Energy systems for lectric and hybrid vehicles

Tai ngay!!! Ban co the xoa dong chu nay!!! IET TRANSPORTATION SERIES Energy Systems for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Other related titles: Volume Volume 38 Volume 45 Volume 79 Clean Mobility and Intelligent Transport Systems M Fiorini and J-C Lin (Editors) The Electric Car M.H Westbrook Propulsion Systems for Hybrid Vehicles J Miller Vehicle-to-Grid: Linking Electric Vehicles to the Smart Grid J Lu and J Hossain (Editors) Energy Systems for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Edited by K.T Chau The Institution of Engineering and Technology Published by The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, United Kingdom The Institution of Engineering and Technology is registered as a Charity in England & Wales (no 211014) and Scotland (no SC038698) † The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2016 First published 2016 This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright Convention All rights reserved Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publisher at the undermentioned address: The Institution of Engineering and Technology Michael Faraday House Six Hills Way, Stevenage Herts, SG1 2AY, United Kingdom www.theiet.org While the authors and publisher believe that the information and guidance given in this work are correct, all parties must rely upon their own skill and judgement when making use of them Neither the authors nor publisher assumes any liability to anyone for any loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether such an error or omission is the result of negligence or any other cause Any and all such liability is disclaimed The moral rights of the authors to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this product is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-78561-008-0 (hardback) ISBN 978-1-78561-009-7 (PDF) Typeset in India by MPS Limited Printed in the UK by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon Contents Preface Organization of this book About the Editor Overview of energy systems for electric and hybrid vehicles K.T Chau 1.1 1.2 1.3 What are EVs and HVs? Benefits Challenges 1.3.1 Pure electric vehicles 1.3.2 Hybrid electric vehicles 1.4 Multidisciplinary technologies 1.5 Energy system technologies 1.5.1 Energy source systems 1.5.2 Battery charging and management systems 1.5.3 Vehicle-to-X energy systems Acknowledgements References Overview of electrochemical energy sources for electric vehicles Christopher H.T Lee and K.Y Chan 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Types of electrochemical cells for electric vehicles 2.1.1 Basic differences among electrochemical cells 2.1.2 Specific energy of electrochemical cells Capacitors 2.2.1 Double layer capacitor 2.2.2 Pseudocapacitor 2.2.3 Hybrid capacitors Batteries 2.3.1 Lead-acid battery 2.3.2 Nickel-based batteries 2.3.3 Ambient-temperature lithium batteries High-temperature batteries 2.4.1 Sodium-beta batteries 2.4.2 High-temperature lithium batteries xv xvii xxi 1 9 11 11 13 13 18 22 26 26 31 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 40 41 43 45 45 46 vi Energy Systems for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles 2.5 2.6 Metal/air batteries Fuel cells 2.6.1 Alkaline fuel cell 2.6.2 Phosphoric acid fuel cell 2.6.3 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell 2.6.4 Molten carbonate fuel cell 2.6.5 Solid oxide