Propulsion systems for hybrid vehicles

Renewable Energy Series Propulsion Systems for Hybrid Vehicles 2nd Edition Propulsion Systems for Hybrid Vehicles Important topics of the 1st Edition are retained and expanded and some outdated material has been replaced with new information Dr John M Miller PE is vice president of systems and applications at Maxwell Technologies He is also founder and principal engineer of J-N-J Miller Design Services, PLC Dr Miller worked for 20 years in the automotive industry, leading several hybrid vehicle technology programmes including 42 V Integrated Starter Alternator (ISG) for application into a SUV He has been active in collaborations at industry and government levels, including the NSF-funded systems center for Future Renewable Electric Energy Delivery and Management (FREEDM) He was actively engaged in MIT’s Consortium on Advanced Automotive Electrical and Electronic Components and Systems and has served as Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering at Michigan State University and at Texas A&M University Dr Miller has authored over 160 technical publications, holds 53 US patents, and has authored or co-authored five books He is a Fellow of the IEEE, Member of SAE, and 2009 recipient of the IEEE Kliman Innovator award 2nd Edition Worldwide, the automotive industry is being challenged to make dramatic improvements in vehicle fuel economy In Europe there are CO2 emissions penalties prorated by the degree to which vehicles exceed mandated CO2 levels In the United States, vehicle fuel economy targets set by Congress in 2007 for 20 per cent fuel economy improvement by 2020 are now being accelerated by the Obama administration to 35.5 mpg by 2016 for a passenger car Taking effect in 2012, the new rules set more aggressive fuel economy measures that will require significant gains in engine and driveline efficiency, better performance cabin climate control and the introduction of electric hybridization This 2nd Edition of Propulsion Systems for Hybrid Vehicles addresses the electrification innovations that will be required, ranging from low end brake energy recuperators, idle-stop systems and mild hybrids on to strong hybrids of the power split architecture in both single mode and two mode and introducing new topics in plug-in hybrid and battery electrics Miller Propulsion Systems for Hybrid Vehicles 2nd Edition The Institution of Engineering and Technology www.theiet.org 978-1-84919-147-0 Tai ngay!!! Ban co the xoa dong chu nay!!! John M Miller IET RENEWABLE ENERGY SERIES Propulsion Systems for Hybrid Vehicles 00_Miller_Prelims_pi-xiv 25 October 2010; 17:50:52 Other volumes in this series: Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume 11 Distributed generation N Jenkins, J.B Ekanayake and G Strbac Microgrids and active distribution networks S Chowdhury, S.P Chowdhury and P Crossley Propulsion systems for hybrid vehicles, 2nd edition J.M Miller Energy: resources, technologies and the environment C Ngo Solar photovoltaic energy A Labouret and M Villoz Cogeneration: a user’s guide D Flin 00_Miller_Prelims_pi-xiv 25 October 2010; 17:50:52 Propulsion Systems for Hybrid Vehicles 2nd Edition John M Miller The Institution of Engineering and Technology 00_Miller_Prelims_pi-xiv 25 October 2010; 17:50:52 Published by The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, United Kingdom The Institution of Engineering and Technology is registered as a Charity in England & Wales (no 211014) and Scotland (no SC038698) † 2004 The Institution of Electrical Engineers † 2008, 2010 The Institution of Engineering and Technology First published 2004 (978-0-86341-336-0) Paperback edition 2008 (978-0-86341-915-7) Second edition 2010 This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright Convention All rights reserved Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publisher at the undermentioned address: The Institution of Engineering and Technology Michael Faraday House Six Hills Way, Stevenage Herts, SG1 2AY, United Kingdom www.theiet.org While the author and publisher believe that the information and guidance given in this work are correct, all parties must rely upon their own skill and judgement when making use of them Neither the author nor publisher assumes any liability to anyone for any loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether such an error or omission is the result of negligence or any other cause Any and all such liability is disclaimed The moral rights of the author to be identified as author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this product is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-84919-147-0 (paperback) ISBN 978-1-84919-148-7 (PDF) Typeset in India by MPS Ltd, a Macmillan Company Printed in the UK by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham 00_Miller_Prelims_pi-xiv 27 November 2010; 11:43:53 For Quentin Patrick