Introduction to the electronic properties of materials

GHANPtSA Introduction to the Electronic Properties o f Materials David Jiles A meS Laboratory US OePartrnent of Energy and Department of Materials Science and Engineering r ■ Department of Electrical and C°mputer Engineering Iowa State University, USA CHAPMAN & HALL London Glasgow • Weinheim • New York • Tokyo • Melbourne • Madras Tai ngay!!! Ban co the xoa dong chu nay!!! Introduction to the Electronic Properties of Materials David Jiles Ames Laboratory US Department of Energy and Department of Materials Science and Engineering and * Department o f Electrical and Computer Engineering Iowa State University, USA i 508623 CHAPMAN & HALL London • Glasgow • Weinheim • New York • Tokyo Melbourne • To Helen, Sarah, Elizabeth and Andrew, from whom so many hours have been taken How soon hath Time, the subtle thief of youth, stolen on his wing Milton C ontents Preface xiii Acknowledgements xiv Glossary of symbols xv SI units, symbols and dimensions xxi Values of selected physical constants xxii Foreword for the student xxiii Part One Fundamentals of Electronsin Materials 1 Properties of a material continuum 1.1 Relationships between macroscopic properties of materials 1.2 Mechanical properties 1.3 Electrical properties 1.4 Optical properties 1.5 Thermal properties 1.6 Magnetic properties 1.7 Relationships between various bulk properties 1.8 Conclusions References Further Reading Exercises 3 11 14 17 20 20 20 21 21 22 22 25 32 39 39 39 39 Properties of atoms in materials 2.1 The role of atoms within a material 2.2 The harmonic potential model 2.3 Specific heat capacity 2.4 Conclusions References Further Reading Exercises viii Contents Conduction electrons in materials - classical approach 3.1 Electrons as classical particles in materials 3.2 Electrical properties and the classical free-electron model 3.3 Thermal properties and the classical free-electron model 3.4 Optical properties of metals 3.5 Conclusions References Further Reading Exercises Conduction electrons in materials - quantum corrections 4.1 Electronic contribution to specific heat 4.2 Wave equation for free electrons 4.3 Boundary conditions: the Sommerfeld model 4.4 Distribution of electrons among allowed energy levels 4.5 Material properties predicted by the quantum freeelectron model 4.6 Conclusions References Further Reading Exercises / Bound electrons and the periodic potential 5.1 Models for describing electrons in materials 5.2 Solution of the wave equation in a one-dimensional, periodic square-well potential 5.3 The origin of energy bands in solids: the tight-binding approximation 5.4 Energy bands in a solid 5.5 Reciprocal or wave vector k-space 5.6 Examples of band structure diagrams 5.7 Conclusions References Further Reading Exercises Part Two Properties of Materials Electror ic properties of metals 6.1 6.2 63 Electrical conductivity of metals Reflectance and absorption The Fermi surface References Further Reading Exercises 41 41 43 46 49 57 58 59 59 60 60 61 63 69 76 79 80 80 81 82 82 85 91 94 99 105 106 106 106 107 109 111 111 112 114 126 127 127 Contents ix Electronic properties of semiconductors 7.1 Electron band structures of semiconductors 7.2 Intrinsic semiconductors 7.3 Extrinsic (or impurity) semiconductors 7.4 Optical properties of semiconductors 7.5 Photoconductivity 7.6 The Hall effect 7.7 Effective mass and mobility of charge carriers 7.8 Semiconductor junctions References Further Reading Exercises 129 129 134 138 141 142 143 145 146 154 155 155 Electrical and thermal properties of materials 8.1 Macroscopic electrical properties 8.2 Quantum mechanical description of conduction electron behaviour 8.3 Dielectric properties 8.4 Other effects caused by electric fields, magnetic fields and thermal gradients 8.5 Thermal properties of materials 8.6 Other thermal properties References Further Reading Exercises 156 156 Optical properties of materials 9.1 Optical properties 9.2 Interpretation of optical properties in termsof simplified electron band structure 9.3 Band structure determination from optical spectra 9.4 Photoluminescence and electroluminesence References Further Reading Exercises 180 180 Magnetic properties of materials 10.1 Magnetism in materials 10.2 Types of magnetic material 10.3 Microscopic classification of magnetic materials 10.4 Band electron theory of magnetism 10.5 The localized electron model of magnetism 10.6 Applications of magnetic materials References 198 198 201 203 207 215 218 218 10 160 163 166 168 172 178 179 179 183 190 193 196 196 196 x Contents Further Reading Exercises Part Three 11 Applications of Electronic Materials Microelectronics - semiconductor technology 11.1 Use of materials for specific