fuel cell 2.6.6 Direct methanol fuel cell 2.7 Flow batteries 2.8 Characteristics and EV applications 2.8.1 Ultracapacitor characteristics 2.8.2 Ultracapacitors for EV applications 2.8.3 Battery characteristics 2.8.4 Batteries for EV applications 2.8.5 Fuel cell characteristics 2.8.6 Fuel cells for EV applications 2.9 Trend References 47 48 49 51 52 54 55 56 59 60 60 61 61 63 63 64 65 66 Ultrahigh-speed flywheel energy storage for electric vehicles Wenlong Li and T.W Ching 69 3.1 69 71 72 74 74 76 76 77 77 78 78 79 81 82 82 87 87 89 91 93 93 94 Flywheel energy storage 3.1.1 FESSs as the main power source 3.1.2 FESSs as auxiliary energy storage 3.2 System configuration 3.2.1 Flywheel 3.2.2 Bearing 3.2.3 Motor/generator 3.2.4 Power converter 3.2.5 Enclosure 3.3 Electric machines 3.3.1 Induction machine 3.3.2 PMBL machines 3.3.3 Switched reluctance machine 3.3.4 Synchronous reluctance machine 3.3.5 Homopolar machine 3.4 Control strategies 3.4.1 Motor/generator control 3.4.2 FESS control 3.4.3 Charge and discharge control 3.5 Summary Acknowledgements References Contents Hybridization of energy sources for electric and hybrid vehicles Y.S Wong 4.1 4.2 Introduction Characteristics of engine and electrical powertrains 4.2.1 Energy efficiency improvement in HEVs 4.2.2 Drivetrain design of BEVs and HEVs 4.3 Energy sources for EV and HEV applications 4.3.1 Batteries 4.3.2 Fuel cells 4.3.3 Ultracapacitors 4.3.4 Ultrahigh-speed flywheels 4.4 Hybridization of energy sources in EVs and HEVs 4.4.1 Hybridization of drivetrains in HEVs 4.4.2 Hybridization of energy sources in EVs 4.5 Conclusions References Solar energy harvesting for electric vehicles King Hang Lam 5.1 How to harvest solar energy? 5.1.1 Brief history and types of PV technology 5.1.2 Harvesting solar energy for EVs 5.2 PV cell technologies 5.2.1 Crystalline silicon 5.2.2 a-Si 5.2.3 Other thin-film PV cells 5.3 Electrical characteristics and performance of PV cells 5.3.1 Does PV technology matter? 5.3.2 Energy yield calculations 5.3.3 Power management for EVs 5.3.4 Incorporating solar energy into PMS 5.3.5 Harvesting solar energy for charging station 5.4 Case studies 5.4.1 PV module as roof for electrical cart 5.4.2 PV modules mounted on roof of ICEV 5.5 Conclusions Acknowledgements References On-board electromagnetic energy regeneration for electric vehicles T.W Ching and Wenlong Li 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Vehicle energy 6.1.2 Vehicle dynamics vii 97 97 98 100 101 102 103 109 112 112 113 113 123 126 127 129 129 130 131 132 133 135 137 138 138 140 141 144 144 146 146 149 151 151 151 155 155 155 157 viii Energy Systems for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles 6.2 Electromagnetic energy regeneration from braking 6.2.1 Electric machines and power electronic drives 6.2.2 System configuration for braking energy recovery 6.2.3 Modelling of braking energy recovery 6.2.4 Control strategies for regenerative braking 6.3 Electromagnetic energy regeneration from suspension system 6.3.1 Suspension systems of vehicles 6.3.2 System configuration of shock absorbers 6.3.3 Energy harvester based on rotational electric machine 6.3.4 Energy harvester based on linear electric machine 6.3.5 Modelling of suspension systems 6.3.6 Control strategies for regenerative suspension 6.4 Summary Acknowledgements References 159 159 163 165 166 168 168 169 170 171 173 177 181 182 182 On-board thermoelectric energy recovery for hybrid