Fundamentals and applications of renewable energy

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Fundamentals and Applications of R en e wabl e E n e rg y 00_Kanoglu FM_i-xiv.indd 24/04/19 10:01 AM This page intentionally left blank 00_Kanoglu FM_i-xiv.indd 24/04/19 10:01 AM Fundamentals and Applications of R e newab l e E n e rgy MEHMET KANOĞLU University of Gaziantep YUNUS A ÇENGEL University of Nevada, Reno JOHN M CIMBALA The Pennsylvania State University New York  Chicago  San Francisco Athens  London  Madrid Mexico City  Milan  New Delhi Singapore  Sydney  Toronto 00_Kanoglu FM_i-xiv.indd 24/04/19 10:01 AM Copyright © 2020 by McGraw-Hill Education All rights reserved Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher ISBN: 978-1-26-045531-1 MHID: 1-26-045531-9 The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-1-26-045530-4, MHID: 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the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL EDUCATION AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE McGraw-Hill Education and its licensors not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free Neither McGraw-Hill Education nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom McGraw-Hill Education has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill Education and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise About the Authors Mehmet Kanoğlu is Professor of Mechanical Engineering at University of Gaziantep He received his B.S in mechanical engineering from Istanbul Technical University and his M.S and Ph.D in mechanical engineering from University of Nevada, Reno His research areas include renewable energy systems, energy efficiency, refrigeration systems, gas liquefaction, hydrogen production and liquefaction, geothermal energy, and cogeneration He is the author or coauthor of dozens of journal and conference papers   Dr Kanoğlu has taught courses at University of Nevada, Reno, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, American University of Sharjah, and University of Gaziantep He is the coauthor of the books Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach (9th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2019), Refrigeration Systems and Applications (2nd ed., Wiley, 2010), and Efficiency Evaluation of Energy Systems (Springer, 2012)   Dr Kanoğlu has served as an instructor in certified energy manager training programs and as an expert for the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) for renewable energy and energy efficiency projects He instructed numerous training courses and gave lectures and presentations on renewable energy systems and energy efficiency He has also served as advisor for state research funding organizations and industrial companies Yunus A Çengel is Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Nevada, Reno He received his B.S in mechanical engineering from Istanbul Technical University and his M.S and Ph.D in mechanical engineering from North Carolina State University His areas of interest are renewable energy, energy efficiency, energy policies, heat transfer enhancement, and engineering education He served as the director of the Industrial Assessment Center (IAC) at the University of Nevada, Reno, from 1996 to 2000 He has led teams of engineering students to numerous manufacturing facilities in Northern Nevada and California to perform industrial assessments, and has prepared energy conservation, waste minimization, and productivity enhancement reports for them He has also served as an advisor for various government organizations and corporations   Dr Çengel is also the author or coauthor of the widely adopted textbooks Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach (9th ed., 2019), Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications (6th ed., 2020), Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications (4th ed., 2018), Fundamentals of Thermal-Fluid Sciences (5th ed., 2017), and Differential Equations for Engineers and Scientists (2013), all published by McGraw-Hill Education Some of his textbooks have been translated into Chinese (long and short forms), Japanese, Korean, Spanish, French, Portuguese, Italian, Turkish, Greek, Tai, and Basq   Dr Çengel is the recipient of several outstanding teacher awards, and he has received the ASEE Meriam/Wiley Distinguished Author Award for excellence in authorship in 1992 and again in 2000 Dr Çengel is a registered professional engineer in the State of Nevada, and is a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and the American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) John M Cimbala is Professor of Mechanical Engineering at The Pennsylvania State University (Penn State), University Park, P.A He received his B.S in Aerospace Engineering from Penn State and his M.S in Aeronautics from the California Institute of Technology (CalTech) He received his Ph.D in Aeronautics from CalTech in 1984 His research areas include experimental and computational fluid mechanics and heat transfer, turbulence, turbulence modeling, turbomachinery, indoor air quality, and air pollution control Professor Cimbala completed sabbatical leaves at NASA Langley Research Center (1993–1994), where he 00_Kanoglu FM_i-xiv.indd 24/04/19 10:01 AM advanced his knowledge of computational fluid dynamics (CFD), and at Weir American Hydro (2010–2011), where he performed CFD analyses to assist in the design of hydro turbines   Dr Cimbala is the coauthor of four other textbooks: Indoor Air Quality Engineering: Environmental Health and Control of Indoor Pollutants (2003), published by Marcel-Dekker, Inc.; Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications (4th ed., 2018), Essentials of Fluid Mechanics (2008); and Fundamentals of Thermal-Fluid Sciences (5th ed., 2017), all published by McGraw-Hill Education He has also contributed to parts of other books, and is the author or coauthor of dozens of journal and conference papers He has also recently ventured into writing novels More information can be found at www.mne.psu.edu/cimbala   Professor Cimbala is the recipient of several outstanding teaching awards and views his book writing as an extension of his love of teaching He is a member and Fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) He is also a member of the American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE), and the American Physical Society (APS) 00_Kanoglu FM_i-xiv.indd 24/04/19 10:01 AM Contents Preface xi CHAPTER Introduction to Renewable Energy  Why Renewable Energy?  Consequences of Fossil Fuel Combustion  Renewable Energy Sources  1-2 Fossil Fuels and Nuclear Energy  Coal 9 Oil 11 Natural Gas  12 Nuclear Energy  13 Electricity 15 References 15 Problems 15 1-1 CHAPTER A Review of  Thermal Sciences  19 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 Thermal Sciences  19 Thermodynamics 19 Heat and Other Forms of Energy  20 Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids  21 Energy Transfer  23 The First Law of Thermodynamics  24 Energy Balance for Closed Systems  25 Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems  25 Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure 27 Heat Transfer  29 Conduction Heat Transfer  29 Thermal Conductivity  31 Convection Heat Transfer  35 Radiation Heat Transfer  37 Fluid Mechanics  41 Viscosity 42 Pressure Drop in Fluid Flow in Pipes  44 Thermochemistry 49 Fuels and Combustion  49 Theoretical and Actual Combustion Processes 51 Enthalpy of Formation and Enthalpy of Combustion 52 First-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems  55 2-6 Heat Engines and Power Plants  58 Thermal Efficiency  60 Overall Plant Efficiency  62 2-7 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps  63 References 65 Problems 