electronic functions 11.2 Semiconductor materials 11.3 Typical semiconductor devices 11.4 Microelectronic semiconductor devices 11.5 Future improvements in semiconductors References Further Reading 219 219 221 223 223 225 226 234 238 241 241 12 Optoelectronics - solid-state optical devices 12.1 Electronic materials with optical functions 12.2 Materials for optoelectronic devices 12.3 Lasers 12.4 Fibre optics and telecommunications 12.5 Liquid-crystal displays / References Further Reading 242 242 245 249 255 256 257 257 13 Quantum electronics - superconducting materials 13.1 Quantum effects in electrical conductivity 13.2 Theories of superconductivity 13.3 Recent developments in high-temperature superconductors 13.4 Applications of superconductors References Further Reading 259 259 262 268 269 278 278 14 Magnetic materials - magnetic recording technology 14.1 Magnetic recording cf information 14.2 Magnetic recording materials 14.3 Conventional magnetic recording using particulate media 14.4 Magneto-optic recording References Further Reading 279 279 282 284 290 293 293 15 294 294 296 299 304 Electronic materials for transducers - sensors and actuators 15.1 Transducers 15.2 Transducer performance parameters 15.3 Transducer materials considerations 15.4 Ferroelectric materials Contents 15.5 16 xi Ferroelectrics as transducersReferences Further Reading 312 Electronic materials for radiation detection 16.1 Radiation sensors 16.2 Gas-filled detectors 16.3 Semiconductor detectors 16.4 Scintillation detectors 16.5 Thermoluminescent detectors 16.6 Pyroelectric sensors References Further Reading 313 313 314 315 321 322 323 323 324 Solutions 307 311 - 325 Subject Index 359 Author Index 369 Preface The subject of electronics, and in particular the electronic properties of materials, is one which has experienced unprecedented growth in the last thirty years The discovery of the transistor and the subsequent development of integrated circuits has enabled us to manipulate and control the electronic properties of materials to such an extent that the entire telecommunications and computer industries are dependent on the electronic properties of a few semiconducting materials The subject area is now so important that no modern physics, materials science or electrical engineering degree programme can be considered complete without a significant lecture course in electronic materials Ultimately the course requirements of these three groups of students may be quite different, but at the initial stages of the discussion of electronic properties of materials, the course requirements are broadly identical for each of these groups Furthermore, as the subject continues to grow in importance, the initial teaching of this vital subject needs to occur earlier in the curriculum in order to give the students sufficient time later to cover the increasing amount of material It is with these objectives in mind that the present book has been written It is aimed at undergraduates who have only an introductory knowledge of quantum mechanics The simplified approach used here enables the subject to be introduced earlier in the curriculum The goal at each stage has been to present the principles of the behaviour of electrons in materials and to develop a basic understanding with a minimum of technical detail This has resulted in a discussion in breadth rather than depth, which touches all of the key issues and which provides a secure foundation for further development in more specialized courses at a later stage The presentation here should be of interest to two groups of students: those who have a primary interest in electronic materials and who need an introductory text as a stepping-stone to more advanced texts; and those whose primary interest lies elsewhere but who would nevertheless benefit from a broad, passing knowledge of the subject As with the earlier textbook, Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials (1991) the subject area under discussion here is truly multidisciplinary, spanning the traditional subject areas of physics, electrical engineering and materials science In writing this book I have striven to keep this in mind in xiv Preface order to maintain the interest of a wider audience Therefore some of the treat­ ment will seem relatively easy for one group of students while relatively hard for another Over the entire book however I think that the general mix of subject areas leads to a text that is equally difficult for these three groups of students Chapters 1-5 could easily be included in a traditional solid-state physics course and should be very familiar to physicists However chapters 6-10 will appeal more to materials scientists since they will be more familiar