The automotive chassis: volume 1: components design

Mechanical Engineering Series Giancarlo Genta Lorenzo Morello The Automotive Chassis Volume 1: Components Design Second Edition Tai ngay!!! Ban co the xoa dong chu nay!!! Mechanical Engineering Series Series Editor Francis A Kulacki, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA The Mechanical Engineering Series presents advanced level treatment of topics on the cutting edge of mechanical engineering Designed for use by students, researchers and practicing engineers, the series presents modern developments in mechanical engineering and its innovative applications in applied mechanics, bioengineering, dynamic systems and control, energy, energy conversion and energy systems, fluid mechanics and fluid machinery, heat and mass transfer, manufacturing science and technology, mechanical design, mechanics of materials, micro- and nano-science technology, thermal physics, tribology, and vibration and acoustics The series features graduate-level texts, professional books, and research monographs in key engineering science concentrations More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/1161 Giancarlo Genta Lorenzo Morello • The Automotive Chassis Volume 1: Components Design Second Edition 123 Giancarlo Genta Politecnico di Torino Turin, Italy Lorenzo Morello Politecnico di Torino Turin, Italy ISSN 0941-5122 ISSN 2192-063X (electronic) Mechanical Engineering Series ISBN 978-3-030-35634-7 ISBN 978-3-030-35635-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35635-4 1st edition: © Springer Science+Business Media B.V 2009 2nd edition: © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Foreword Each book—even one that at first glance might seem like a “cold” university engineering text—tells a fascinating story of experience and knowledge When I was invited to write an introduction to this volume, based on the experiences of a great professor and a very experienced industrial manager, I felt the pleasant feeling of a puzzle just completed: the text has, in fact, achieved the important goal of helping readers understand what it really means to move from the concept to the creation of a new car, from design to assembly To describe the impact of the text, it is sufficient to highlight how the authors’ passion for creating this manual—so much so that it has become an international point of reference in the design of chassis—coincides substantially with the enthusiasm of the thousands of people who work every day at Fiat Chrysler Automobiles with the aim of conceiving and creating cars that are increasingly innovative Before they even start studying on these pages, I would like students to be aware that creating a new car—or even just contributing to its birth—is a fascinating job, made up of successive joints of creative and technical skills, which requires an extraordinary commitment The same commitment needed to lay the foundations for new engineers to grow and make their contribution to creating ever more cutting-edge cars Flipping through the pages of the book and investigating the various design steps, it is clear that the authors have achieved an important objective: to give due importance to the fact that a university text must not only tell the theory on how to build new cars, but also describe in a coherent and comprehensive way the content of a car starting from the manufacturer’s point of view, sometimes very different from the theory, too often the only subject in university texts And in telling this small story of effective integration between the world of study and the world of work, I rediscover a bit of the experiences I lived first by studying Engineering at the University and then working in Fiat Chrysler Automobiles: I find out how much effort and dedication both paths have taken But, above all, how much satisfaction can they bring v vi Foreword The approach used by the authors shows the indissoluble link between the academic system and the professional paths that a car company like FCA is able to offer, making it well understood that “knowing how to do” is very different from “doing” but that the two voices together are a winning combination, an essential method to always keep up with the times and make a difference in a context in which knowledge remains the fundamental competitive advantage Torino, Italy June 2019 Daniele Chiari Head of Product Planning & Institutional Relations, FCA, Emea Foreword to the Second Edition It is a great pleasure and honor for me to write the foreword to the second edition of The Automotive Chassis First of all, I want to express the gratitude that I have for the authors, who have been great masters of my education: Professor Genta as my Tutor at Politecnico di Torino and Professor Morello as Head of Engineering at Fiat Auto Their innovative, methodical, rational approach, and their effort to promote and develop the technical competence have helped to form my core values and beliefs The two books of The Automotive Chassis