electric vehicles Shuangxia Niu and Chuang Yu 187 7.1 7.2 7.3 TEG Waste heat recovery for HEVs Thermoelectric energy system 7.3.1 System configuration with series connection 7.3.2 System configuration with parallel connection 7.4 MPPT 7.4.1 MPPT for thermoelectric energy system with series connection 7.4.2 MPPT for thermoelectric energy system with parallel connection 7.5 PCC 7.6 Experimental implementation References 187 190 195 195 196 198 Review of battery charging strategies for electric vehicles Weixiang Shen 211 8.1 8.2 211 213 Introduction Charging algorithms for a single battery 8.2.1 Basic terms for charging performance evaluation and characterization 8.2.2 CC charging for NiCd/NiMH batteries 8.2.3 CV charging for lead acid batteries 8.2.4 CC/CV charging for lead acid and Li-ion batteries 8.2.5 MSCC charging for lead acid, NiMH and Li-ion batteries 8.2.6 TSCC/CV charging for Li-ion batteries 8.2.7 CVCC/CV charging for Li-ion batteries 198 199 202 205 208 214 217 218 220 226 230 231 Contents Pulse charging for lead acid, NiCd/NiMH and Li-ion batteries 8.2.9 Charging termination techniques 8.2.10 Comparisons of charging algorithms and new development 8.3 Balancing methods for battery pack charging 8.3.1 Battery sorting 8.3.2 Overcharge for balancing 8.3.3 Passive balancing 8.3.4 Active balancing 8.4 Charging infrastructure 8.4.1 Battery chargers 8.4.2 Home charging 8.4.3 Public charging 8.5 Conclusions Acknowledgements References ix 8.2.8 Wireless power transfer systems for electric vehicles Chi-Kwan Lee and Wen-Xing Zhong 9.1 9.2 9.3 Introduction Tesla’s early work of nonradiative wireless power transfer Basic principles for wireless power transfer using near-field coupling technique 9.3.1 Basic circuit model 9.3.2 Power flow analysis 9.4 Magnetic resonant 9.4.1 Compensation in secondary 9.4.2 Compensation in primary 9.5 Influence of the load resistance 9.5.1 Series-compensated secondary 9.5.2 Parallel-compensated secondary 9.6 Transmission distance 9.7 Transmission efficiency and energy efficiency of the system 9.8 Transducer power gain and maximum power transfer of the system 9.9 Frequency-splitting phenomenon 9.10 Wireless systems with four coils 9.11 Conclusion References 10 Move-and-charge technology for electric vehicles Chun T Rim 10.1 10.2 Introduction to the wireless power transfer technologies for EVs Basic principles of WPTSs for RPEV 10.2.1 Configuration of the WPTS 232 235 236 238 239 244 244 246 250 250 253 253 254 255 255 261 261 263 266 266 268 269 270 272 276 277 277 279 280 282 283 284 285 286 289 289 290 290 480 Energy systems for electric and hybrid vehicles propulsion battery when EV connects to the grid Under this case, the charger converts AC power to DC form Since the charger is bidirectional, in V2G operation, the propulsion battery can supply surplus energy to the grid For the case of V2G operation, the front-end full-bridge converter acts as a grid inverter When the charger is disconnected from the grid, the propulsion battery charges the auxiliary battery through the three full-bridges in the driving state Under this case, the charger acts as a step-down converter It is obvious that the power switches and inductors are shared in the three functions Thus, the power density of the EV charger can be enhanced (Kim and Kang, 2015) Figure 16.29 shows another single-phase three-stage battery charger for EVs that also operates in three different modes Compared