65 CHAPTER Fundamentals of Solar Energy  77 3-1 3-2 Introduction 77 Radiation Fundamentals  77 Blackbody Radiation  80 3-3 Radiative Properties  84 Emissivity 85 Absorptivity, Reflectivity, and Transmissivity 85 The Greenhouse Effect  88 3-4 Solar Radiation  89 3-5 Solar Data  96 References 99 Problems 99 CHAPTER Solar Energy Applications  105 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7 Introduction 105 Flat-Plate Solar Collector  106 Concentrating Solar Collector   111 Solar-Power-Tower Plant  114 Solar Pond  117 Photovoltaic Cell  118 Passive Solar Applications  123 Trombe Wall  124 Solar Heat Gain through Windows  124 References 131 Problems 131 CHAPTER Wind Energy  139 5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-5 Introduction 139 Wind Turbine Types and Power Performance Curve 140 Wind Power Potential  143 Wind Power Density  145 Wind Turbine Efficiency  147 Betz Limit for Wind Turbine Efficiency  148 vii 00_Kanoglu FM_i-xiv.indd 24/04/19 10:01 AM viii   Contents 5-6 Considerations in Wind Power Applications 153 References 157 Problems 158 8-6 Solid Municipality Waste  250 References 255 Problems 255 CHAPTER Ocean Energy  261 Hydropower 163 6-1 6-2 Introduction 163 Analysis of a Hydroelectric Power Plant 165 6-3 Impulse Turbines  173 6-4 Reaction Turbines  177 6-5 Turbine Specific Speed  185 6-6 Run-of-River Plants and Waterwheels 186 References 189 Problems 189 CHAPTER Geothermal Energy  195 7-1 7-2 7-3 Introduction 195 Geothermal Applications  197 Geothermal Heating  198 Degree-Day Method for Annual Energy Consumption 200 7-4 Geothermal Cooling  205 Absorption Cooling System  205 7-5 Geothermal Heat Pump Systems  208 Heat Pump Systems  209 Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems 210 7-6 Geothermal Power Production  215 7-7 Geothermal Cogeneration  226 References 230 Problems 230 CHAPTER Biomass Energy  243 8-1 8-2 8-3 8-4 8-5 Introduction 243 Biomass Resources  243 Conversion of Biomass to Biofuel 244 Biomass Products  245 Ethanol 245 Biodiesel 246 Methanol 246 Pyrolysis Oil  247 Biogas 247 Producer Gas  248 Synthesis Gas  248 Electricity and Heat Production by Biomass 249 00_Kanoglu FM_i-xiv.indd CHAPTER 9-1 9-2 9-3 Introduction 261 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion  261 Wave Energy  265 Power Production from Waves  266 Wave Power Technologies  270 9-4 Tidal Energy  272 References 277 Problems 277 CHAPTER 10 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells  281 10-1 10-2 Hydrogen: An Energy Carrier   281 Fuel Cells  286 Thermodynamic Analysis of Fuel Cells  289 References 297 Problems 297 CHAPTER 11 Economics of Renewable Energy  301 11-1 11-2 Engineering Economics  301 The Time Value of Money  302 Effect of Inflation and Taxation on Interest Rate   305 11-3 Life Cycle Cost Analysis  306 Cost-Benefit Analysis  306 Unit Product Cost  309 Comparison of Projects Based on Life Cycle Cost Analysis   309 11-4 Payback Period Analysis  311 References 313 Problems 313 CHAPTER 12 Energy and the Environment  319 12-1 Introduction 319 12-2 Air Pollutants  321 Particulate Matter  324 Sulfur Dioxide  325 Nitrogen Oxides  329 Hydrocarbons 331 Carbon Monoxide  332 Ozone, Smog, and Acid Rain 333 12-3 Emissions from Automobiles  336 Catalytic Converters  339 24/04/19 10:01 AM Contents    ix 12-4 The Greenhouse Effect  342 CO2 Production  344 12-5 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 350 12-6 Nuclear Waste  351 References 352 Problems 353 00_Kanoglu FM_i-xiv.indd APPENDIX Property Tables (SI Units)  359 APPENDIX Property Tables (English Units)  371 INDEX 385 24/04/19 10:01 AM 384   Conversion Factors CONVERSION FACTORS (Continued) Dimension Metric Metric/English Specific volume m3/kg = 1000 L/kg = 1000 cm3/g m3/kg = 16.02 ft3/lbm ft3/lbm = 0.062428 m3/kg Temperature T(K) = T(°C) + 273.15 DT(K) = DT(°C) T(R) = T(°F) = 459.67 = 1.8T(K) T(°F) = 1.8T(°C) + 32 DT(°F) = DT(R) = 