Miller† 1983–2005 You will always be missed 00_Miller_Prelims_pi-xiv 25 October 2010; 17:50:52 00_Miller_Prelims_pi-xiv 25 October 2010; 17:50:52 Contents Preface xiii Hybrid vehicles 1.1 Electric engine hybrids 2010 1.2 Limits of engine-only actions 1.3 Vehicle electrification and more electric vehicle 1.4 Performance characteristics of road vehicles 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.4.4 1.4.5 1.5 Calculation of road load 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.6 Emissions Brake specific fuel consumption Fuel economy and consumption conversions Internal combustion engines: A primer 1.7.1 1.7.2 1.7.3 1.7.4 1.8 Components of road load Friction and wheel slip Predicting fuel economy 1.6.1 1.6.2 1.6.3 1.7 Partnership for new generation of vehicle goals Engine downsizing Drive cycle characteristics Hybrid vehicle performance targets Basic vehicle dynamics What is brake mean effective pressure (BMEP)? BSFC sensitivity to BMEP ICE basics: Fuel consumption mapping Emissions regulations Grid connected hybrids 1.8.1 1.8.2 1.8.3 The connected car, V2G Grid connected HEV20 and HEV60 Charge sustaining and charge depleting 1.9 Exercises References Hybrid architectures 2.1 Series configurations 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.2 Locomotive drives Series–parallel switching Load tracking architecture Pre-transmission parallel configurations 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 Energy recuperator systems Micro hybrid Mild hybrid 00_Miller_Prelims_pi-xiv 25 October 2010; 17:50:52 11 12 15 18 18 19 22 26 27 32 32 38 41 42 42 43 45 47 49 51 52 56 56 59 62 64 65 67 71 71 74 76 77 79 80 81 viii Propulsion systems for hybrid vehicles 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.3 Pre-transmission combined configurations 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.4 Texas A&M University transmotor Petrol electric drivetrain Swiss Federal Institute flywheel concept Ultra-capacitor-only vehicles 2.7.1 2.7.2 2.7.3 2.8 Launch assist Hydraulic–electric post-transmission Very high voltage electric drives Flywheel systems 2.6.1 2.6.2 2.6.3 2.7 Post-transmission hybrid Wheel motor hybrid Hydraulic post-transmission hybrid 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.6 Power split Power split with shift Continuously variable transmission derived Integrated hybrid assist transmission Post-transmission parallel configurations 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.5 Power assist Dual mode Catenary powered vehicles with ultra-capacitors Catenary powered vehicles with wayside ultra-capacitors Ultra-capacitor trolley bus vehicles Electric four wheel drive 2.8.1 2.8.2 The E4 system Production ‘Estima Van’ example 2.9 Exercises References Hybrid power plant specifications 3.1 Grade and cruise targets 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.2 Launch and boosting 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.3 Series RBS Parallel RBS RBS interaction with ABS RBS interaction with IVD/VSC/ESP Drive cycle implications 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4 3.4.5 3.5 First two seconds Lane change Braking and energy recuperation 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.4 Gradeability Wide open throttle Types of drive cycles Electric vehicle and regenerative electric vehicle cycles for PHEVs Average speed and impact on fuel economy Dynamics of acceleration/deceleration Wide open throttle launch Electric fraction 3.5.1 3.5.2 Engine downsizing Range and performance 00_Miller_Prelims_pi-xiv 25 October 2010; 17:50:52 84 85 86 88 93 96 97 100 101 102 104 104 105 106 107 107 108 109 110 110 111 113 113 114 115 115 117 119 124 127 127 128 128 128 129 129 133 133 134 135 135 136 138 139 139 140 140 140 Contents 3.6 Usage requirements 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.6.4 Customer usage Electrical burden Grade holding and creep Neutral idle 3.7 Exercises References Sizing the drive system 4.1 Matching the electric drive and ice 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.2 Sizing the propulsion motor 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 4.2.6 4.3 Cable requirements Inverter bus bars High voltage disconnect Power distribution centres Communications 4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.6.4 4.6.5 4.6.6 4.7 Lead–acid technology Nickel-metal hydride Lithium ion Metal–air batteries Fuel cell Ultra-capacitor Flywheels Electrical overlay harness 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 4.5.4 4.6 Switch technology selection kVA/kW and power factor Ripple capacitor design Switching frequency and PWM Selecting the energy storage technology 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.4.5 4.4.6 4.4.7 4.5 Step Step Step Torque and power Constant power speed ratio (CPSR) Machine sizing Sizing the power electronics 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.4 