represent an exceptional masterpiece that has been useful in these years to the engineering students and also to the automotive engineers of my generation Thanks to this work, we have further developed our knowledge of the most complex and fascinating area of the vehicle where the real technical competence of the engineer is tested In this second edition, the first book maintains its robust and structured approach to “Components Design” and the second book on “Systems Design” has been further enriched and updated according to the rapid growth of our car industry toward NEVs and Autonomy With these actions, The Automotive Chassis will continue its role of spreading the chassis engineering culture in our fascinating automotive world Shangai, China April 2019 Giorgio Cornacchia Head of APAC Product Development at FCA vii Preface This book is the result of a double decades-long experience: from one side a teaching experience of courses such as Vehicle Mechanics, Vehicle System Design, Chassis design, and more to students of Engineering, from the other side from the design praxis of vehicle and chassis components in a large automotive company This book is primarily addressed to students of Automotive engineering and secondarily to all technicians and designers working in this field It also addressed to all people enthusiast of cars that are looking for a technical guide The tradition and the diversity of disciplines involved in road vehicle design lead us to divide the vehicle into three main subsystems: the engine, the body, and the chassis The chassis isn’t today a visible subsystem anymore, tangible as a result of a certain part of the fabrication process, while engine and body are; chassis components are assembled, as a matter of fact, directly on the body For this reason, the function of the chassis cannot be assessed separately from the rest of the car As we will see better, reading the chapters dedicated in the first and in the second part of this book, to the historical evolution, the situation was completely different in the past; in the first cars the chassis was defined as a real self-moving subassembly that included the following: • a structure, usually a ladder framework, able to carry on all the remaining components of the vehicle; • the suspensions for the mechanical linkage of wheels with the framework; • the wheels completed with tires; • the steering system to change wheel angles accordingly to the vehicle path; • the brake system to reduce the speed or to stop the vehicle; • the transmission to apply the engine torque to the driving wheels This group of components, after the engine assembly, was able to move autonomously; this happened at least in many experimental tests, where the body was simulated with a ballast and during the fabrication process, to move the chassis from the shop of the carmaker to that of the body maker ix x Preface Customers often bought from the carmaker a chassis to be completed later on by a body maker, according to their desire and specification On contemporary vehicles, this particular architecture and function is only provided for industrial vehicles, with the exception of buses where the structure, even if built by some body maker, participates with the chassis framework to the total stiffness, such as a kind of unitized body On almost every car, the chassis structure cannot be separated from the body as being part of its floor (platform); sometime some auxiliary framework is also added to interface suspensions or power train to the body and to enable their pre-assembly on the side of the main assembly line Nevertheless, tradition and some particular technical aspect of these components have justified the development of a particular discipline within vehicle engineering; as a consequence, almost all car manufacturers have a technical organization addressed to the chassis, separated from those addressed to the body or to the engine A new reason has been added in recent times to justify a different discipline and a specific organization and is the setting up of the so-called technological platforms: the modern trend of the market calls for an unprecedented product diversification, never reached in the past; sometimes marketing expert calls this phenomenon fragmentation This high diversification couldn’t be sustained with acceptable production cost without a strong cross standardization of non-visible or of non-specific part of a certain model This situation has been very well known since years to all industrial vehicle manufacturers The term platform implying the underbody and the front side members, with the addition of the adjective technological, describes a set of components substantially equal to the former chassis; the particular technical and scientific issues, the different development cycle, and the longer economic life have reinforced the specificity of engineers that are dedicated to this car subsystem The contents of this book are divided into five parts, organized into two volumes The