with dealing with meso- and macroscopic properties Finally chapters 11-15 discuss the functional performance of these materials in technological applications which are likely to be of most interest to electrical engineers These chapters provide a rapid introduction to five important applications of electronic materials, each of which could be further developed in a separate advanced course Also, as in Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, the early chapters of this book contain a number of key exercises for the student to attempt Completed worked solutions are given at the back of the book It has been my experience that this is much more useful than simply giving a numerical answer at the back, since if you not get the problem exactly right under those conditions, you cannot easily find out where you went wrong! On completion of the text the reader should have gained an understanding of the behaviour of electrons within materials, an appreciation of how the electrons determine the magnetic, thermal, optical and electrical properties of materials and an awareness of how these electronic properties are controlled for use in a number of important technological applications I hope that the text will provide a useful introduction to more detailed books on the subject and that it will also provide the background for developing the interest of students in this fascinating subject at an early stage in their careers Finally, I would like to acknowledge the assistance of several friends and colleagues who have helped me in writing this book In particular thanks go to M F Berard, F J Friedlaender, R D Greenough, R L Gunshor, J Mallinson, R W McCallum, R E Newnham, S B Palmer and A H Silver DJ Ames, Iowa ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to those publishers credited in captions for permission to reproduce some of the figures in this book Solutions 357 spontaneous magnetization Consequently dM/dH must be infinite at the origin of the Af, H plane / dM \ _ Nm \ dH ///= o (3kBT/fA0m)— otNm M =0 Therefore, for ferromagnetism to occur we must have the denominator equal to zero (actually negative values also give ferromagnetism) This means that a must have a value of, 3kBT _ (3)(1.38 x 10~23)(300) ^ /j0Nm2 (4n x 10“ 7)(9 x 1028)(2 x 10~23)2 therefore for ferromagnetic ordering to occur we must have a ^274.5 Subject Index Page numbers appearing in bold refer to figures and page numbers appearing in italic refer to tables Acceptor elements 139 Alloy semiconductors 225-6 Amorphous silicon 237 Anharmonicity of interatomic potential 31-2 Anhysteretic magnetization, for magnetic recording 286-7 Anomalous skin effect 124 Antiferroelectric phase 307 Antiferromagnetism 202 Attenuation coefficient (a) 180-81 conductivity, relation to 112-14 edge 142-3 in insulators 114 optical 112-14 spectra 190-93 of aluminium 191, 191 of copper 191-2, 192 of germanium 191, 192 Audio recording 280 Band electron moments (3d/4s) 213 Band gaps 114 engineering 239-40 of semiconductors 129-34, 130 Band structure diagrams 130-31 of aluminium 105, 105-6 of copper 105 interband transitions, interpretation of 184 intraband transitions, interpretation of 185 of gallium arsenide 132, 133 of germanium 131, 132 interatomic spacing, effects of 133 of metal, schematic 111-12 optical spectra, determination from 190-93 of semiconductors 129-34 of silicon 132, 132 in three dimensions 102-3 Band theory of ferromagnetism 210-11 of magnetism 207-15 Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer theory of superconductivity 262 Barium titanate 305 Biasing of p-n junction 149-50,227,228 Biot-Savart law 199 Bound electrons 84 Boundary conditions 63-9 Bragg reflection 100 and band gap energy 119 Breakdown strength 165 Brillouin zones 100-102,115 of a bcc lattice 104-5 boundaries 115 of an fee lattice 103-4 Broadening of energy bands under pressure 91-4 Cadmium sulphide 247 360 Subject index Capacitance 9-10 Chromium dioxide 282 Classical electron model, basis 42-3 Classical statistics, failure to describe electrons correctly 71-2 Cohesive energy 23-5 Colours of semiconductors 185-6 vision and physiological factors 186 Conduction band theory of paramagnetism 207-8 Conduction electrons 84-5 Conductivity effects of electric field on electron velocity distribution 160-61 electrical 8, 157-9 Fermi sphere displacement 160-61, 162-3 mobility 160 in semiconductors 158-9 extrinsic 140-41 intrinsic 136-8 temperature dependence 157-9 thermal 14-15, 169 ,/ Coupling coefficient for transducers 299 Critical current density in superconductors 268 Critical field, superconducting 261 Critical temperature, superconducting 261 y Crystal classes 23 Crystal lattice 22-5 Curie law 19,206-7 Curie temperature 