Transmission selection Gear step selection Automatic transmission architectures 4.1.3.1 Simpson type 4.1.3.2 Wilson type 4.1.3.3 Lepelletier type 4.1.3.4 Summary of transmission types Communication protocol: CAN Power and data networks Future communications: TTCAN Future communications: FlexRay Competing future communications protocols Diagnostic test codes (DTC) Supporting subsystems 4.7.1 4.7.2 Steering systems Braking systems 00_Miller_Prelims_pi-xiv 25 October 2010; 17:50:52 ix 141 141 141 142 142 143 143 145 147 149 149 151 152 154 154 155 155 158 159 162 164 168 170 173 175 176 180 183 184 194 196 196 198 199 204 208 208 209 212 215 215 216 219 220 222 223 226 227 228 228 229 Index IPACS: see integrated power and attitude control system (IPACS) IPCC: see Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) IPEM: see intelligent power electronic module (IPEM) IPM: see interior permanent magnet (IPM) iron 244, 265, 395, 398 ISA: see integrated starter-alternator (ISA) ISAC: see indicated specific air consumption (ISAC) ISFC: see indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC) ISG: see integrated starter-generator (ISG) ISS: see International Space Station (ISS) IVD: see interactive vehicle dynamics (IVD) Jaguar XJ-S 120 V12 engine 119–20 Jahns, Tom 279 Japan 287 10–15 mode 432–3 NEDC in 135 Jeffries, P 108 J-N-J Miller Design Services 93n4 Joule heating 395, 397 kinetics 502 L1 (Volkswagen) 70 LA4 cycle 137 Lambilly, H 359 lamination 312, 397, 399–402 lane change, launch and boosting 128–9 lattice defects 397 launch and boosting, first two seconds 128 and boosting, lane change 128–9 vehicle 296 WOT 139–40 14_Miller_Index_p567-594 581 lead-acid batteries 194–6, 447–9 discharge behaviour of 447–8 lead-acid technology 385 Lee, F C 327 Lei, M 287 LEM 361 Lenz’s law 254 Lexus RX330, as HSD concept vehicle LHV: see lower heating value (LHV) LiMO2: see lithium–metal oxide (LiMO2) line-to-line voltage 260, 262, 332, 335 SVPWM 346 line-to-neutral voltage 263, 332 link capacitors 361–2, 410 Lipo, T A 296 liquefied natural gas (LNG) 496 liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) 419–20 liquid hydrogen 423, 493–4 production of 493–4 properties of 494 lithium ion 196–8 lithium ion battery 454–61 charge characteristic for 456–7 electrodynamics of 455 ultra-capacitors and 481–2 vs nickel-metal hydride batteries 456 vs ultra-capacitor 458 lithium ion pack (LNMCO cathode, 3.7 V, 6.0 Ah) battery lithium–metal oxide (LiMO2) 454–5 LNG: see liquefied natural gas (LNG) load tracking series hybrids 76–7 locomotive drives important aspects about 73–4 series hybrid propulsion systems 71–4 Lorentz force 252, 254, 410 low pass filtering (LPF) 383 low voltage (LV) 347 20 December 2010; 16:51:38 582 Propulsion systems for hybrid vehicles lower heating value (LHV) 543–4 LPF: see low pass filtering (LPF) LPG: see liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) lumped parameter battery model 503 Lundel alternator 280, 412–13 LV: see low voltage (LV) machine sizing 170–3 Magnetek Motors and Controls 405 magnetic loading 170 magnetic saturation 292–3 magnetoelastic effects 397 magnets magnetic properties of 245 permanent: see permanent magnet maintenance free batteries 447–8 mandrel flexibility 404 marginal efficiency 23 Mariner SUV (hybrid) 8–9 Martensite 244 mass 257 coast down testing 523, 527, 536 energy storage and 461, 466, 475–7, 481 ‘mass factor’ 28 calculations 33–5 Matic, P 389 maximum speeds 135–6, 138 Maxwell Technologies Inc 491 McCleer, P.J 410 MCT: see MOS controlled thyristor (MCT) mean effective pressure (MEP) 47 as function of BMEP 49–50 mean time before failure (MTBF) 357–8 mechanical efficiency (hm) 47–8 mechanical field weakening 287–9 mechanical ‘jerk’, defined 132 mechanical storage systems 439 medium voltage (MV) 347 melting 410 14_Miller_Index_p567-594 MEP: see mean effective pressure (MEP) metal hydride 495 metal-air batteries 198–9 metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) 83, 274, 351, 356, 406–7, 409, 486 MEVs: see More electric vehicles (MEVs) M/G braking torque (regen) 130, 133 micro hybrid reversible alternator system 80–1 microcontroller 326 mild hybrids 20, 22, 81–4 mileage weighted probability (MWP) 429–30 Miller cycle 10 minority carrier devices 406 mischmetal compositions 449 mobile media 227 2-mode eCVT 10 modulation index 330, 333, 337, 345 more electric vehicles (MEVs) MOS controlled thyristor (MCT) 409 MOSFET: see metal-oxidesemiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) Motloch, Chester 503–4 motor-generators (M/G) machine sizing 170–3 sizing 155–73 torque and power 156–7, 164–8 MultiCAN: see time triggered CAN (TTCAN) multilayer designs 289–90 MV: see medium voltage (MV) MWP: see mileage weighted probability (MWP) Nafion 505–6 NAIAS: see North American International Auto Show (NAIAS) Nana Electronics 361 20 December 2010; 16:51:38 Index narrow