1.8DT(K) Thermal conductivity W/m⋅°C = W/m⋅K W/m⋅°C = 0.57782 Btu/h·ft⋅°F Velocity m/s = 3.60 km/h m/s = 3.2808 ft/s = 2.237 mi/h mi/h = 1.46667 ft/s mi/h = 1.6093 km/h Volume m3 = 1000 L = 106 cm3 (cc) m3 = 6.1024 × 104 in3 = 35.315 ft3     = 264.17 gal (U.S.) U.S gallon = 231 in3 = 3.7854 L fl ounce = 29.5735 cm3 = 0.0295735 L U.S gallon = 128 fl ounces Volume flow rate m3/s = 60,000 L/min = 106 cm3/s m3/s = 15,850 gal/min (gpm) = 35.315 ft3/s      = 2118.9 ft3/min (cfm) Mechanical horsepower The electrical horsepower is taken to be exactly 746 W † Some Physical Constants Universal gas constant Ru = 8.31447 kJ/kmol⋅K = 8.31447 kPa⋅m3/kmol⋅K = 0.0831447 bar⋅m3/kmol⋅K = 82.05 L⋅atm/kmol⋅K = 1.9858 Btu/lbmol⋅R = 1545.37 ft⋅lbf/lbmol⋅R = 10.73 psia⋅ft3/lbmol⋅R Standard acceleration of gravity g = 9.80665 m/s2 = 32.174 ft/s2 Standard atmospheric pressure atm =  101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar = 14.696 psia = 760 mm Hg (0°C) = 29.9213 in Hg (32°F) = 10.3323 m H2O (4°C) Stefan–Boltzmann constant        a =  5.6704 × 10-8 W/m2⋅K4 = 0.1714 × 10-8 Btu/h⋅ft2·R4 Boltzmann’s constant        k = 1.380650 × 10-23 J/K Speed of light in vacuum      co = 2.9979 × 108 m/s = 9.836 × 108 ft/s Speed of sound in dry air at 0°C and atm      c = 331.36 m/s = 1089 ft/s Heat of fusion of water at atm  hif = 333.7 kJ/kg = 143.5 Btu/lbm Enthalpy of vaporization of water at atm hfg =  2256.5 kJ/kg = 970.12 Btu/lbm 14_Kanoglu_App_2_p371-384.indd 384 05/04/19 2:29 PM Index Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures; those followed by t indicate tables A Absolute reference frame, for hydroelectric impulse turbines, 174f, 175 Absorption chillers, 207 Absorption refrigeration: COP of, 207 from geothermal energy, 205–208, 206f Absorptivity: of blackbody, 80 of radiation, 85–88, 85f–87f in radiation heat transfer, 38–39, 39f of solar radiation, 91, 94t Accumulation reservoir, for hydroelectric energy, 163–164, 164f Acid rain, from sulfur dioxide, 334–336, 335f Active, closed loop solar water heater, 107, 107f Active solar energy, 106 for water heater, 107, 107f Aerodynamics, 41 drag, of wind turbines, 150 AF See Air-fuel ratio AFC See Alkaline fuel cell Agricultural crop residue, for biomass energy, 243 Agricultural crops, for biomass energy, 243 Air See also Wind energy (power) for combustion, 51–52, 321 deficiency of, 52 density of, 144 excess, 52 hydrogen-air fuel cells, 294, 295t hydrogen and, 284 stoichiometric, 52, 57 for combustion, 321 ethanol and, 248–249 Air conditioners, 63 absorption refrigeration for, 207 heat pumps and, 209 ozone depletion and, 351 Air-fuel ratio (AF), 51, 51f, 57 for automobiles, 338 for diesel fuel, 332 equivalence ratio of, 52, 336 for ethanol, 249 Air pollution, 321–336 from automobiles, 336–340, 337t, 338f carbon monoxide in, 319, 332, 333f from coal, 323f from electricity generation, 322–323, 323t from fossil fuels, 320, 322 HC in, 319, 331–332 nitrogen oxides in, 319, 329–331 ozone in, 333–334, 334f PM in, 319, 324–325 sulfur dioxide in, 319, 326–328, 327f Air-source systems, for heat pumps, 209 Alkaline fuel cell (AFC), 288–289 Alternative energy See Renewable energy Alternative fuels, 49 See also specific types Ammonia: for absorption refrigeration, 206–208, 206f in SCR, 330 Anaerobic digestion: biogas from, 247 methane from, 250 Anderson cycle, for OTEC, 262, 264–265 Angular velocity, of wind turbines, 150 Animal waste, for biomass energy, 244 Anthracite coal, 10 Aperture area, of concentrating solar collectors, 111 Aquatic crops, for biomass energy, 244 Atmospheric pressure: boiling temperature and, 28–29 hydroelectric energy and, 170 wind turbines and, 149 Atmospheric radiation, 89 Attenuation, of solar radiation, 91 Automobiles, 11 See also Gasoline AF for, 338 air pollution from, 336–340, 337t, 338f carbon dioxide from, 343–344, 344f, 347–348 catalytic converters for, 339–340, 341f sulfur