first volume describes main chassis subsystems in two parts The first part describes the main components of the chassis from the tire to the chassis structure, including wheels, suspension, steering, and braking systems, not forgetting the control systems that show an increasing importance, due to the diffusion of active and automatic systems The second part is addressed to the transmission and to the related components; the complexity of this topic justifies a separated presentation It should be noticed that, by many car manufacturers, the engineering and production organization dedicated to this subsystem are integrated into the power train organization, instead of the chassis organization This has obviously no influence on the technical contents of this book and can be justified by the standardization issues and by the life cycle of this component, in certain aspects more similar to the engine than to the chassis 614 16 Design and Testing Bearing whine, finally, is a precursor of bearing failure only and is produced by rolling bodies when clearance with their runs is too high Noise reduction must be approached at a system level To transmission noise contribute other subsystems, at the source, such as engine, powertrain suspension, elastic parts of transmission line and half axles and, sometime, suspensions and tires Air borne noise and structurally transmitted noise through the car body contribute to noise perception Thinking of reducing gearbox noise working on the gearbox only, could be misleading and cause excessive product cost; nevertheless some good design rules should be taken into account As far as whistle is concerned, it is better to apply helical spur gears only, with a coverage ratio greater or equal to 2.5; it can be further increased by applying high contact ratio profiles, by increasing the ratio of teeth height and pitch A profile correction oriented to achieving a slim tooth tip could be also beneficial Entire transmission ratios should be avoided; the preferential wear of ever coupled gears can modulate gearing sound It is better to use reasonably tight tolerances, such those included under IT5 and IT7 classes; tighter tolerance may be prescribed for gear wheels of most frequent use, to contain product cost Teeth surface must be smooth enough Satisfactory results are reached by shaving and honing; grinding can be used exceptionally Rattle noise is bound, as we have seen, to circumferential clearance; it can be reduced by: • reducing clearance; • reducing inertia rotary mass of passive parts; • improving lubrication; the better washed are hitting parts, the higher the damping action; • by a more suitable tuning of the clutch damper, natural frequencies can be moved outside of a critical region; • by adoption of a double mass damping flywheel Because noise is irradiated partly through the air and partly through the structure, it is a good practice to stiffen housing panels as much as possible, by suitable ribs and to increase local stiffness of interface points with the powertrain suspension 16.3 Shafts Gearbox shafts are made with many diameter changes, as they must allow fitting many different parts; it may also happen that some tooth profile is directly cut on them, because of small diameter Figure 16.8 shows the details of a shaft for a front wheel drive gearbox with transverse engine The many diameter variations must be smoothened with chamfers 16.3 Shafts 615 Fig 16.8 Some example of notching effect reduction on diameter transitions and transverse drills of a shaft of a single stage gearbox for front wheel drive (FIAT) or with edges rounding, to reduce torsion and bending stress concentration, even reducing resistant section Machine design manuals report static form factor for the most widely diffused section transitions; these factors are coefficients by which the stress obtained by the De Saint Venant theory application must be multiplied, to obtain real stress Shaft calculation can be performed following the same procedure we have suggested for gear wheels, to take into account fatigue phenomenon and changes in load amplitude While designing shafts, it is vitally important to introduce the displacement calculation due to load application; as a matter of fact, displacements (both linear and angular) may change teeth working conditions, with negative impact on noise and useful life From displacement study, some good design rules arise than can be summarized as follows: • to reduce the shaft span between bearing, by limiting as much as possible gear wheels and synchronizers width; • to install the wheels subject to highest loads as close to the bearings as possible; • to avoid too steep diameter transition, organizing components by increasing or decreasing diameters; • to avoid feather keys, preferring spline connections; • to smoothen diameter transitions and drilling, as shown on Fig 16.8; • to use circlips at the ends of the shaft only 16.4 Bearings Gearbox bearings are normally roller bearings; bush bearings