202, 202 Curie-Weiss law 18-19,216 Current density Cyclotron, resonance 126 Diamagnets 201 Dielectric coefficients and optical coefficients 181-3 Dielectric constants 163-5 of aluminium 190, 191 definition Dielectric field strength 10, 165 Dielectric properties 8-10 Diffused-junction detectors 315-17, 318 Digital recording 279, 280 Diode equation 153 Diode lasers 254 applications 255 Direct band gaps 132 Direct electron transitions 186 Displacement of Fermi sphere by electric field 162-3 Donor elements 139 Dopant, in extrinsic semiconductors 224 Drift mobility 160 Drude theory assumptions 42-3 electrical conductivity 44-5 electrical properties 43-6 electronic heat capacity 58 of electrons in metals 42-3 and Hagen-Rubens relation 53-5 Lorentz, extension by 55 Ohm’s law 45-6 optical properties 49-57 predictions of 6! 51,52 of e2 51, 52 thermal conductivity 46-8 thermal properties 46-9 Wiedemann-Franz law, explanation of 48-9 Dulong-Petit law 16-17 Dark current 143 de Haas-van Alphen effect 124, 125-6 Debye temperature 34 significance of 37 Density of states 73-4, 90-91 for free electrons 74-6,135-6 Depletion layer 148-9, 227, 315 Depolarized ferroelectrics 305 Devices for energy conversion 295-6 Effective mass, of electrons 97-9, 145-6 Effects of interatomic spacing on energy bands 91-4 Elastic moduli 6-7, 28-9 temperature dependence 5, wave velocity, relationship to 28-9 Electric dipole moment 300 Electric field 7-8 Electric polarization 292, 305 Subject index Electrical breakdown strength 165 Electrical conductivity definition Drude theory of 44-5 in metals 111-12 quantum effects 259-62 Electrical properties 7-10, 159-60 of semiconductors, control of 224 thermal properties, relationship to 3-5, 15 Electroluminescence 193-4, 195-6 Electroluminescent displays 247 Electron angular momentum 203 Electron band structure 102-3 Electron energy distributions 73 levels in finite square-well potential 69-76 in infinite square-well potential 64-6 wave vector, relationship to 62-3 Electron mobility 137 Electron model (classical), basis 42-3 Electron wave functions in finite square-well potential 66-9 in infinite square-well potential 64-6 in one-dimesional periodic potential 85-91 Electronic band structures, of semiconductors 129-34 Electronic contribution to heat capacity 60-61 Electronic density of states 73 Electronic exchange interaction 211 Electronic magnetic moments 203-4 Electrons in materials, classical model 41-3 in a periodic potential 83 Electrostriction 300-301 magnetostriction, comparison with 302-3 piezoelectricity, comparison with 302 Electrostrictive coupling coefficient 299 Electrostrictive strain 297 Electrostrictive transducers, frequency range 303 Empty lattice 90 361 Energy, electron distributions 73 levels in finite square-well potential 69-76 in infinite square-well potential 64-6 wave vector, relationship to 62-3 Energy bands 94-9 curvature and effective mass of electrons 97-9 nomenclature 96-7 origin 91-4 in real space 95 width 95 Energy conversion materials 294, 296 Energy coupling coefficient 299 Epitaxial growth of semiconductors 235 Ettingshausen effect 168 Exchange coupling 211 Exchange energy 211-12 Exchange field 211 Exciton generation 184, 185 Extended-zone schenme 102 Extinction coefficient 11-12, 180, 182 definition 11-12 physical significance 181 External area of Fermi surface 127 Extrinsic semiconductors 138-41 acceptors and donors 139 conductivity 140-41 Fabrication of microprocessors 234-7 of semiconductor radiation detectors 315-18 Failure of classical statistics 71-2 Fermi-Dirac function 72 Fermi-Dirac statistics 73 Fermi energy 96 Fermi energy level 70 Fermi level, in semiconductors 133 Fermi sphere 115 Fermi surface 114—27 for aluminium 122, 123 for copper 121 determining, methods of 123-5 distorted 119-20 extremal area 126 362 Subject index Fermi surface contd within first zone 119-20 first zone, extending beyond 117-18 for lead 122, 123 in a periodic potential 119-20 reduced-zone scheme 115-19 three-dimensional 120-23 two-dimensional, hypothetical 117-19 Ferroelectric displays 256 Ferroelectric domain walls 305-6 Ferroelectric domains 303,303-4,305-6 Ferroelectric hysteresis 304, 304 Ferroelectric phase 307 Ferroelectrics 304—7 ageing of 308 for data storage 311 depolarized 305 paraelectric phase 306 polarized (‘poled’) 305, 308 Ferromagnets 202 Fibre, optical 255-6 Fibre optics 255-6 Field dependence of magnetization in Pauli paramagnetism 208-10 / Finite square-well potential 66-9 Flat band representation 185 Fluorescence 194-5 Flux counting using a SQUID 273-5 Flux exclusion 264 Meissner effect 260 Flux pinning^ in superpdnductors 264 in sujperconducting circuit 267 Flux trapping 267 Force constant 25, 28 Forward