dioxide from, 327 disposal of, 338 efficiency of, 62 electric, 8, 284 ethanol for, 245 nitrogen oxides from, 329 sulfur dioxide from, 326 385 15_Kanoglu_Index_p385-402.indd 385 17/04/19 11:43 AM 386   Index Average wind power density, 146 Axial-flow turbines, 179, 179f B Balance point temperature, for geothermal heating, 201, 201f Batteries, 283 Beckman, W., 107, 109, 112 BEP See Best efficiency point Bernoulli equation, 149 Best efficiency point (BEP), for hydro turbines, 185 Betz, Albert, 148 Betz limit, for wind turbine efficiency, 148–153, 149f, 151f–153f Bin method, for geothermal heating, 204 Binary cycle geothermal power plants, 218–220, 219f, 220f Biochemical conversion, of biomass into biofuel, 244 Biodiesel, 246 Biofuel, from biomass, biochemical conversion of, 244 Biogas, 247–248 Biomass, biofuel from, biochemical conversion of, 244 from biomass, 244 electricity generation from, 249–250 fossil fuels and, co-firing of, 249–250 for heating, 249–250 hydrogen from, 282 processing residues, for biomass energy, 244 products, 245–249 Biomass energy, 243–255 feedstocks for, 243–244, 244f Biopower, 249–250 Biosynthesis gas (synthesis gas), 248–249 Bituminous coal, 10 Blackbody, 37, 80, 85 solar radiation and, 90–91, 91f Blackbody radiation, 37–38, 38f, 80–84, 80f, 82f–84f Blank, I., 301 Boiling temperature, atmospheric pressure and, 28–29 Boltzmann’s constant, 81 Bottoming cycle, for cogeneration geothermal, 227, 227f Brayton cycle, for geothermal cogeneration, 226 Breakwater power plants, for wave energy, 271 British thermal unit (Btu), 20 C Capacity specific speed, of hydro turbines, 185 Capital cost, 301 15_Kanoglu_Index_p385-402.indd 386 Carbon dioxide, 89 from automobiles, 343–344, 344f, 347–348 in biogas, 247 climate change from, 342–343 from coal, 346–347, 347f from combustion, 50, 53 in combustion, 321 from fossil fuels, 6, 6f, 9, 344 HC and, 331 historical trend for, 348–349, 348f, 349f per unit mass for common fuels, 345, 345t in producer gas, 248 recycling and, 252–253 solar radiation and, 91, 92 in steady-flow systems, 54 from vehicles, 49 Carbon monoxide: in air pollution, 319, 332, 333f from automobiles, 336 in biogas, 247 in biomass, 244 catalytic converters and, 339, 340 Clean Air Act of 1990 and, 320 from coal, 10 from fossil fuels, 6, 6f, 322 hydrogen and, 283 from methanol, 247 in producer gas, 248 in smog, 333 in synthesis gas, 248 from vehicles, 49 Carboxyhemoglobin (COHb), 332, 333f Carnot cycle, 61 fuel cells and, 286 for refrigerators and heat pumps, 65 Carre, Ferdinand, 206 Catalytic converters, 339–340, 341f sulfur dioxide from, 327 Cell voltage, 292–293 Çengel, Y A., 165, 168, 216, 229 Centipoise, 43 CFC See Chlorofluorocarbon Chemical energy, 21 from combustion, 50 fuel cells and, 286 as heat, 53 of hydrogen, 291 second law of thermodynamics for, 286 Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), 338, 346 ozone depletion and, 350 Churchill, S W., 47 Churchill equation, 47 17/04/19 11:43 AM Index    387 Cimbala, J M., 165, 168 Claude cycle, for OTEC, 262–264 Clean Air Act of 1970, 319, 326 Clean Air Act of 1990, 320 Climate change, 342–343 Closed systems: energy balance for, 25, 25f heat engines as, 60 for OTEC, 262, 264–265 CNG See Compressed natural gas Co-firing, of fossil fuels and biomass, 249–250 Coal, 12f, 49 acid rain from, 335 air pollution from, 323f carbon dioxide from, 346–347, 347f combustion of, 321 for electricity generation, 9–11, 62 HC from, 331 hydrogen from, 282 for methanol, 247 sulfur dioxide from, 326 synthesis gas from, 248 Coefficient of performance (COP), 64–65 of absorption refrigeration, 207 of ground source heat pumps, 211 for heat pumps, 208–209 for hydrothermal heating, 201–202 for passive solar energy, 129 Coefficient of viscosity, 43 Cogeneration: of biogas, 247 of geothermal energy, 197–198, 226–228, 227f COHb See Carboxyhemoglobin Colebrook equation, 46–47, 48 for