are limited to lowly stressed idle gear wheels and to sliding bearings for internal shift mechanisms If possible, bearings are limited to two per shaft, avoiding hyperstatic mountings, too sensitive to machining tolerances 616 16 Design and Testing The problems to be considered when choosing a roller bearing are: • adequate component life; • compliance to shaft angular displacements; • compliance to differential thermal elongations of shafts (made of steel) and housings (made of aluminium or magnesium); • resistance to the oil pollution caused by components wear particles The bearings applied to shafts ends are mainly of four different types: • • • • deep groove ball bearing; four contacts ball bearings; cylindrical roller bearings; tapered roller bearings Deep groove ball bearings are widely applied because they can withstand both radial and axial loads They are easily assembled on the shaft, don’t request position adjustment and are reasonably cheap; on the contrary they have the disadvantage of large dimension and oil pollution sensitivity In consideration of this point, sometime self lubricated sealed ball bearings are preferred, also if gearbox splashed oil is abundantly available Four contact ball bearings are almost equivalent to previous ones, with the advantage of smaller dimensions at a slightly increased cost Cylindrical roller bearings have a high radial load capability but can’t withstand axial loads; they are usually coupled to ball bearings at the other end of the shaft They have the disadvantage of a higher cost and not working correctly, when substantial angular displacements are foreseen Tapered roller bearings are more and more extensively applied because of their optimum radial and axial load capacity (see for reference Fig 9.11) They have limited dimensions; their assembly on the gearbox is difficult, because inner race with roller cage and outer race are separable components They require, for a correct operation, an appropriate axial preload, which must be maintained at every work condition The axial position of at least one the two bearing must be adjusted, to compensate for the length tolerance of shaft and housing; in addition to that, one of the two shoulders must be conveniently made, in such a manner as to be insensitive to thermal displacements This result can be achieved by a spacer made with high thermal expansion material Bearings on idle gear wheels are mostly needle bearings; sometimes the races are the outer surface of the shaft and the inner surface of the gear wheel, to reduce radial dimensions 16.5 Lubricants The correct lubricant specification is vitally important for gearbox endurance, considering the manifold functions it is expected to perform; the lubricant functions are the following: 16.5 Lubricants 617 • reducing friction and wear of metallic and non metallic (rotary and sliding seals) parts; • distributing to colder areas the heat generated in hot ones, contributing to generated heat dissipation; • building up lubricated hydrodynamic films; • protecting components against corrosion; • deterging residual particles produced by wear; • performing all of the above functions for long time and at any possible working temperature Gearbox components lubrication is usually made by splashing and spraying oil by rotating gears It is therefore necessary to correctly exploit moving parts in order to grant presence and renewal of oil to all couples which need lubrication It is therefore necessary to design oil channels into the housing in such a way as they pick up the oil projected by wheels and distribute it to less exposed parts; transversal drilling on shafts may contribute to lubricate bearings of idle gear wheels On heavy duty manual gearboxes and on automatic gearboxes pressure lubrication is used; a gear wheels pump is moved by the input shaft and dedicated pipes and channels distribute the oil to the utilization points The lubricant distribution study would be rather difficult if tackled by mathematical models; in a simpler way, experimental analyses are set up, using modified gearboxes with transparent windows When teeth flanks mesh together different phenomena can be identified: • boundary lubrication, when surfaces are in contact without interposition of lubricant oil; their protection is solely granted by their nature; in this situation only lubricant additives modify surfaces chemical nature and prevent micro welding (friction modifiers); • mixed lubrication, when a partial separation of surfaces takes place, by effect of hydrodynamic forces generated by lubricant; • hydrodynamic lubrication, when a completely separated lubricant film is set up These three different situations take place according to the position of the contact point on the tooth flank and to the peripheral speed; on the tooth part which is closer to the primitive circumference mixed lubrication will take place at low speed, while hydrodynamic lubrication will take place at high speed; on parts near to the first and last