biasing of p-n junction 149,150 Fourier transform of periodic potential 83 Free electron approximation, comparison with tight binding approximation 93 Free electron density of states 135-6 Free-electron Fermi surface 117-19 Free electron wave equation 61-3 Free electrons 61-3, 83 parabola 62 Gallium arsenide 153-4, 195, 225-6, 238-9 band gap 154 optoelectronics capability 154 properties 154 spread of operation 153 Gallium nitride 247 Gallium phosphide 247 Gamma-iron oxide 282 Gas-filled radiation detectors 314-15 Geiger-Muller detector 314 GeLi detectors 318-20 Generation coefficient 298 Germanium, problems with room temperature leakage current 225 Gorter-Casimir theory of superconductivity 262 Hagen-Rubens law 13-14 Hall coefficient definition 145 values 145 Hall effect 143-5 Hall field 144, 145 Hall mobility 160 Harmonic potential 25-32 Heat capacity classical theory of 32-4 Debye model 36 Debye T3 law of 34 definition of 15-16 Dulong-Petit law of 33-4 Einstein model 34-6 electronic contribution to 60-61 of electrons Drude prediction 58 quantum theory 76-7 at high temperatures 38 at low temperatures 38 quantum theory of 34-6 specific heat 15-16, 32-8 variation with temperature 32-4, 33 Heat sensors 323 Heterojunction lasers 254 Hexagonal ferrites, recording material 283 High-speed computers 242-3 High-temperature superconductors 268 Homojunction lasers 254 Subject index Impurity level excitation 186-7 Impurity semiconductors 138-41 Indirect band gaps 132 Indirect electron transitions 186 Infinite square-well potential 64-6 boundary conditions 64-6 Infra-red detection 142-3 Injection diodes 247-8 Insulator to metal transition under pressure 93-4 Insulators and metals, differences between 79, 80 Integrated circuits (ICs) 234 Interatomic forces in materials 23-5 Interatomic potential 25-32 anharmonic 31-2 Interband absorption 184 Interband electron transitions 184, 188-9 Intraband absorption 185 Intraband electron transitions 185, 188-90 Intrinsic semiconductors 134-8 Ion-implantation 235 Itinerant electron model of magnetism in materials 198-9 Itinerant electron theory of ferromagnetism 210-11 Josephson effect 276 Josephson junctions 271-3, 271, /-vector distribution displacement by electric field 163 ¿-coefficient for transducers 299 ¿-space (reciprocal space) 99-105 Kronig-Penney model 88-9 Laser diodes 254 Laser light collimation of 252 phase coherence of 252 Lasers 249-55 applications 255 heterojunction 254 homojunction 254 materials 254 semiconductor 254 Lattice symmetry 23 Lattice vibration allowed modes 29-31 boundary conditions 30 equivalence of different modes 29-31 number of wave vectors possible in lattice 30-31 quantized 29-31 Lead ziroconate titanate (PZT) 307, 309-11 chemical additions 310 variation of coupling coefficient 310 Light detection in semiconductors 249 Light emission in lasers 252 in LEDs 248-9 Light emitting diodes (LEDs) 243, 245 Light generation in semiconductors 249 Linear lattices 26, 27-8 Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) 243, 256-7 Lithium drifted germanium (GeLi) detectors 318 fabrication 319-20 Localized electron model of ferromagnetism 215-18 of magnetism in materials 198 London theory of superconductivity 262 Lorentz force 143-4 276 277 363 Macroscopic properties dependence on external influences interrelationships 3-5, 20 measurement of Magnetic domains 217-18 Magnetic field, H 199 Magnetic induction, B 199 Magnetic materials applications 218 macroscopic classification 201-3 microscopic classification 203-7 Magnetic moments 17 in cobalt 213 in iron 213 in nickel 213 of electrons 198, 204 per atom 212-13 364 Subject index Magnetic order-disorder transistions 205 Magnetic permeability 18, 201 definition 18 values 200 Magnetic properties 17-19 Magnetic recording 279-82 anhysteretic magnetization 286-7 industry market size 280 longitudinal (conventional) 284-90 magnetic properties of materials for 280-82 materials 282-4 media 280-82 perpendicular 288-9 principles of 280 read-write head 285-6 reading process 287-8 recording process 286-7 speeds and densities, comparison of 292, 293 storage densities 289-90 writing process 286-7 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRty 269- 70 Magnetic susceptibility 171-8, 201 definition 17-18 oscillations 125-6 quantum free electron theory 77-9 temperature dependence 5, 18-19, 205-6 , values , 200 Magnetism, in materials 198-201 Magnetization 17, 199-200 definition 17 process 218 Magneto-optic recording 290-93 access times 292 mechanism 291-2 signal-to-noise ratios 292 storage densities 290-91 Magnetomechanical effect 301 Magnetometers, superconducting 270- 72 Magnetoreflectance 193 Magnetoresistance 125, 166-7 Magnetostriction 301 Magnetostrictive