to Figure 16.28, the nonisolated bidirectional two-stage charger is used to connect the propulsion battery to the grid in the configuration of Figure 16.29 An isolated unidirectional dioderectifier is used to deliver power from the AC side to the auxiliary battery (Pinto et al., 2014) Recently, a three-port isolated (TPI) bidirectional DC/DC converter is studied for three energy ports by integrating three windings in high-frequency transformer magnetically as shown in Figure 16.30 (Wang et al., 2015b) The zero-voltage transition condition is provided by the leakage inductances of transformer and parasitic capacitance of switching devices The switching frequency can thus be increased Due to the advantages of compact structure and high power density, the TPI bidirectional DC/DC converters are suitable to connect multiple energy ports of EVs The three energy ports are connected to the propulsion battery, auxiliary battery and the grid-side DC link for the three-stage battery charging Figure 16.31 (a) and (b) shows the measured steady-state voltage waveforms and current waveforms in the three windings of the TPI bidirectional DC/DC converter using the phase-shifted control AC SW1 S1 S4 S5 L1 SW2 L2 C1 S3 S2 C2 S6 1:n Traction battery D1 C3 Auxiliary battery D2 Figure 16.29 Configuration of another three-stage EV charger Vehicle-to-grid power interface S5 S7 i2 Propulsion battery u2 S1 S3 481 S6 S8 S9 S11 i1 Grid-side DC link u1 S2 S4 i3 Auxiliary battery u3 S10 S12 Figure 16.30 Three-port isolated (TPI) bidirectional DC/DC converter u1 (50 V/div) u2 (50 V/div) u3 (20 V/div) (a) i1 (2 A/div) i2 (2 A/div) i3 (2 A/div) (b) Figure 16.31 Measured waveforms in three windings of TPI bidirectional DC/DC converter (10 ms/div): (a) voltage; (b) current 482 16.4 Energy systems for electric and hybrid vehicles Integrated power interface for multiple DC levels In the EV chargers with multiple DC levels, the AC/DC rectifiers and different DC/DC converters can be integrated for compact design Figure 16.32 presents the configuration of an integrated charger by integrating DC/DC converters with DC levels In Figure 16.33, a non-isolated buck-boost diode rectifier whose inductor is shared with an integrated bidirectional DC/DC converter is presented With the buck (Bridge T1 D5) and boost (Bridge T2 D6) capability, this integrated charger can work with wide input voltage ranges for charging mode It is also able to step-up (T4 D7 T2 D8 T5) the voltage in driving mode and step-down the voltage (T6 D9 D6 T3 D5) in regenerative braking of the propulsion drive With the integrated configuration, the driving mode, the regenerative mode and the charging mode could be realized However, due to the power losses caused by additional semiconductor devices in current passing path, the efficiency is slightly lower than traditional topologies (Lee et al., 2009) Highvoltage bus AC Integrated bidirectional DC/DC converter Bidirectional rectifier Figure 16.32 Block diagram of integrated converter D9 D8 T6 + T5 T4 D7 T1 D1 D2 L1 D5 T2 AC D6 T3 C2 VHV C1 Bat D3 D4 − Figure 16.33 Battery charger with integrated DC/DC converter Vehicle-to-grid power interface 483 Figure 16.34 shows another integrated topology offering further reduction in the number of components using one inductor, seven diodes and four switches (Dusmez and Khaligh, 2012) In the charging mode, the DC/DC converter in the second stage works in buck-boost mode (T1–D5) In