lane vehicles (NLV) 547–9 National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) standards 403 National Hydrogen Association (NHA) 543 National Personal Transportation Survey (US) 508 National Renewable Energy Laboratory (US) 422 National Transportation Highway Safety Agency (NTHSA) 53 natural gas, compressed 419 NdFeB magnet: see neodymium iron boron (NdFeB) magnet NEDC: see New European Drive Cycle (NEDC) NEDO ACE (Japan) 74 NEMA standards: see National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) standards neodymium iron boron (NdFeB) magnet 244–5, 247–8, 257–8, 270, 277, 283 NEOMAX 244 NeoMax 27H 245 neutral idle transmission 142–3 New European Drive Cycle (NEDC) 22, 135, 424, 430–1 New York City 266 NHA: see National Hydrogen Association (NHA) NiCd: see nickel-cadmium (NiCd) system nickel-cadmium (NiCd) system 443 nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries 3, 70, 196, 441, 449–54 charge characteristic for 451 discharge behaviour of 449–50 limitations of 449 voltage versus SOC 450 vs lithium ion battery 456 NiMH: see nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries 14_Miller_Index_p567-594 583 Nissan Condor Super-Capacitor truck 75 Nissan Motor Co 10 Nixon, Richard 546 NKK steel 399 NLV: see narrow lane vehicles (NLV) NMHC: see non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) noise 404 structure borne 318 non-contacting power transfer 549–53 non-dissipative cell equalization 485–8 types of 485–7 non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC) 57 non-punch-through (NPT) 261, 325 normal force 527 North America, ranking North American International Auto Show (NAIAS) 59 novel electric machines 247–8 NPT: see non-punch-through (NPT) nuclear bonds, energy storage in 439 Oak Ridge National Laboratory 274 OATT report 85 OCV/SOC slope 502 offset error 360 ohmic polarization 445 oil shock (1970s) 433 one-way clutch (OWC) grounds 98 Ontario Hydro 103 OPEC: see Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) 7layered model 217–18 application 218 data link 218 network 218 physical 217 presentation 218 session 218 transport 218 20 December 2010; 16:51:38 584 Propulsion systems for hybrid vehicles operating time, warranty vs 358 Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) 12 Osaka Prefecture University 287 Osama, M 296 oscillation 288 exciting driveline 318 oscilloscopes 404 OSI 7-layered model: see Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) 7-layered model Ostovic, V 305 OTR: see over the road (OTR) trucks Otto cycle 12 OV: see overvoltage (OV) over the road (OTR) trucks 419, 532–9 overcharge 502 overcharge CA 502 overmodulation 337 overvoltage (OV) 447 OWC grounds: see one-way clutch (OWC) grounds oxidation, of fuel 442 ozone odour 404 P2000 low storage requirement (LSR) vehicle 25 PA Consulting Group 289 ParadiGM hybrid propulsion system 10 parallel diesel–electric hybrid propulsion system 10 parallel hybrid architectures fuel economy benefits of 78 post-transmission: see posttransmission parallel hybrid architecture pre-transmission: see pretransmission parallel hybrid architecture parallel RBS 129, 133 Partnership for a New Generation Vehicle (PNGV) 18–19 goals 18–19 14_Miller_Index_p567-594 passenger vehicle 124 dynamic attributes 28–9 PC: see propylene carbonate (PC) PCPM: see pole changing permanent magnet (PCPM) PCT 429 peak overload operation 167 peak-to-peak torque 255 PEDT: see petrol electric drivetrain (PEDT) PEI: see pulse endurance index (PEI) PEM: see proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell Pentadyne 111 website 111n7 performance targets 26–7 permanent magnet 243–52, 254, 257, 290, 317, 368, 381 excitation 373 interior 277–90 mechanical properties of 249 performance of 245 pole changing 304–6 properties of 270 rare earth 248–52 synchronous motor 412 types of 247 permanent magnet reluctance machine (PRM) 286–7 permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM) 496–7 permeability 396 permeance coefficient 250 personal rapid transit (PRT) 545, 546–7 characteristics and parameters for 546 cost of 546 reasons for 546 petrol electric drivetrain (PEDT) 108–9 Peukert equation 446 Peukert’s slope 502 Phelps Dodge magnet wire company 404 20 December 2010; 16:51:38 Index PHEV: see plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) pitch axis (Y-axis), of vehicle 29 planetary gear, power split architecture 90 planetary gear sets 379 plasma technique, reformation of hydrogen from ethanol and 543 platooning 531 plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) 12, 136–8, 447, 543, 545 battery packs 447 fuel economy of 54 plug-in hybrids charge sustaining and 60 vs conventional vehicles 60 Plug-N-Drive series, International Rectifier 325 PMSM: see permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM) pneumatic systems 499 PNGV: see Partnership for a New Generation Vehicle (PNGV) polarity consistency rule 348 