coupling coefficient 299 Magnetostrictive strain 301 Magnetostrictive strain coefficient 297 Magnetostrictive transducers, frequency range 303 Magnets, superconducting 259 Materials for optoelectronic devices 245-9 properties, quantum free electron predictions 76-9 for semiconductor lasers 254 Mean field approximation, with domains 217 Mechanical properties 6-7 Meissner effect 260, 263, 264-7, 266 Melting points 23, 25 Microelectronic devices 233-7 Microelectronics 223-4 Microprocessors 233, 234 fabrication 234-7 Microscopic electron mobility 159 Minority carrier injection 247-8 Mobility of charge carriers 145-6 of electrons 137 Model density of states for square well 74-6 Modulation spectroscopy 192-3 Molar heat capacity 17 ‘Nearly free’ electron approximation 89-90 Neel temperature 202, 203 Nernst effect 168 Noncrystalline materials 165 Number density of charge carriers 139 Number of electrons contributing to electrical conduction 162 Ohm’s law 7-8, 157 Drude theory of 45-6 quantum corrections 161-2 Optical absorption 13 processes 184-5 Optical communication 255-6 Optical computers 238-9 Subject index 365 Optical constants n, k, physical significance Photoluminescence 193-6 181 Photovoltaic cells 237 Optical displays 242, 243 Piezoelectric effect 299-300, 302 Optical fibres 242 Piezoelectric polarization coefficient 298 multi-mode 256 Piezoelectric response, speed of 303 single mode 256 Piezoelectric strain 297 Optical functions of materials 242-5 Piezoelectric transducers, frequency range Optical properties 11-14 303 band structure, influence of 183-90 Piezoelectricity 299-300 electrical properties, relationship to électrostriction, comparison with 302 3-5, 13-14 in ferroelectrics 308 electron band structure, relationship mechanism of 302 to 114 Piezomagnetic response, speed of 303 of materials 180-83 Piezomagnetism 301 -2 n, k, and R, table of 12 Piezoreflectance 193 ^ of semiconductors 141 p-n junctions 146-52, 243-4 thermal properties, relationship with band structure diagram 227 3-5 current/voltage characteristics 229 Optical pumping 250-51 detectors 315-18 Optical reflectance, Drude theory of 52 reverse biasing 318 -Optoelectronic devices 238 Polarization 8-9, 164-5 Optoelectronics 242-5 Polarized (‘poled’) ferroelectrics 304-5, 308 Order-disorder transitions 205 Poling of ferroelectrics 302-3 Polymers 165 Paraelectrics 306 Population inversion of electron energies Paramagnets 201-2 250-51 Particle in box, quantum model 63 Positron annihilation 125 Pauli exclusion principle 63, 69-71 Probability Pauli paramagnetism 207-10 of electron elevation to conduction Peltier effect 168 band 132, 135 ^ Penetration depth 180-81 of occupancy of states 70, 71, 72-3 in superconductors 267, 267 of occurrence of electron 61 Periodic zone scheme 115-16 Purity of semiconductors 187-8 Permanent magnetic materials 218 Pyroelectric sensors 323 Permittivity 8-10, 164-5 Perpendicular media 288-9 Quantization of lattice vibrations 29-31 for magnetic recording 283 Quantum corrections to classical theory of Phase coherence of laser light 252 heat capacity 34-6 Phonons 31,34,262 Quantum free electron model Phosphorescence 194-5 failures 79-80 Photoconductivity 142-3 predictions Photodetectors 242, 243 of heat capacity of electrons 76-7 Photodiodes (reverse-biased p-n junction) of magnetic susceptibility 77-9 243 of materials properties 76-9 Photoelectric effect 56-7 of thermionic emission 79 Photoelectric work function 56-7, 56 successes 79 Photolithography 235 366 Subject index Quantum number space (n-space) 74-5 Quantum theory of heat capacity 37-8 Quartz crystal resonator 300 four-level 253 population inversion 250-51 three-level 253 two-level 250 Radiation detectors 313 Semiconductor materials 225-6 Radiation sensors 313-14 Semiconductor radiation detectors Randall-Wilkins equations 175 313-14, 315-20 Read/write head, magnetic recording fabrication 315-18 285-6 Semiconductors Reciprocal space (fc-space) 99-105 alloy type 225-6 Reduced-zone scheme 102,115-16 extrinsic 138-41 advantages and disadvantages 116-17 impurity 138-41 Reflectance 12-13, 112-14 intrinsic 134-8 definition 12 lasers 254 dependence on conductivity 13, 14 light sources 244-5 dielectric coefficients, relationship to likely future developments 237-40 112-14 n-type 139, 146-53 energy dependence optical properties 141 in metals 13 p-type 139, 146—53 in semiconductors and insulators purity 187-8 12-13 speed of operation 240 spectra 190-93 temperature dependence of electrical of aluminium 190, 191 properties 139-40 Refractive index 11, 180, 182 / Sensors 294-5 definition 11 Shear modulus physical significance 181 Shubnikov-de Haas effect 126 Residual electrical resistance 260 SiLi detector 319, 319-20 Resistance