the driving mode, this converter works in boost mode (T2–T3–D7) In the regenerative braking mode, this converter works in buck mode (T4–D5–D6) This integrated on-board charger topology shares one inductor for all operation modes To achieve the low input current THD, an integrated charger with three-level AC/DC rectifiers is presented in Figure 16.35 (Erb et al., 2010a; Erb et al., 2010b) A single-phase neutral-point-clamping three-level rectifier is connected to the integrated DC/DC converter for different DC voltage levels The AC/DC rectifiers and the DC/DC bidirectional converters can be further integrated into one converter, which is described in Figure 16.36 This combination reduces the number of components of the charger significantly It is named integrated direct converter Therefore, the topology in Figure 16.37 is presented where a direct AC-DC converter is used (Chen et al., 2011) It has four operation modes, the driving mode (T6 T3 D3), the regenerative braking mode (T9 D2 T6), the D7 D5 D1 D3 D2 D4 Bat T2 AC + L1 C1 T4 T3 D6 C2 VHV − T1 Figure 16.34 Battery charger with integrated DC/DC converter with reduced hardware S1 T1 T2 AC D1 D2 T6 D6 C1 D7 T7 T3 T4 D14 D9 D11 L1 D T5 D4 T11 D13 L2 C2 D3 + S2 T8 T9 D10 VHV T10 D12 C3 Bat D5 Figure 16.35 Three-level rectifier integrated with DC/DC converter − 484 Energy systems for electric and hybrid vehicles + High voltage bus AC − Single-stage integrated converter Figure 16.36 Block diagram of integrated direct converter T9 + 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levels, and infrastructure for plug-in electric and hybrid vehicles, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 28, pp 2151–2169 Zou, Z., Wang, Z., and Cheng, M (2014) Modeling, analysis, and design of multifunction grid-interfaced inverters with output LCL filters, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 29, pp 3830–3839 Index aggregator 23–4, 395–406, 409, 413, 415–21, 427–9, 433, 435, 440, 442–5, 447, 451–2, 455, 458–60 amorphous silicon 132, 152 ancillary service 395–7, 399–404, 428–9, 431, 435, 442–3, 445, 447, 449–51, 459 architecture 100, 113–14, 177, 321, 376, 397–8, 452 balancing (of) active 212, 238, 246, 357–8, 368, 371 battery 211–12, 214, 238, 254–5, 357, 359, 361, 364, 367–9 multi-winding 361 passive 212, 238, 244 resistive 358, 369 switched-capacitor 361–5 battery (of) ambient-temperature lithium 39, 43, 62, 105, 108 flow 59 high-temperature lithium 43, 45–6, 62 lead acid 14, 39–42, 62, 102, 105, 128, 211–14, 218–23, 226–7, 232, 235–8, 244, 254–6, 258, 350, 358, 369 lithium/air 15, 48 lithium-ion 14, 27, 29, 43, 102, 127–8, 211, 224, 256–8, 350, 370–1 lithium iron phosphate 15, 128, 221, 236, 255 lithium manganese oxide 15, 44, 220 lithium nickel cobalt aluminium oxide 15 lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide 15, 236 lithium/sulphur 15 lithium titanate 15, 27, 44 nickel-based 39, 41, 62, 105–6, 109 nickel-cadmium 14, 41, 106, 257 nickel-metal hydride 14, 27, 29, 33, 41, 102, 127, 211, 257 sodium-beta 45, 62, 105, 107 sodium/sulphur 14, 104 zinc/air 14, 48, 104 battery electric vehicle (BEV) 2–10, 14–15, 18–24, 29, 71–4, 93–4, 97, 100–2, 118–20, 123–6, 382, 386, 392, 431 battery balancing 211–12, 214, 238, 254–5, 357, 359, 361, 364, 367–9 capacity 4, 10, 22–3, 27, 73, 102, 115, 215, 242, 299 characteristic 61, 357 charger 12–13, 143, 211, 250, 255–7, 259, 288, 460–1, 463, 467, 471, 473, 479–80, 482–3, 485–7 