401, 410, 414–416, 419–421, 424–429, 433, 434, 437 Porsche Leipzig, 329 Portugal, 6, 8, 22, 27, 29, 30, 36, 44, 75, 101, 128, 148, 162, 201, 204, 242, 243, 253, 258, 259, 261, 306, 326, 331, 334, 340, 360, 376, 381, 390, 401, 411, 417, 422 PSA (PSA Peugeot Citroen) Nordex Montevideo, 386 PCMA Kaluga (Peugeot-Citroen Mitsubishi Automobile), 387 PSA Argentina El Palomar/Buenos Aires, 381 PSA Aulnay, 41, 376, 377, 379 PSA Kenitra, 384, 439 PSA Madrid (Talbot), 14, 242, 303, 345, 352–358, 369–373, 380, 389, 399, 401, 411, 439 450  INDEX PSA (PSA Peugeot Citroen) (cont.) PSA Mangualde, 243, 376 PSA Mulhouse, 242, 361, 362, 382 PSA Poissy, 242, 359, 371, 375, 390 PSA Rennes, 361, 384 PSA Ryton, 359, 362, 371, 376 PSA Sevelnord, 382n38 PSA Slovakia Trnava, 239, 242, 374, 378, 430 PSA Sochaux, 242, 361, 390 PSA Vigo, 14, 242, 345–352, 359, 362, 369–373, 376, 389, 401, 419, 439 R Renault Dacia Pitesti (Mioveni), 36, 272, 277 Oyak Renault Bursa, 253, 274 Renault Dacia Casablanca (see Somaca (Societe Marocaine de Constructions Automobiles)) Renault Douai, 260, 262, 274, 275 Renault Flins, 122, 131, 258, 261, 270, 275 Renault Haren/Vilvoorde, 121–136 Renault Palencia, 135, 249–278, 300, 335, 401 Renault Revoz Novo Mesto, 135, 262, 433 Renault Tangier, 45, 273, 439 Renault Valladolid, 14, 135, 249–278, 398, 399, 401, 411 Romania, 3, 6, 8, 20, 27, 32, 35, 36, 38, 40, 44, 78, 129, 135, 178, 213, 215, 219, 253, 268, 270, 271, 277, 340, 361, 370, 406, 415, 416, 422–425, 429, 433, 437 Rootes, 26, 352, 354, 356, 357, 359, 376 S Saab Trollhattan, 41, 100, 101 Santana Motors, 262, 398 SEAT (Sociedad Espanola de Automoviles de Turismo) Seat Barcelona Zona Franca, 14, 283–287, 301, 304–310, 347 Seat Martorell, 14, 310, 318, 324–327, 330, 331, 338 Seat Pamplona (see VW (Volkswagen), VW Pamplona (Authi)) SEE (Southeastern Europe), 3, 4, 11, 19, 36, 38, 44, 45, 63, 130, 264, 401, 406, 410, 411, 417, 422, 427, 428, 434, 435, 437 Serbia, 36, 38, 40, 42, 45, 178, 179, 297, 340, 401, 407, 420, 421, 424, 426–428, 433, 435, 437 SIAT (Sociedad Iberica de Automoviles de Turismo), 13, 185, 186, 283 Simca (Societe Industrielle de Mecanique et Carrosserie Automobile), 26, 158, 289, 348, 353, 355, 357–359, 439 Single European Act (Luxembourg and The Hague), 19, 30 Skoda, see VW (Volkswagen) Slovakia, 35, 36, 40, 42, 154, 179, 239, 242, 243, 324, 327–329, 334, 337, 340, 374–376, 381, 384, 406, 410, 416, 418, 424, 427–432, 437 Slovenia, 33, 35, 36, 38, 45, 129, 131, 261, 270, 271, 277, 291, 361, 401, 406, 411, 415, 416, 419, 433–434, 437 Somaca (Societe Marocaine de Constructions Automobiles), 373 Soviet Union/USSR/Russia, 6, 8, 20, 27, 32, 63, 78, 