polarization 279, 305 activation 443–4 concentration 444–5 ohmic 445 pole changing 294–306 pole changing permanent magnet (PCPM) 304–6 pole-phase modulation (PPM) 294–5, 298–304 polyamideimide 404 polyester 404 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 211 porous carbon 462, 466, 506 positive temperature coefficient (PTC) 485 post-transmission parallel hybrid architecture 100–4 see also hydraulic post-transmission hybrid architecture Autonomy 100–1 capability curves 102 14_Miller_Index_p567-594 585 disadvantages of 100 overview 77–8 speed range concerns 102 wheel motor hybrid 102–4 power and data networks 220–1 distribution in drive cycle 24–5 torque and 164–8 power assist architectures, pretransmission parallel hybrids 84–5 power cycling 359 power distribution centres 215–16 power distribution system 410–11 losses 410 power electronics 258 for ac drives 261, 325–63 goal of 326 inverter 296, 332 sizing 173–84 variable reluctance machine 309 power factor 312 power plant specifications 119–43 power split 379 power split architecture background 87 basic functionality of 88–9 ‘electric CVT’, acceleration performance of 90–1 electromechanical transmission and 87–8 epicyclic gear set 90 with gear shift 93–6 IHAT architecture 97–100 operating modes 92 overview 86–7 planetary gear 90 single mode eCVT functional 88–9 ‘stick’ diagram of speed constraints 89 power split hybrid propulsion systems 142 PowerNet (Boardnet) 78 PPM: see pole-phase modulation (PPM) 20 December 2010; 16:51:38 586 Propulsion systems for hybrid vehicles predictive controllers 349 pressure wave drag 532 pre-transmission parallel hybrid architecture 77–86 combined configurations 86–100 dual mode 85–6 energy recuperator systems 79–80 fuel economy benefits of 78 micro hybrid 80–1 mild hybrid 81–4 power assist 84–5 PRISM: see program for individual sustainable mobility (PRISM) Prius 21, 31, 140–1, 433 PRM: see permanent magnet reluctance machine (PRM) prognostics 367 program for individual sustainable mobility (PRISM) 548 propane 419, 496 propulsion system and energy storage 78–9 tractive effort, defined 32–3 propylene carbonate (PC) 461 proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell 504–6 reaction of 505 PRT: see personal rapid transit (PRT) PSAT simulation tool 422–3 PTC: see positive temperature coefficient (PTC) pulse endurance index (PEI) 404 pulse-width modulation (PWM) 261, 325–6, 330, 332, 401 comparisons of techniques 348–9, 350 essentials of 330–5 interleaved, for minimum ripple 361–3 sine-triangle 348–9 voltage wave form 404 PVC: see polyvinyl chloride (PVC) PWM: see pulse-width modulation (PWM) 14_Miller_Index_p567-594 quantization error 361 quantum shield layer 404 radial flux 243 radial laminated structures 313 radial ply tyres 529 radiated near-field power transfer 552–3 Ragone plot 466–9, 478 Randle’s equivalent 503 range extended electric vehicle (REV) 12 rare earth (RE) permanent magnets 248–52, 277–8, 284, 305 characteristics 250 RBS: see regenerative braking systems (RBS) RC-IGBT: see reverse conducting IGBT (RC-IGBT) R/D converters: see resolver-to-digital (R/D) converters RE permanent magnets: see rare earth (RE) permanent magnets real world drive cycles 135 real world fuel economy 41 see also fuel economy rectifier diode operation 383 recuperator systems 79–80 architecture 79 ‘RED Pipe’ 74 redundant systems 356 Reeves type CVT 96 regen (M/G braking torque) 130, 133 power 131–2 regenerative braking systems (RBS) with ABS 133–4 with IVD/VSC/ESP 134–5 parallel 129, 133 series 129–32 split parallel 129 regulated cycle for hybrids 433–5 reliability considerations 356–9 reluctance machines doubly excited 296 permanent magnet 286–7 20 December 2010; 16:51:38 Index switched 307–11 synchronous 266 variable 243, 266, 277 remanence 258, 270 resistance ac 214 bulk 407 chemical 405 conductor 405 constriction 410 contact 410 dynamic 407 harness 411 rolling 430, 523–7, 529–30, 534, 536–8 stator 385–6 thermal 352 winding 368, 403 resistive cell balancing network, 484 resolver-to-digital (R/D) converters 383 resonant dc link inverter 335–6 resonant pulse modulation 335–7 REV: see range extended electric vehicle (REV) reverse conducting IGBT (RC-IGBT) 328 reverse recovery 409–10 road grade 29 calculation 37, 39–40 road load 125–6 in coast down testing 525–7 road load calculation 32–41 components 32–8 friction and wheel slip 38–41 road surface, coast down testing and 525, 528 road vehicles performance characteristics 18–32 basic dynamics 27–31 drive cycle 22–6 engine downsizing 19–22 hybrid vehicle performance targets 26–7 14_Miller_Index_p567-594 587 Partnership for a New Generation Vehicle goals 18–19 ‘rocking chair’ chemistry 454 roll axis (X-axis), of vehicle 29, 32–3 rolling resistance 28, 33, 430, 523–7, 529–30, 536 calculation 36–7 for semi-tractor 534 of tyres 537–8 roof equipment drag 532 rotor flux 370–2 rotors 243, 258–9, 270, 289–90, 