charging 1, 4, 8, 10–11, 13, 16, 18–19, 25–6, 29, 117–18, 142–3, 155, 163, 181, 201–2, 206, 211, 213–14, 220, 252, 256–7, 261, 319, 388, 393, 402–4, 480, 485 cost 8, 15, 373 490 Energy systems for electric and hybrid vehicles discharging 26, 163, 180, 196–7, 202, 206–7 life 10, 19, 25, 202, 218, 223, 289, 350, 404, 406, 457 management 21, 214–15, 258, 349, 370–1 sorting 212, 238–9, 254 swapping 10, 14, 19, 213, 250, 254, 385–6, 388, 392, 452 bifurcation diagram 335–7 bridgeless 464–6, 484–6 brushless AC (BLAC) 159, 161–2 brushless DC (BLDC) 159, 160–2 converter (of) AC/DC 326, 472, 484 bidirectional 196, 206, 484 DC/DC 124–5, 164, 328, 461–3, 465–6, 468, 471–87 cost premium 9, 11 crystalline silicon 18, 132–8 cyber-physical 447, 454–5, 459 cancellation 292, 307, 309–11 capacitor (of) double layer 35–8, 60, 112 hybrid 35, 37–8, 60 pseudo 32, 35–8, 60 chaotic 334–7, 339–40 charging (of) constant current 19, 256 constant voltage 19, 41 coordinated 25, 393, 450 dynamic 293, 313, 315, 319, 325–6, 328–30, 332 fast 10, 19, 24, 218, 232, 250–1, 253–5, 382, 390, 432, 436–7, 452, 461–2 home 250, 253 inductive 19–20, 257, 485 level-1 462 level-2 462 level-3 462 normal 18–19, 251 opportunity 18, 250, 253 public 250, 253 pulse 19, 232–3, 235, 257 charging station 10, 16, 19, 131, 143–6, 213, 250, 252–4, 301, 376, 389, 432–4, 436–8, 442, 452, 455, 460, 462 compensation network 262, 269, 273, 323, 325–8 electrocatalyst 16, 110–11 electromagnetic compatibility 286 energy 28, 155, 159, 168, 183, 185 interference 353, 464 emission 1, 5–6, 9, 11, 29, 48, 66, 97–8, 101, 108, 115, 121, 131, 153, 155, 159, 183, 190, 208, 211–12, 238, 261, 373–5, 387–8, 392, 395, 435, 456–7, 460 energy arbitrage 23–4, 319 carrier 2–3, 6–7, 130 cryptography 319, 333–4, 339–41, 344–6 decryption 341–2 density 28, 33, 36, 42, 45, 60, 69–70, 75, 102, 104–8, 124, 164, 289 diversification 6–7 efficiency 7–8, 16, 51, 70, 77, 93, 95, 97, 100, 105, 113, 121, 144, 156, 159, 216, 227, 256, 261–2, 279–83, 285, 295, 375, 387–8, 439, 448–9 encryption 30, 334–5, 338–42, 345–7 flow 6, 22, 98, 115–16, 123–4, 156, 180–1, 190, 192, 246, 373, 387–8, 447 daily load profile 435, 440 damper 169–70, 172, 178–80, 184 driveline 7, 74, 98–9, 113 drivetrain 73, 97, 100–1, 112–13, 115, 117, 122, 126, 163, 165–7, 176 Index harvester 170–3, 185 hybridization 66, 99, 113 recovery 30, 112, 155, 159–60, 163, 165, 167–9, 181, 185, 187, 193, 205, 209 recuperation 87, 155, 163, 168, 185 regeneration 155, 159, 168, 171, 175, 177–8, 183–5 scheduling 435–6, 443, 447, 451–4 engine 1–8, 11, 13, 17–18, 31, 61, 63, 66, 95, 97–102, 114–22, 128, 149, 155, 164, 183, 187, 190, 192, 208, 290, 374, 377–8, 392, 432, 438 exhaust gas 18, 156–7, 188, 190, 192–4, 198, 209 ferrite 262, 311–13, 323, 329 flywheel energy 28–9, 69–70, 93–6 explosion 11 material 75 frequency regulation 334, 396–7, 403–5, 409, 421, 427–9, 447, 450, 453, 460 sensitivity 333–4 splitting 283, 285–6 fuel cell (of) alkaline 16, 49, 110 direct methanol 16, 49, 56, 111 indirect methanol 57 molten carbonate 16, 49, 54 phosphoric acid 49, 51, 110 proton exchange membrane 16, 49, 52, 110 solid oxide 16, 29, 49, 55, 110 solid polymer 16, 110 fuel economy 4, 8–9, 72, 100–1, 119, 121–3, 128, 155, 184, 190, 208 fuel-cell electric vehicle (FEV) 2–3, 5–7, 9–10, 14, 16, 23, 155 Gaussian map 336–7, 339–40 griddable 3, 22–3, 460 gyrobus 71–2 491 hard switching 273 harmonic 26, 82, 434, 439, 462–3, 465, 468, 470 hybrid (of) complex 