Silicon Resistivity, electrical amorphous 237 leakage current at room temperature Reverse biasing p f p-n junction 149, 150 225 Rigid band n^odel 213-15 / resistivity variation with impurity Saturation magnetization 218 concentration 225, 225 Silicon carbide 247 of recording material 283-4 Sehrodinger wave equation (energy Soft magnetic materials 218 Sommerfeld free electron model 63-9,85 equation) 62, 63 Scintillation detectors 321-2 failures 79 successes 79-80 principles of operation 322 Space charge region 148, 227, 315 Seebeck effect 167 Semiconductor devices 150-53, 226-33 Specific heat, temperature dependence microelectronic 233-7 Spherical Fermi surface 115 Semiconductor fabrication, possible Spin-up and spin-down half-bands refinements 237-8 211-12 Semiconductor junction radiation detectors 315 Spontaneous magnetization 217-18 SQUIDs 259,269-71 Semiconductor junctions 146-54 Semiconductor lasers 243 principles of operation 273-5 applications 255 Stimulated emission of light 251 Subject index Storage densities, for magnetic recording 289-90 Strain 297 derivative 297-8 hysteresis in 296, 296 Superconducting circuit 267-8 Superconducting electronic devices 275-8 Superconducting magnetometers 271-3 Superconducting magnets 259, 269-70 Superconducting transition 261-2 Superconducting wires 269-70 Superconductivity 259, 260-61 Superconductors applications 269-78 high-temperature 268-9 Type I 264 Type II 264 Supercurrent in SQUID magnetometer 271-5 Surface barrier detectors 315-17, 317 Surface currents in superconductors 263 Symmetry points in Brillouin zone 104 Telecommunications 255-6 Temperature dependence of charge carrier mobility 159 of conductivity in metals 157-8 in semiconductors 158-9 of magnetic susceptibility 205-6 of susceptibility 18-19 Temperature independent paramagnetic susceptibility 210 Thermal conduction mechanism 169 Thermal conductivity 14-15, 169 definition 14 Drude theory of 46-8 in insulators 171-2 in metals 169-71 Thermal excitation of electrons across band gap 134-6 Thermal properties of materials 14-17, 168-72 Thermionic emission, quantum free electron theory 79 Thermoluminescence 172 applications 178 367 conditions for 173-4 depth of electron traps 177 emission of light on heating 177 four stages of 322, 322-3 glow curves 172, 178 location of peaks in 177-8 intensity of emitted light 176 lifetime of electrons in traps 175-6 mechanism of 172-4 occupancy of traps in 175 Randall-Wilkins equation 175 theory of 174-5 Thermoluminescent detectors 322-3 principle of operation 178 Three-five (III—V) semiconductors 313, 322-3 Thermoreflectance 193 Three-five (III—V) semiconductors 225-6, 246-7 band gaps 226 Tight binding approximation 91-4 comparison with free-electron approximation 93 Transducers 294-6 classification 295, 295-6 ferroelectric 307-11 materials considerations 299-303 materials, polycrystalline 308 non-linearity 295 performance parameters 296-9 resonance in 295 Transistors 229-30 band structures 230-31 biasing 231-2 characteristics 232-3 current/voltage characteristics 233 development of 223 gain 233 Two-six (II-VI) semiconductors 247 Type I superconductors 264 Type II superconductors 264 van der Waals forces 23, 25 Velocity of wave in lattice 28 Very large-scale integration (VLSI) 233 Video recording 279, 280 Voltage generator coefficient 298 Vortex state of superconductor 263-4 368 Subject index Wave equation for electrons bound 64-6 in finite square-well potential 66-9 imposition of boundary conditions 63-9 in lattice 28 in one-dimensional periodic potential 85-91 Wave velocity elastic modulus, relationship to 28-9 in lattice 28 Wave vector 62-3 Weiss mean field 216 Weiss theory of ferromagnetism 216-17 Wiedemann-Franz law 15 Drude theory of 48 Young’s modulus Zinc selenide 247 Zinc sulphide 247 Author Index Abeies, F 181, 190 Akhiezer, A.I Alexander, J.M 179 Allison, J 223 Anderson, J.C 39, 164, 179 Anderson, P.W 271 Araujo, C.A 311 Ashcroft, N.W ¿9, 123 Atherton, D.L 302 Bardeen, J 223, 262 Batlogg, B 276 Bednorz, J.G 268 Bell, T.E 238, 241, 255 Bengtsson, S 237 Bertram, H.N 279, 292, 293 Bethe, H 83 Birks, J.B 322 Blakemore, T.S 245 Biinc, R 312 Bloch, R (1905-83) 87, 91 Boll, R 218 Boltzmann, L (1844-1906) 43, 69 Born, M (1882-1970) 25,30 Bose, S.S 241, 258 Braithwaite, N 312 Brattain, W 223 Brett Meadows, H 311 Brillouin, L 83, 100, 160 Brock, G.W 290 Brodsky, M.H 226 Brust, D 131, 191 Bube, R.H 106 Bull, R.K 178,323 Burfoot, J.C 312 Cady, W.G 312 Callaway, J.C 214 Caplin, A.D 106 Carr, T 290 Casimir, H.B.G 262 Cavin, R.K 241 Chambers, R.G 59, 127 Chen, c.w 195, 201, 245 Chen, M.M 279 Chikarmane, V 311 Chikazumi, s 219 Clark, A.E 301 Clark, J 271 Cochran, w 30 Coles, B.R 106 Cook, W.R 308,312 Cooper, L.N 262 