305, 312 AFPM 288 coupling between stator phases and 368 of Hunt motor 295 inert 313 parallel sided slots 291 variables 369 Runge–Kutta integration 122 S2000 Roadster 5–6 SAE J1772 56–9, 57n7 safe operating area (SOA) 73 Safe-by-Wire Consortium 223 safety bus 227 saliency ratio 279 samarium-cobalt (SmCo) magnet 244–5, 257, 270 Sbarro, Franco 103 SCR: see selective catalytic reduction filter (SCR) selective catalytic reduction filter (SCR) 57 semiconductors 326–9, 348, 351–2 performance 329 power, trends in 327–8 protection fuses 410 voltage rating 73 wide bandgap devices 328–9 sensorless control 367 sensors for current regulators 359–61 separation distances 533, 535 20 December 2010; 16:51:38 588 Propulsion systems for hybrid vehicles series propulsion system architecture 71–7 load tracking architecture 76–7 locomotive drives 71–4 series–parallel switching 74–6 series RBS 129–32 series-parallel switching 74–6 shallow cycle life 502 Shanghai Aoweii Technology Development Company 110n6 shift, power split with 93–6 shore power requirements 538 shorting 261 SiC: see silicon carbide (SiC) signal injection 383 silicon 327–8, 399 silicon carbide (SiC) 328 Silverado pick-up truck Simplorer, numerical integration in 131 Sinautec Automotive Technologies 110, 110n6 single in-line package (SIP) 261 single M/G power split architecture 99–100 acceleration performance 99–100 component ratings 99 sinusoidal modulation 334, 337–8 limitation of 338 sinusoidal synchronous (regular) sampling 339–40 SIP: see single in-line package (SIP) Sitras system 113 six step square wave mode 335 skin friction drag 532 SLI: see starting–lighting–ignition (SLI) batteries SmCo magnet: see samarium-cobalt (SmCo) magnet SMES systems: see superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems snubbers 409 SOA: see safe operating area (SOA) SOC: see state of charge (SOC) 14_Miller_Index_p567-594 software 414 SOH: see state of health (SOH) solder contact surfaces 359 solid state transformer (SST) 327 space vector PWM (SVPWM) 331, 337–46, 348–9, 385 derivation of 340 line-to-line voltages 346 modulating function, synchronous sampling of 344–5 switching pattern of 341 spacecraft 270 spacing 530–1 class-8 semi-tractor–trailer rig and 535–6 tractor-to-trailer 533 vehicle–vehicle 531–2 spin losses 318 split parallel RBS 129 SPM: see surface permanent magnet (SPM) sport utility vehicle (SUV) dynamic rolling radius of 524 by Ford Motor Co 8–9 frontal area of 524 by General Motors Corp 10 test 523, 527–32, 535 trailer test and 529–32 sprung mass 29 defined 30 SST: see solid state transformer (SST) stability programmes 129, 134–5 Stacking factor, of magnetic cores 400 standard temperature and pressure (STP) 524 StARS: see Starter–Alternator Reversible System (StARS) Starter–Alternator Reversible System (StARS) 80 starter-alternators 291, 311 crankshaft mounted 538 starting–lighting–ignition (SLI) batteries 441 state of charge (SOC) 446, 501 state of health (SOH) 499, 501 20 December 2010; 16:51:39 Index Stationary reference frame 373–4 stator current 370, 372, 379, 381–2, 386 stators 243, 253, 258–9, 261, 269, 277, 296 coupling between rotor phases and 368 parallel sided teeth 291 resistances 274 rolled-out 254 slotting 272 smooth 266 toroidal 299 windings 254, 270, 273, 291, 293 steam methane reformer 544 steel 396–7 good quality 398 lamination 400–1 non-oriented, grades M15–M47 400 steel belt (Van Doorne) CVT 96–7 steering angle 29–30 steering systems 228–9 Steinmetz, Charles Proteus 395, 397 storage system modeling, capacitor system 499–516 battery model 499–504 fuel cell model 504–7 ultra-capacitor model 507–16 storage systems hydraulic 439 mechanical 439 STP: see standard temperature and pressure (STP) stress 356 thermal 359 strontium 244 strontium ferrite 278 Sumitomo Special Metals 244 super-capacitor 471 superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems 412 surface permanent magnet (SPM) 243, 257, 259, 274, 284, 314–15, 359 design essentials of 265–74 vector diagram for 271 14_Miller_Index_p567-594 589 surface tension 410 SUV: see sport utility vehicle (SUV) SVPWM: see space vector PWM (SVPWM) Swiss Federal Institute of Technology flywheel CVT hybrid 109–10 operating modes 109 switchable series–parallel hybrid architecture 74–5 energy storage in 74–5 ultra-capacitor storage 75 switching 334, 341, 383–4, 408–9 resonant 335 states, inverter 331–2 switching frequency 348, 401, 408 symmetrical ultra-capacitors 466–70 synchronous machine, torque of 373 synchronous reluctance (SyncRel) 311–13 design 266 vs induction machine 312–13 SyncRel: see synchronous reluctance (SyncRel) Tafel plot 444, 444n2 Tahoe (hybrid) 10 tank-to-wheels (TTW) 420–3 TDC: see top dead centre (TDC) TDI: see Turbo Direct Injection (TDI) TDMA: see time division multiple access (TDMA) TEATFB: see tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEATFB) technologies, energy storage 439–519 