113–14, 117–18 full 3–5, 8–9, 11–12 micro 3, 5, 8–9, 11, 118 mild 3–5, 8–9, 11–12 parallel 1, 114, 116, 164 plug-in 27, 67, 211, 258, 289, 382, 391, 393, 431, 459–60, 484–6 series 1, 4, 114–15, 122 series-parallel 114, 116–17 hybrid battery 14 capacitor 35, 37–8, 60 energy 3, 13, 22, 30, 61, 67, 97–8, 209 hybridization (of) drivetrain 97, 126 energy 66, 99, 113 hydromechanical 73–4 inductive power transfer 19, 28, 287–9, 316–18, 322–5, 338, 346–7 information flow 22, 387, 447–8 infrastructure 7, 9–10, 98, 155, 211–13, 250, 255, 259, 315, 373, 385–9, 431–2, 434–7, 439, 442, 447–52, 454–6, 460–2, 487 inverter 20, 30, 77, 79, 89–92, 144, 151, 160, 162–3, 262, 290–4, 296, 299, 301, 303, 314, 462, 480, 486–7 Logistic map 335, 337, 339–40 machine (of) homopolar 78, 82–4, 87, 89, 96 induction 76, 78–9, 87, 94, 266 linear 171–3 reluctance 76, 78, 81–2, 95, 159 synchronous 76, 83, 85, 96 492 Energy systems for electric and hybrid vehicles magnetic bearing 16, 71, 76, 78, 80, 84, 113 resonance 252, 257, 261, 263, 286, 290, 317, 346 resonant 20, 26, 28, 30, 213, 252, 269, 286, 317, 323, 346 maximum power point tracking 18, 30, 142, 195, 209 maximum power transfer 190, 194, 205, 282–3, 285 mechanical bearing 71, 76–8 gear 72–4 recharging 254 modulation 79, 87, 160, 195, 247–8, 463, 467–8, 473 move-and-charge 20–1, 252–3, 289 multidisciplinary 1, 11 multilevel 395, 397–8, 400, 428, 467–8, 484 omni-directional 261 on-board 11, 13, 16–18, 73, 144, 146, 149–50, 155, 159, 187, 205, 213, 250–1, 253, 290–2, 294–5, 303, 387–8, 432, 450, 459, 461–2, 479, 483, 485 on-line electric vehicle (OLEV) 289, 298–301, 303–7, 316–18 optimal control 27, 178, 428, 433–5, 438–9, 442, 447, 451–4, 459 operation 4, 287 scheduling 28, 395, 404, 427, 429, 434–5, 460 optimization (of) cost-emission 456–7 efficiency 4, 11 park-and-charge 19–20, 252 peak shaving 25, 434, 439, 450 Peltier effect 187 permanent magnet (PM) 18, 28, 76, 78–81, 96, 159–61, 170–2 photovoltaic (PV) 18, 30, 129–53, 198, 209, 212, 233, 320, 432–3, 439–40, 455, 459 pick-up coil 290, 292, 296, 300–4, 306–9, 314, 318 planetary gear 11, 72–4, 118, 121, 179 plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) 3–5, 8, 11–12, 23, 27, 67, 104, 118–20, 122–3, 258, 289, 391, 393, 429, 431, 438, 459–60, 484–6 plugless 19–20 PM material 79 power density 12, 16, 20, 31, 33, 37, 46, 51–2, 57, 60, 63–4, 69–70, 76, 78–9, 103–4, 110–11, 164, 208, 252, 313, 464, 475, 477, 480 power factor correction (PFC) 262, 326, 461–6, 485–6 power gain 282–3 power interface (of) integrated 482 three-stage 479 two-stage 463 power supply rail 290–3, 295–7, 299–309, 315–17 power transfer network 280 propulsion (of) electric 2, 12, 98, 113–14, 160, 182, 374 hybrid 2–3, 13 propulsion device 2–3, 11, 115–16, 118 protocol (of) aggregator-aggregator 399–402 aggregator-EV 398–405 communication 345 operator-aggregator 398–402 pulse width modulation (PWM) 79, 160–1, 195–6, 198–9, 205, 247–8, 463, 465–8, 472–3, 477, 486 pure electric vehicle (PEV) 3, 5, 9, 12–13, 18, 27, 155–6, 159, 166, 182, 255, 289, 382–3, 387, 458–9 PV cell 130, 132–3, 135, 138–42, 144, 148 Index quality-of-service (QoS) 395, 397, 402–3 Ragone chart 14 range-extended electric vehicle (REV) 3–5, 8, 11–12, 23 rectifier (of) AC/DC 461, 463, 465–8, 471–2, 479, 482–3 bidirectional 463, 479, 482 PFC 463–5 PWM 79, 463, 465–8 regenerative braking 3–4, 8, 11, 14, 16, 61, 65, 71–2, 90, 93, 98, 100, 103–4, 112–13, 116–17, 119, 121–2, 124, 