98, 105, 160,  INDEX  212–214, 219, 234, 242, 268, 277, 301, 339, 340, 378, 383, 384, 388, 390, 428 Spain, 4, 6, 13–15, 22, 30, 44, 63, 79, 89, 125, 132, 162, 186–191, 193–219 Ssangyong Motor, 424 Standard-Triumph Malines, see BL (British Leyland) Studebaker, 12, 142, 175 SUV (Sport Utility Vehicle), 102, 108–110, 112, 113, 151–153, 215, 218, 236, 237, 262, 272, 329, 332, 335, 338, 339, 409, 418, 421 Suzuki Motors Suzuki Esztergom, 33, 36, 428, 429 Suzuki Santana Linares, 399 Sweden, 6, 8, 22, 27, 34, 35, 41, 60, 66, 76, 89, 100, 102, 125, 164, 169, 171, 175, 211, 257 T Tata Motors, see Jaguar Land Rover (JLR) Toyota Toyota Adapazari (Arifiye), 438 Toyota Burnaston, 36, 420 Toyota Poland Walbrzych, 374 Toyota Valenciennes, 382 TPCA Kolin (Toyota Peugeot Citroen Automobile Czech), 38, 373 Treaties of Paris, 9, 20 Treaty of Maastricht (Treaty of European Union), 33 Treaty of Rome, 10, 11 Treaty of Western Union (Brussels Pact), Turkey, 6, 8, 22, 27, 34, 40, 45, 74, 78, 131, 178, 213, 219, 253, 451 262, 270, 274, 277, 278, 301, 340, 373, 381, 385, 391, 401, 407, 411, 415, 416, 422, 424, 428, 433, 436–440 U UK (United Kingdom/Britain/Great Britain), 9, 63, 361, 362 V VDL NedCar (Born), 419 Volvo Volvo Car Gent/Volvo Europa Gent (Ghent), 13, 76, 157, 166–172 Volvo Torslanda (Gothenburg), 76, 169, 171, 211 VW (Volkswagen) VW Algeria Relizane, 340 VW Argentina Pacheco, 340 VW Brazil Sao Jose dos Pinhais, 339 VW Dresden, 414, 415 VW Emden, 145, 414 VW-Ford AutoLatina, 203 VW Forest/VW Bruxelles, 12, 139, 142–143, 145, 147, 150, 177 (see also Audi, Audi Brussels) VW India Pune, 339 VW Mosel/Zwickau, 145–147, 150, 339, 414 VW Osnabruck, 123, 415 VW Palmela/VW-Ford AutoEuropa Automoveis, 14, 148, 326, 329, 336, 340, 422 VW Pamplona (Authi), 14, 318, 324, 337–340, 401 VW Poznan Antoninek, 326 VW Sarajevo Vogosca/VW TAS (Volkswagen Tvornica Automobia Sarajevo), 38, 436 452  INDEX VW (Volkswagen) (cont.) VW Seat Martorell (see SEAT (Sociedad Espanola de Automoviles de Turismo)) VW Skoda India Aurangabad, 340 VW Skoda Kvasiny, 33, 327, 340, 414 VW Skoda Mlada Boleslav, 327, 336, 338 VW Skoda Vrchlabi, 33, 327 VW Slovakia Bratislava, 327–329, 337, 340, 430 VW Wolfsburg, 146, 322, 325, 326, 328, 338 W Warsaw Pact Countries, 20, 24 WE (Western Europe), 3, 5, 7–9, 19, 63, 66, 73, 92, 97, 98, 101, 104, 112, 127, 129, 130, 135, 148, 152, 161, 193, 201, 215, 219, 231, 237, 238, 262, 265, 269, 273, 297, 308, 318, 321, 331, 361, 363, 370, 375, 381, 385, 401, 405, 432 WEU (Western European Union), 10, 20 Y Yugoslavia, 3, 6, 8, 24, 27, 33, 36, 129, 261, 291, 297, 361, 426, 434, 435 Z Zastava, 45, 297, 426 Zastava Kragujevac (see Fiat)