technology leadership ranking telematics instrumentation 141 Tempel M19 398 Tesla, Nikola 266 Tesla Electric Company 266 testing class-8 tractor 532–5 coast down 419, 523, 525–9, 533–4, 538 20 December 2010; 16:51:39 590 Propulsion systems for hybrid vehicles full charge 429 partial charge 429 validation and 428, 433, 523 tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEATFB) 461 Texas A&M University transmotor 107–8 thermal capacitance 353 thermal cycling 356, 359 thermal design 351–6 thermal management 16, 167, 230–3, 259 thermal time 502 thermaleze ‘quantum shield’ (Tz QS) 404–5 thermistor 262 thermodynamics of battery systems 443 thin metal foil (TMF) 461 three box structure 28–9 THS: see Toyota Hybrid System (THS) THS-C: see CVT hybrid powertrain (THS-C) THS-II: see Toyota Hybrid Synergy Drive (THS-II) thyristors 175–6 ac switches 275–6 gate turn off 275, 409–10 MOS controlled 409 time division multiple access (TDMA) 224 time triggered CAN (TTCAN) 222–3 Tino hybrid vehicles 452 TMC: see Toyota Motor Co (TMC) TMF: see thin metal foil (TMF) top dead centre (TDC) 46 Top Fueler dragster 123 toroidal CVT 97 limitation of 97 Toronto model 508 Torotrak IVT 97 torque 125, 253–4, 274, 296, 316, 374–6, 385–6 braking 278 and cooling 268 14_Miller_Index_p567-594 crankshaft 538 density 269 driveline 139 electromagnetic 268, 369–70, 372, 389, 391 engine 123, 128 good performance 266 high 256, 267–8, 293, 296 improved 289 instantaneous 308 M/G 130, 133, 375, 403 peak 291, 314–16 peak-to-peak 255 permanent magnet 286 in permanent magnet dc machine 368 power and 164–8 production, in variable reluctance machine 308 reluctance 258, 279, 286 ripple 284–5 stall 290 synchronous machine 373 torque converters 139, 142, 395 torque steer 100 Toyota 2002 Prius and engine downsizing 20 fact sheet vs Civic hybrids 7–8 Toyota Group switchable series–parallel hybrid 75 Toyota Hybrid Synergy Drive (THS-II) 433 Toyota Hybrid System (THS) 3, 139–40, 351 Toyota Motor Co (TMC) 2, 103, 351 Crown 432 ES3 experimental hybrid vehicle 75–6 Estima Van 115 FCHV 506–7 FINE-S 103 gear shifting function 94 20 December 2010; 16:51:39 Index GS450h 94–5 Prius 140, 243, 433 Toyota 2002 Prius 4, 7–8 Trackside RESS 111 Bombardier system 112 using flywheels 112 using ultra-capacitors 113 Trackside/wayside energy storage technology 111–12 traction motor 395–406 tractive effort 125 calculation 35–6 defined 32–3 limits 38–9 tractor (class-8) test 532–5 trailer test 529–32, 535–9 transformations 373–6 transistor stack 352–3, 359 transmission 119–20, 122–3, 149–51 transmotor 107–8 transporting cargo 553–4 trolley bus, ultra-capacitor 113–14 TRW electromechanical transmission 87 Trzynadlowski, A M., 334 Tsals, Izrail, Dr 289 TTCAN: see time triggered CAN (TTCAN) TTW: see tank-to-wheels (TTW) Turbo Direct Injection (TDI) 70 turbo-generators 405 tyre rolling radius, of vehicle 523 tyre track, defined 31 tyres 419, 536 radial ply 529 rolling radius 124–5 rolling resistance for 537–8 UCG: see uncontrolled generation (UCG) UDDS: see urban dynamometer drive cycle (UDDS) ultra-capacitor model, storage system 507–16 ultra-capacitor storage 75 14_Miller_Index_p567-594 591 ultra-capacitor-only powered transit bus 110–11 ultra-capacitor-only vehicles 110–13 catenary powered 110–11 catenary powered with wayside/ trackside 111–13 trolley bus 113 ultra-capacitors 204–7, 412 asymmetrical 470–3 with batteries 473–81 buck–boost converter and 486 cell balancing 482–93 lithium ion battery and 481–2 symmetrical 466–70 vs lithium ion battery 458 uncontrolled generation (UCG) 278, 280–1 undervoltage (UV) 262, 447 Unique Mobility Corporation 412 United States (US), global oil demand and 68 University of Sheffield (UK) 103 University of Tennessee 274 University of Wisconsin 383 unsprung mass 29–30 upstream energy use 420–1 urban dynamometer drive cycle (UDDS) 136–7 US ABC: see US Advanced Battery Consortium (US ABC) US Advanced Battery Consortium (US ABC) US Argonne National Laboratory 54 US-06 drive cycle 135, 137 US National Research Council usage requirements 141–3 customer usage 141 electrical burden 141–2 grade holding and creep 142 UV: see undervoltage (UV) 300V level Valeo 80, 243, 412 valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries 448–9 20 December 2010; 16:51:39 592 Propulsion systems for hybrid vehicles Van Doorne 96–7 variable flux memory motor (VFMM) 305 variable reluctance machine (VRM) 243, 266, 268, 277, 306–13, 318 characteristics of 306 IM vs 269 power electronics 309 torque production in 308 variable valve timing and lift (VVTL) 12 V_Dot 132 vector control: see field oriented control (FOC) vector rotator matrix 373 vehicle acceleration 122 V10 engine 122 V12 engine 122 V16 engine 122 vehicle architectures 422 vehicle dynamic attributes battery package locations 30 ‘beaming’ 28 definitions of 28–9 equivalent mass 28 for hybrid propulsion simulation 27 ‘mass factor’ 28 