126, 143–4, 156, 159–60, 163–4, 166–8, 183, 185, 482–3 regulation (of) dynamic 435–6, 451, 453 frequency 334, 396–7, 403–5, 409, 421, 427–9, 447, 450, 453, 460 power 435, 443, 450, 453–4 voltage 84, 93, 142, 447 renaissance 374, 389–90, 393 renewable energy 16–18, 137, 145, 151–3, 185, 202, 208, 377, 380, 382–5, 387, 389, 392–3, 396, 428, 432, 435, 439, 447–8, 452, 454 ripple (of) current 468, 477 voltage 479 roadway-powered electric vehicle (RPEV) 261, 289–99, 307, 311, 313–17 scheduling (of) forecast-based 406, 409, 412–17, 421–7 online 409–13, 415, 417–19, 422–7, 429 optimal 28, 395, 404, 427, 429, 434–5, 460 493 security key 333–7, 339–40, 342, 345–6 Seebeck effect 187 segmentation 296 sensorless 87–9, 94–6, 258 shock absorber 18, 28, 156, 168–73, 176, 181–3, 185 smart grid 29, 145–6, 152, 258, 374, 383–4, 387–8, 390–3, 428–9, 447, 452, 454, 459–62 soft switching 182, 273, 474, 476, 486 solar energy 16, 18, 28, 129–33, 135, 137–9, 141, 143–7, 149–53, 381 specific energy 3, 10, 14–17, 31–3, 39, 42–3, 47–9, 59–63, 65–6, 70, 93, 102–9, 111–13, 119, 123–4, 126, 130 specific power 14–17, 31–2, 39, 48, 61–2, 65–6, 102–9, 111–13, 119, 121, 123–4, 126 spectrum 28–9, 95, 133 spinning reserve 25, 434, 447, 450, 453, 457–8 stability 29, 36, 48, 51–2, 57, 76, 144, 157, 159, 183, 354, 382, 385, 396, 426, 435–6, 449 state of charge (SOC) 19, 21–2, 27, 29, 40–1, 69, 103, 109, 121–4, 126, 142, 212–16, 223, 229–31, 235–6, 239, 241, 243, 256–8, 349–52, 354–8, 369–71, 382, 390, 397, 403–4, 406, 411, 417, 439–40, 443–4, 446, 450, 457 state of health (SOH) 21–2, 215, 349–52, 354–5, 357–8, 369–71 state of power (SOP) 21–2 superconducting 28–9, 70, 76, 95 suspension (of) active 168–70, 172–3, 175, 179, 181–5 passive 169, 176, 183 regenerative 168–70, 177, 179, 183, 185 switched reluctance machine (SRM) 78, 81–2, 87–8, 95, 159, 161–3 494 Energy systems for electric and hybrid vehicles switched-capacitor 338, 360–6, 368–71 switching frequency 77, 202, 292, 294–5, 300, 322, 325, 333, 335–6, 339–40, 367, 464, 468, 475–6, 480, 485–7 loss 273, 294, 343, 366–7, 473 synchronous reluctance (SynR) machine 78, 82–3, 87–8 tank-to-wheels 7–8 thermoelectric 18, 30, 185, 187–91, 193–203, 205–9 thermoelectric generation (TEG) couple 189 device 189–92 system 189–90, 192, 195, 205, 208 thin film 136–8, 152–3 torque control 87 density 12, 31, 76, 79, 82 transmission distance 272, 279–80, 283, 285, 319, 337, 341 efficiency 279–82, 285, 342 ultracapacitor 2–3, 32, 34–8, 60–1, 66–7, 100, 102–3, 112–13, 123–6, 164, 184 ultraflywheel ultrahigh-speed flywheel 3, 69, 93, 102–3, 112–13, 126 vehicle dynamics 18, 157, 177–8 energy 29, 128, 155–6 vehicle-to-building (V2B) 23–4, 432 vehicle-to-grid (V2G) 22–9, 287, 319, 324, 347, 383, 390–1, 395–8, 400–1, 403–5, 407, 411, 419–21, 424, 426–9, 431–6, 439, 442–3, 447, 449–62, 480, 484 vehicle-to-home (V2H) 23–4, 28, 431–2, 438–40, 442, 458–60 vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) 432 vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) 24, 28, 431, 440, 442–3, 451, 458–60 vehicle-to-X (V2X) 1, 13, 22, 24 vibrational energy 155 voltage control 197, 224, 368, 396, 429 regulation 84, 93, 142, 447 waste heat 16, 18, 30, 53, 110, 156, 159, 168, 187, 190, 193, 205, 208–9 wireless power transfer (of) acoustic 320 capacitive 321–3 microwave 321–2 optical 320–1 resonant 317, 347 zero-current switching (ZCS) 273, 366–7, 370–1, 475–8 zero-voltage switching (ZVS) 273, 292, 473–7, 485