point of contact there will be boundary and mixed lubrication These facts should be taken into account while choosing lubricant, as well as maximum temperature; it can reach 90–100 ◦ C, in the bulk of the lubricant, and 150–160 ◦ C locally On present cars the expected lubricant life is as long as gearbox life Lubricants which satisfy above conditions are mineral oils mixed to synthetic ones; a suitable additives package must be provided to: • prevent corrosion and oxidation products build up; • deterge and disperse pollutant particles; 618 16 Design and Testing • modify chemical nature of surfaces in contact, to prevent micro welds in boundary lubrication conditions Viscosity grade depends on operation temperature; multigrade oils are widely applied in Europe to standardize product throughout the market and to avoid unaccepted seasonal oil changes 16.6 Housings and Seals Functions of housings are the following: • reacting to forces and torques applied by the contained parts and distributing resultant forces to interfaces with engine and powertrain suspension; • maintaining the exact position of part contained inside; • wasting generated heat; • insulating generated noise; • allowing simple gearbox assembly and disassembly Housing lay-out can be classified according to three alternative architectures: • through housing, when bearings seats are cut on the same housing element which results particularly stiff and simple to be machined; there are openings, closed by removable covers which allow assembling and disassembling interior parts; • end loaded housings; the housing is cut transversely to shafts in two halves, therefore the bearing seats of the same shaft rest on different housing parts; • top loaded housings; they are cut along shafts in two halves, therefore each bearing rests on two different half seats; also in these last cases, additional covers must be provided, to make assembly and disassembly possible If the housing is divided in two halves each part is machined separately during most of the cycle Final boring of bearing seats will be made on assembled parts, to grant necessary tolerance; there are therefore no clearance location pins that allow unambiguous half housings assembly The most diffused architecture is the second one; it shows the advantage of an easier assembly and, on industrial vehicles gearboxes, allow organization by modules (clutch, splitter, gearbox, reducer, accessories, etc.) assembled in different versions Housings are usually made in aluminium and, sometime, in magnesium for weight reduction; they show a large number of local reinforcements, such ribs and webs to reach maximum stiffness with contained weight The example in Fig 16.9 shows inclined ribs to increase torsional stiffness to shafts reaction forces Housings must have breathers As a matter of fact, lubricant doesn’t occupy all available interior volume, to contain weight and the friction losses; without breather, the air in the free space would change its pressure, because of temperature variation, with problems on seals 16.6 Housings and Seals 619 Fig 16.9 Industrial vehicle gearbox housing, characterized by considerable inclined ribs; they increase global torsional stiffness and panel bending stiffness (Iveco) Air must exit during vehicle operation and re-enter at stops; dust and other pollutants must be kept away The breather is like a cap; suitable openings with separation labyrinths and filters, these lasts made with low density sintered metal are provided on the cap Rotary and sliding seals must be carefully designed Seals must be completely tight; even small leakages are now unaccepted for environment pollution and consequent refills To seal fixed parts are used preformed gaskets (Fig 16.10, middle), or in situ polymerized gaskets (Fig 16.10, right) In this case, gaskets are made with synthetic materials that are distributed on parts as paste and polymerize, becoming solid, after assembly; for this reason, covers must have suitable teeth (pointed by an arrow in figure) to avoid paste intrusion, after bolt tightening Covers must also have suitable projections to make the gasket rupture easier at disassembling For limited dimension and round covers, O-rings are also used (Fig 16.10, left) In case of preformed gaskets the number of bolts and the cover plate stiffness must grant an almost constant pressure contact To verify this fact a photographic pressure sensitive film can be useful Rotary seals are lip type with coil spring that clamps rotary shaft (Fig 16.11, top) Seals must be assembled with their springs inside the housings, to improve tightening to pressure increase due to temperature; a second lip can be added on the seal, to protect the sealing circle of dust contamination 620 16 Design and Testing Fig 16.10 Examples of seals on covers; from the left, an O-ring seal for round covers, a preformed gasket and a gasket polymerized in situ Fig 16.11 Examples of rotary seals (top) and of sliding seals (bottom) Sliding seals or small angle