packaging hybrid components 28–31 rolling resistance 28 three box structure 28–9 vehicle economy goals (US PNGV Goal 3) 19 vehicle electrification 12–13 CO2 emissions reduction due to 12, 14 and more electric vehicle use 15–17 vehicle longitudinal stability programmes 129 vehicle mass, breakdown 34 vehicle performance cruise, on level terrain 126 goals 18 on level grade 125 14_Miller_Index_p567-594 vehicle power plant characteristics of 120 torque–speed capability for large engines 121 vehicle speed calculation 37–8 and engine speed, relationship between 37–8 vehicle stability controls (VSC) 129 RBS with 134–5 vehicle to grid (V2G) vehicles 56–9 classification 56–9 emissions 57–8 vehicles size and engine downsizing 19–22 velocity 525, 527 deceleration 534 VFMM: see variable flux memory motor (VFMM) V2G: see vehicle to grid (V2G) vehicles Volkswagen L1 70 VW Tandem 69–70 voltage rating, for high power superconductors 73 voltage source inverter (VSI) 335–7 volumetric efficiency (hv) 47–9 defined 48 volumetric energy 447, 449, 463 Volvo Car Company 8, 103 VRLA: see valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries VRM: see variable reluctance machine (VRM) VSC: see vehicle stability controls (VSC) VSI: see voltage source inverter (VSI) VVTL: see variable valve timing and lift (VVTL) VW Tandem 1L/100 km concept vehicle 69–70 ‘walk-out’ 408 Walter, J 351 Walters, Jim 19 20 December 2010; 16:51:39 Index Warburg impedance 503 warranty vs operating time 358 water tower model 502–3 waveforms 261, 331, 337, 404 brushless ac motor 263 PWM 345 quasi-square 263 SVPWM gating 344 switching 408 ‘weak link’ 410 weight tally 236–7 wells-to-tank (WTT) 420–1 well-to-wheel (WTW) 421–3, 543, 545 wheel drag 532 wheel inertia 34 wheel mass 34 wheel motor post-transmission hybrid architecture 102–4 wheel slip curve 38–9 friction and 38–41 wide bandgap devices 328–9l wide open throttle (WOT) 127 launch 139–40 windings 362, 368, 373 armature 254, 405–6 14_Miller_Index_p567-594 593 connections 301–3 Hunt 295–6 PPM 299, 303–4 reconfiguration 293–4 stator 254, 270, 273, 291, 293 tapped 293 toroidal 299 wireless protocols 227 Word parameters 501–2 Word parameters 501–2 WOT: see wide open throttle (WOT) WTT: see wells-to-tank (WTT) WTW: see well-to-wheel (WTW) yaw axis (Z-axis), of vehicle 29 yaw motion 133–5 Yukon (hybrid) 10 Zener diode (sharp knee) 484–5 zero emission vehicle (ZEV) 53 Zetec 125 ZEV: see zero emission vehicle (ZEV) zinc 493 20 December 2010; 16:51:39 Renewable Energy Series Propulsion Systems for Hybrid Vehicles 2nd Edition Propulsion Systems for Hybrid Vehicles Important topics of the 1st Edition are retained and expanded and some outdated material has been replaced with new information Dr John M Miller PE is vice president of systems and applications at Maxwell Technologies He is also founder and principal engineer of J-N-J Miller Design Services, PLC Dr Miller worked for 20 years in the automotive industry, leading several hybrid vehicle technology programmes including 42 V Integrated Starter Alternator (ISG) for application into a SUV He has been active in collaborations at industry and government levels, including the NSF-funded systems center for Future Renewable Electric Energy Delivery and Management (FREEDM) He was actively engaged in MIT’s Consortium on Advanced Automotive Electrical and Electronic Components and Systems and has served as Adjunct Professor of Electrical Engineering at Michigan State University and at Texas A&M University Dr Miller has authored over 160 technical publications, holds 53 US patents, and has authored or co-authored five books He is a Fellow of the IEEE, Member of SAE, and 2009 recipient of the IEEE Kliman Innovator award 2nd Edition Worldwide, the automotive industry is being challenged to make dramatic improvements in vehicle fuel economy In Europe there are CO2 emissions penalties prorated by the degree to which vehicles exceed mandated CO2 levels In the United States, vehicle fuel economy targets set by Congress in 2007 for 20 per cent fuel economy improvement by 2020 are now being accelerated by the Obama administration to 35.5 mpg by 2016 for a passenger car Taking effect in 2012, the new rules set more aggressive fuel economy measures that will require significant gains in engine and driveline efficiency, better performance cabin climate control and the introduction of electric hybridization This 2nd Edition of Propulsion Systems for Hybrid Vehicles addresses the electrification innovations that will be required, ranging from low end brake energy recuperators, idle-stop systems and mild hybrids on to strong hybrids of the power split architecture in both single mode and two mode and introducing new topics in plug-in hybrid and battery electrics Miller Propulsion Systems for Hybrid Vehicles 2nd Edition The Institution of Engineering and Technology www.theiet.org 978-1-84919-147-0 John M Miller