Cottrell, A.H 21 Cowley, R 31 Cracknell, A.p 115 Cross, L.E 301 Culỉity, B.D 23, 201, 301 Curie, J 300 Curie, p (1859-906) 19, 205, 300 Davis, E.A 127, 179 de Haas, W.J 124 Dearnaley, G 317 Debye, p (1884-1966) 36 Delin K.A 269, 278 Dhalle M 275 Di, G.Q 292 DiMarco, M 193 Dirac, P.A.M (1902-84) 72 Dorda, G 145 370 Author index Doss, J.D 269,276, 273 Drude, P 40,112 Drummond, T.J 240 Dugdale, J.S 59, 127 Dulong, P.L (1785-1838) 17 Durrani, S.A 323 Edelman, H 290 Ehrenreich, H 12, 21, 190 Einstein, A (1879-1955) 35, 56 Elliott, R.J 311 Fermi, E (1901-54) 72, 114 Fink, HJ 275 Fitzgerald, K 278 Forrest, S.R 243 Franz, R (1827-1902) 15, 41, 48 Fridkin, V.M 312 Futine, G 322 Gallagher, W.J 276 Gambino, R.J 293 Garlick, G.F.J 172 Gerlach, W (1889-) 73 Ghandhi, S.K 233 Giaever, I 271,276 Gibson, A.F 172, 311 Gielen, L 275 Glass, A M 299, 312 Goodhue, W.D/ 154, 240, 249 Gorter, C.J/ 262 Goudsmit, S 73 Gunshor, R 257 G uteri, F 255 Hagen, E 13,55 Hall, E.H (1855-1938) 143 Haller, E.E 318 Hailiyal, A 301 Heisenberg, W 211 Herring, C 93 Hertz, H (1857-94) 56 Hiremath, B.V 312 Hofmann, J.A 16 Holton, W.C 241 Hoyt, R.F 280 Hu, Q 278 Huang, K 25, 30 Hübner, R 288 Hummel, R.E 179, 188 Inagaki, T 257 Ingham, A.E 31 Irby, J 236 Iwasaki, S 289 Iwata, S 292 Jaffe, B 308,312 Jaffe, H 308, 312 Janak, J.F 127 Javan, A 21 Jiles, D.C 7, 193,218, 219, 282, 301, 302 Jones, H 106, 127 Jones, M.E 241 Josephson, B.D 271, 276 Joule, J.P (1818-89) 301 Ju, K 279 Kahn, F.J 256 Kamerlingh Onnes, H (1853-1926) 260 Karlquist, O 286 Kästner, M.A 276 Keffer, F 21 Kimura, T 256 Kittel, C 22, 36, 168, 179, 209 Kleinknecht, K 315 Kleinman, W 131 Kobayashi, M 257 Kobayashi, S 255 Kramers, H.A 86 Kroemer, H 168, 179 Kronig, R 88 Kryder, M.H 293 Kumar, S 301 Kumar, U 301 Kurchatov I.V 305 Landau, L.D (1908-68) Langevin, P (1872-1946) 201 Langford, H.D 280 Leaver, K.D 39, 155, 179 Lehmann, G 127 Lennard-Jones, J.E 31 Li, J.W 247 Lifschitz, E.M Lines, M.E 299,312 Author index Lippmann, G (1845-1921) 300,301 London, F 262 London, H 262 Longhurst, R.s 13 Lopez, A 275 Lorentz, H.A (1853-1928) 40, 49, 55 Lowney, J.R 143 MacDonald, D.K.C 80, 127 Mackintosh, A 114 Madan, A 237, 241 Maitland, G.C 24 Mallinson, J.C 293 Mason, w.p 312 Maxwell, J c (1839-79) 43, 69 Mayer, J.w 318 Maynard, R 275 Mayo, s 143 McDonald, J.F 233 McKinley, A.F 178 Megaw, H.D 23 Meissner, w 263, 264 Mermin, N.D 59, 123 Mitsui, T 301 Moncaster, M.E 317 Montgomery, V 193 Morant, J.D 153 Mort, J 165 Moruzzi, V.L 127 Moschalkov v v 275 Mott, N.F 106, 127, 179 Muller, A 268 Muraoka, H 290 Nakamura, E 301 Nakamura, Y 290 Newnham, R.E 301, 312 Northrop, D C 317 Nurmikko, A 257 Ochsenfeld, R 263, 264 Ohm, G.s (1789-1854) 8, 46 Onsager, L 126 Orlando, T.p 269, 278 Osburn, C.M 138 Ouchi, K 289 Palmer, S B Parker, R.J 218 Paskin, A 16 Pauli, w (1900-58) 63, 69, 77, 207 Pauling, L 215 Peaker, A.R 225 Pearson, W.B 23 Penney, W.G 88 Pepper, M 145 Petit, A.T 17 Pfister, G 165 Phillips, J.c 131 Pippard, A.B 121 Poliak, M 131 Price, W.J 324 Psaras, P.A 280 Qingqi, z 292 Raines, J.A 317 Ralston, R.w 276 Ramesh, R 311 Randall, J.T 175 Raveau, B 268 Rawlings, R.D 179 Reiff, G 322 Reisman, A 138 Richards, P.L 278 Rigby, M 24 Robbins, V.M 245 Rockelein, R 288 Rosen, c z 312 Rosenberg, H.M 39 Rowell, J.M 271 Rubens, H (1865-1922) 13, 55 Rudman, D.A 269, 276, 278 Ruggiero, S.T 269, 276, 278 Sakamoto, H 289 Schewe, H 288 Schieber, M.M 302 Schrödinger, E (1887-1961) 61 Scott, J.R 311 Serreze, H.B 322 Shaw, M 241 Shiraishi, F 317 Shockley, w 90, 117, 223 Skromme, B J 241, 258 Slater, J.c 215 371 372 Author index Van Duzer, T 276, 278 von Klitzing, K 145 Smith, E.B 24 Smith, R.A 223 Snell, A.H 324 Snelling, E.C 218 Solymar, L 155, 165 Sommerfeld, A 63 Squillante, M.R 322 Staines, M.p 193 Stern, O (1888 ) 73 Stillman, G.E 241, 245, 258 Stratton, R 241 Sturge, s 13 Su, Y.K 247 Sueto, K 289 Sugimoto, M 289 Suzuki, A 289 Suzuki, T 293 Svelto, o 196 Swanson, J.G 193 Sze, S.M 155,223 Tabatobaie, N 245 Tatsuzaki, I 301 Tauer, K.J 16 Taylor, C.E 278 Taylor, G.w 312 Tsang, c 279 Tsunashima, s 292 Turner, C.Wy 276 Tye, R.p Ĩ69, 179 Uchịnò^ K 301 u^tiiyama, s 292 Uhlenbeck, G.E 73 Urbach, F 178 Valasek, V 304 van Alphen, P.M 124 Van der Ziel, A 155 Wakeham, W.A 24 Walsh, K 165 Walton, J.T 318 Wang, C.S 214 Washburn, s 278 Weast, R.c Weaver, G 312 Weiss, p (1865-1940) 19, 206, 211, 216 Weiss, R.J 16 White, R.M 280, 289, 293 Whitehead, A.B 317 Wiedemann, G (1826-99) 15,41,48 Wilkins, M.H.F 175 Williams, A.R 127 Williams, C.K 241 Wilson, A.H 129 Wong, K.c 115 Wooten, F 180 Wu, M.c 195, 245 Wuyan, L 292 x Xu, Q.C 301 Yamada, Y 291 Yogi, T 279 Yokoyama, M 247 Zeks, B 312 Zemansky, M.w 34 Zhi, z 292 Ziesche, p 127 Ziman, J.M 21,114,179 Zimmermann, D w 323 Zintl, w 288 Zorpette, G 255