rotary seals (selector rods, Fig 16.11, bottom) are made with O-ring or square rings Seals for multi disc clutch actuation pistons are subject to high pressure and are made with rectangular rings with pressure sensitive lip (Fig 16.11, bottom right); these seals must be correctly oriented at assembled 16.7 Test Technologies Outline To verify functions and reliability of a gearbox, suitable test activities are conveniently performed after calculation ones; these tests must be made on different prototypes, to grant the suitable confidence level Test activities can be classified according to their time position, with reference to the development process of a new gearbox 16.7 Test Technologies Outline 621 There will be test demonstrating design adequacy, performed on a limited number of prototypes, manufactured with experimental tools After these tests there will be a second series of them, suitable to demonstrate manufacturing process adequacy, performed on a significant number of prototypes manufactured with mass production tools These tests are performed on benches and prototype vehicles; they are followed by a vehicle reliability demonstration program that should confirm transmission reliability and identify residual problems Same test cycle must be separately performed on all supplied parts Test activities can also be classified according to expected results; from this point of view we identify functional and reliability tests The fundamental characteristic of functional tests is that they are performed in short time, because the life doesn’t imply sudden result changes Some functional test can be repeated on the same prototype at different times of its life For example, mechanical efficiency measurements should be repeated after runin in time, to verify the consequent improvement In the same way leakage tests must be performed on new gearboxes to verify design and production process adequacy and at the end of useful life to find out unacceptable variations due to wear Typical functional test results are characteristic measurements that must be compared with project objectives Functional tests include the following: • Lubrication tests, where it is verified that oil reaches all points to be lubricated, also when the gearbox is inclined in three directions, according to the vehicle mission • Leakage test of lubricant oil • Power absorption tests, to be performed at any possible input torque, engine speed and gearbox speed • Selection and engagement forces, to be performed at different gearbox speed, vehicle speed and different meaningful oil temperatures • Noise emission tests at idle and at different working conditions at different speeds • Operation temperatures measurements • Misuse and abuse tests All these tests can be performed on few prototypes that must be machined and assembled with those dimensions that are relevant to phenomena in cause, as close to tolerance limits as possible; for instance rattle noise tests should be performed with the widest angular clearance, allowed by drawing specifications Endurance tests consist in having the component working for the expected life according to different possible mission profiles Expected results consist of failures that must occur after useful life; if they occur prematurely, they must be analyzed to design corrective countermeasures Repetition of all scheduled tests is in any case requested, until success is reached Reliability can be demonstrated by repeating endurance tests on a statistically significant prototype number Almost all functional and endurance tests can be performed on a bench or on a vehicle; it is useful to test a vehicle only for result confirmation, when success has 622 16 Design and Testing Fig 16.12 Schemes for transmission test benches; on the lower part of the figure there is the scheme of a recirculation power bench been reached in an adequate number of bench tests These are, in fact, easier to be supervised and failures are easier to be analyzed The stand-by time of a vehicle on test and the kind of damage consequent to a gearbox failure are unacceptable, in consideration of the high prototype fabrication cost Transmission test benches are particularly simple and include a foundation block on which a complete transmission can be installed; it can be put in rotation by an actual engine or by an electric motor; this last is more appropriate for long endurance tests When an electric motor is used, for some kind of test, a control circuit is necessary to produce an input torque with the periodic irregularity of the internal combustion engine The same result can be obtained by connecting motor and transmission through a torque pulsator According to the kind of test, bench schemes drawn on Fig 16.12 can have a brake to simulate the vehicle resistance Brakes can be coupled to variable inertia flywheels when vehicle inertia must be reproduced; brake and flywheel assembly can be substituted by a suitably controlled motor/generator, able to emulate vehicle resistance and to recover part of the wasted energy Sometimes (Fig 16.12, at bottom) and when tests imply constant input torque, shafts are connected through a transmission line The transmission line is preloaded through a constant torque, which stresses the gearbox at the desiderate level In this case motor power must pay for friction resistance only The picture in Fig 16.13 shows the interior of a typical modern test cell for complete transmissions 16.7 Test Technologies Outline 623 Fig 16.13 Interior of a typical modern test cell for complete transmissions This kind of test cell can be adapted to all kind of tests, including acoustic emission measurement: it is acoustically reverberant, but it can be changed to anechoic, by encapsulating the only transmission in a suitable cabin This kind of test cell can be adapted to all kind of tests, including acoustic emission measurement: it is acoustically reverberant, but it can be changed to anechoic, by encapsulating the only transmission in a suitable cabin We can see on the left the electric motor and its control system, the transmission test bed and the torsiometer shaft to measure the output torque In the small picture below, taken from the control console, we can see the electric brake The electric brake has a maximum power of 220 kW and a maximum torque of 600 Nm and can operate up to 7,000 rpm, simulating the torque fluctuation of an internal combustion engine in the field of frequencies between and 500 Hz The brake can absorb up to 200 kW, with a maximum torque of 3,000 Nm at 650 rpm; a maximum transmission ratio of at maximum torque can be simulated, sufficient to test gearbox and final drive separately, for the maximum torque or together for reduced torque References of Volume I Part I L Baudry de Saunier, L’automobile théorique et pratique (Omnia, Paris, 1900) O.C Schmidt, Practical Treatise on Automobiles (The American Text-book, Philadelphia, 1909) W Neubecker, Antique Automobile Body Construction and Restoration (Post Publication, Arcadia, 1912) M Peter, Der Kraftwagen (R C Schmidt, Berlin, 1937) M Serruys, La suspension et la direction des véhicules routiers (Dunod, Paris, 1947) M Boisseaux, L’automobile, méthodes de calcul (Dunod, Paris, 1948) J.C Maroselli, L’automobile et ses grands problèmes (Larousse, Paris, 1958) M.G Bekker, Off-the-Road Locomotion (University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1960) J.P Norbye, Sports Car Suspension (Sport Car Press, NY, 1965) 10 J Pawlowski, Vehicle Body Engineering (Business Books, London, 1969) 11 G Oliver, Cars and Coachbuilding (Sotheby Parke Bernet, London, 1981) 12 I.S Ageikin, Off-the-Road Mobility of Automobiles (Balkema, Rodderdam, 1987) 13 D Giacosa, Progetti alla FIAT (Automobilia, Torino, 1988) 14 T.D Gillespie, Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics (SAE, Warrendale, 1992) 15 M Mitschke, Dynamik der Kraftfahrzeuge (Springer, Berlin, 1995) 16 W.F Milliken, D.L Milliken, Race Car Vehicle Dynamics (SAE, Warrendale, 1995) 17 K Newton et al., The Motor Vehicle (SAE, Warrendale, 1996) 18 J Reinpell, H Stoll, The Automotive Chassis (Arnold, London, 1996) 19 P.L Bassignana et al., Storia fotografica dell’industria automobilistica italiana (Boringhieri, Torino, 1998) 20 J Fenton, Handbook of Automotive Body and Systems Design (Professional Engineering Publishing, London, 1998) © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 G Genta and L Morello, The Automotive Chassis, Mechanical Engineering Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35635-4 625 626 References of Volume I 21 J Fenton, Handbook of Automotive Powertrain and Chassis Design (Professional Engineering Publishing, London, 1998) 22 H Heisler, Vehicle and Engine Technology (Arnold, London, 1999) 23 J Fenton, Handbook of Vehicle Design Analysis (SAE, Warrendale, 1999) 24 J Appian-Smith, An Introduction to Modern Vehicle Design (SAE, Warrendale, 2002) 25 J Brown et al., Motor Vehicle Structures: Concepts and Fundamentals (SAE, Warrendale, 2002) Part II L Baudry de Saunier, L’automobile théorique et pratique (Omnia, Paris, 1900) O.C Schmidt, Practical Treatise on Automobiles (The American Text-book, Philadelphia, 1909) A Seniga, Il meccanismo di trasmissione negli automobili (Biblioteca d’automobilismo e d’aviazione, Milano, 1912) E.B Butler, Transmission Gears (Griffin, London, 1917) M Peter, Der Kraftwagen (R C Schmidt, Berlin, 1937) M Boisseaux, L’automobile, méthodes de calcul (Dunod, Paris, 1948) W.H Crouse, Automotive Transmissions and Power Trains (Mc Graw-Hill, New York, 1955) P Patin, Les transmissions de puissance (Eyrolles, Paris, 1956) D Thirlby, The Chain Driven Frazer Nash (Mc Donald, London, 1965) 10 G Rogliatti, C Valier, L Giovanetti, La frizione nel tempo (Valeo, Torino, 1980) 11 D Giacosa, Progetti alla FIAT (Automobilia, Torino, 1988) 12 H.J Schöpf, G Jürgens, J Pickard, Das neue Fünfgang-automatikgetriebe von Mercedes-Benz ATZ 91 (1989) 13 A Vari, Design Practices: Passenger Car Automatic Transmissions (SAE, Warrendale (PA), 1994) 14 J Fenton, Handbook of Automotive Powertrain and Chassis Design (Professional Engineering Publishing, London, 1998) 15 H Heisler, Vehicle and Engine Technology (Arnold, London, 1999) 16 G Lechner, H Naunheimer, Automotive Transmissions, Fundamentals, Selection, Design and Application (Springer, Berlin, 1999) 17 R.K Jurgen, Electronic Transmission Control (SAE, Warrendale (PA), 2000) 18 J Happian-Smith, An Introduction to Modern Vehicle Technology (SAE, Warrendale (PA), 2002) 19 J Greiner et al., 7-Speed Automatic Transmission from Mercedes-Benz ATZ 105 (2003) Index A Accelerometer, 341 Ackermann, Ackerman steer, 245 Active suspensions, 134, 348 Adaptive suspensions, 348 Adhesion rubber, 57 Airbag, 268 Aisin, 394 Alfa Romeo, 25 Aligning coefficient, 112 torque, 100 Allison, 394 Anderson, 403 Annulus, 565 Anti -dive, 358 -dive suspensions, 232 -lift suspensions, 232 -lock devices, 92 -roll bar, 160 -spin devices, 92 -squat, 358 -squat suspensions, 232 Antilock Braking System (ABS), 332 Anti Spin Regulator (ASR), 339 Apparent density, 63 Aquaplaning, 58, 93, 101 Aspect ratio, 39, 53 Attitude angle, 244 Audi, 441, 512, 518, 560, 561, 572, 583 Automated gearbox, 550 Auxiliary chassis structure, 361 Auxiliary frame, 365 B Band clutch, 417 Bar mechanism, 461 Beam model, 385 Belt transmission, 403 Bending fatigue, 607 Benz, 9, 403 BMW, 329 Bodmer, 421 Bollée, Bordino, Borg Warner, 493 Bosch, 332, 336 Boundary lubrication, 617 Brake band, 41 distributor, 290 drum, 41 efficiency, 308 external shoe, 41 Braking circuit, 279 Braking fluid, 289 Brush model, 60 Bulldozing © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 G Genta and L Morello, The Automotive Chassis, Mechanical Engineering Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35635-4 627 628 resistance, 70 C Cable mechanisms, 462 Calliper, 281 interlock, 458 Camber angle, 56, 85, 137 recovery, 138 stiffness, 111 coefficient, 111 thrust, 102 Cantilever leaf spring, 13 Carcass, 54 Carpet plot, 101 Carrier, 565 Caster angle, 137, 221, 268 Center distance, 612 Centre of rotation (wheel), 89 Characteristic curve, 487 Chassis, ix Citroën, 355 Clutch damper, 474 Cohesive soil, 63 Cohesivity, 68 Comfort, 220 Compressor, 298 Conicity force, 105 Constant gear, 437 Constant velocity joint, 543 Contact patch, 59 Contact pressure (tire), 87 Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT), 552 Controlled differential, 524 suspensions, 348 Control transmission efficiency, 478 Control valve assembly, 298 Conventional ply, 54 Cornering force, 98 Index stiffness, 109 coefficient, 110 Cotal, 423 Countershaft, 410 gearbox, 412 Crash, 219, 268 Critical speed of the tire, 76 Cross ply, 54 Cross member, 45 Crown angle, 53 Cugnot, 402 D DAF, 428 Daimler, 9, 403 Damping characteristic, 168 coefficient, 168 Dana, 394 De Dion and Bouton, 420 De Dion axle, 202 Dejbjerg, 34 Delphi, 327 Dependent suspension, 134 De Rivaz, 403 Design point, 487 Diaphragm spring, 468, 470 Differential, 509 mechanical efficiency, 519 Direct drive, 437, 444 Disc, 51 clutch, 418 Disengagement load, 478 mechanism, 468 stroke, 478 Distributor valve, 300 Dodge, 426 Dog clutch gearbox, 410 Double clutching, 408, 551 Double shock, 501 Double stage gearbox, 396, 431 Double tube shock absorber, 164 Index Driven plate, 467, 473 Driving plate, 467 Dual Clutch Transmission (DCT), 559 Dubonnet, 19 Duesemberg, 42 Dunlop, 38 Dynaflow, 426 E Eaton, 394 Effective rolling radius, 71, 89 Efficiency map, 435 Elastic bushing, 154 Elasticity rubber, 57 Elasto-kinematic behavior, 138, 222, 268 Electric Power Steering (EPS), 262 Electromagnetic clutch, 423 Electro Mechanical Brakes (EMB), 348 Electronic Brake Distributor (EBD), 336 Electronic Hydraulic Brakes (EHB), 347 Electronic Parking Brake (EPB), 347 Electronic Stability Program (ESP), 337 Elliot, Emergency braking system, 278 Endurance, 604, 607 Engine brake, 584 Epicycloidal gearbox, 421, 423 Equator plane, 53 Erech, 31 External shifting mechanisms, 455 F Fading, 280, 289 Falchetto, 18 Fatigue behavior, 216, 267 testing, 387 FCA, 142, 149, 170, 173, 176, 179, 181, 185, 186, 191, 193, 199, 329, 350, 362, 367, 369, 394, 442, 443, 456–460, 463, 464, 495, 512, 517, 528, 543 Ferguson, 526 Ferodo, 41, 415 629 FIAT, 10, 20, 23, 28, 46, 47, 49, 194, 326, 404, 407, 412, 414, 494, 615 Final drive, 399, 509, 513 Finger, 457 First generation bearing, 158 Fixed caliper, 283 Flange, 51 Ford, 23, 189, 420 leaf spring, 13 Fork, 456 Föttinger, 424, 481 Four-link suspension, 226 Four wheels drive, 396 Wheel Steering (4WS), 324 Frazer Nash, 410 Friction angle, 68 coefficient, 59 Friction circle, 118 Front drive differential, 511 Front wheel drive, 395 Frood, 41, 415 Fuel consumption map, 577 Full active, 358 Full automatic gearbox, 550 Fuller gearbox, 447, 449 G Gearbox, 398, 401 schemes, 431 Gear shifting mechanism, 398 Getrag, 394, 440 Globoidal screw and sector, 256 GM, 394 Dynaflow, 426 Hydramatic, 424 Goodyear, 39 Gough diagram, 101 Grating, 612 Graziano, 394 Griffith, 407 Guided