hydroelectric energy, 168 Combined flash/binary (hybrid) geothermal power plant, 221–226, 221f–223f Combustion: air for, 321 chemical energy from, 50 of coal, 321 complete, 321 enthalpy of, 52–55, 53f, 55f of fuels, 49–51 incomplete, 321 nitric oxides and, 330 oxygen for, 321–322 products of, 322f reactants of, 50, 286 stoichiometric air for, 321 Complete combustion, 321 Composting, of MSW, 252 Compound interest, 302 15_Kanoglu_Index_p385-402.indd 387 Compounding, 302 Compressed natural gas (CNG), 49 Concentrating collectors, of solar energy, 105, 111–114, 111f, 113f Concentration factor (CR), for concentrating solar collectors, 111–112 Conduction heat transfer, 29–31, 30f Conservation of energy principle See First law of thermodynamics Conservation of mass principle (mass balance), 50–51 Constant-pressure specific heat, 23, 23f Constant-volume specific heat, 22, 23, 23f Control volumes, 25, 27 of wind turbines, 148–149, 149f Convection heat transfer, 35–37, 36f, 37f radiation heat transfer and, 39–40 of solar energy flat-plate collectors, 108 Conversion efficiency, of photovoltaic cells, 120 Cooling See also Air conditioners; Refrigeration flat-plate solar collectors for, 105 geothermal energy for, 205–208, 206f, 227 Newton’s law of, 36–37 COP See Coefficient of performance Copper indium diselenide, for photovoltaic cells, 122 Corn, ethanol from, 245 Cost-benefit analysis, for renewable energy, 306–308, 307f Coulomb repulsion, 14 CR See Concentration factor Crystalline solids, thermal conductivity of, 34 Culp, A W., 118 Current density, of photovoltaic cells, 118–121, 118f, 121f Cut-in speed, of wind turbines, 140 Cut-out speed, of wind turbines, 143 D Darcy friction factor, for hydroelectric energy, 168 Dark current, of photovoltaic cells, 118, 121 Deficiency of air, 52 Degree-day method, for geothermal heating, 200–205 Dew point temperature, 57 Diesel fuel: AF for, 332 as dodecane, 49 enthalpy of, 73 HHV of, 11, 12f for hybrid wind power system, 156 sulfur dioxide from, 335–336, 340 synthesis gas from, 248 Diffusion: of blackbody, 80, 80f conduction heat transfer and, 29 of solar radiation, 92, 92f 17/04/19 11:43 AM 388   Index Digester gas See Biogas DiPippo, R., 216 Direct-methanol fuel cell (DMFC), 288 Direct solar radiation, 92 Direct steam cycle, 216 Discount rate, 302 Discounted payback period, 312 Dissociation, 321 Distillate oils, 12 District space heating, 198–199, 199f cogeneration geothermal for, 227 DMFC See Direct-methanol fuel cell Dodecane, 49 Double-flash geothermal power plant, 217–218, 218f Double regulated reaction turbines, 179 Draft tube, for hydroelectric energy, 169–170 Drag force, 42, 42f Draperies, passive solar energy and, 127–128, 127f Dry steam cycle, 216 Duffie, J A., 107, 109, 112 Dynamic pressure, 44 Dynamic turbines, for hydroelectric energy, 165 Dynamic (absolute) viscosity, 43, 45f E Effective sky temperature, 92–93 Effective surface temperature, 90 Efficiency See also Thermal efficiency of automobiles, 62 of cogeneration geothermal, 227–228 conversion, of photovoltaic cells, 120 energy, fossil fuels and, of ethanol, 245 first-law, of fuel cells, 291–292, 294, 295–296, 296f gearbox/generator, of wind turbines, 147, 151 of geothermal cogeneration, 226 of heat pumps, 209 for hydroelectric energy: impulse turbines of, 176–177 turbines of, 166–167, 167f, 170 of hydrothermal heating, 199 overall: of hydroelectric energy, 167, 167f, 171, 173 of steam power plants, 62–63 second-law, of fuel cells, 291, 292, 298 of tidal energy, 275 of wind turbines, 147–153, 148f Betz limit for, 148–153, 149f, 151f–153f EGL See Energy grade line EGR See Exhaust gas recycling Electric cars (zero-emission vehicles), 8, 284 15_Kanoglu_Index_p385-402.indd 388 Electricity generation See also Hydroelectric energy; Power plants air pollution from, 322–323, 323t biogas for, 247 from biomass, 249–250 capacity for, coal for, 9–11, 62, 326 from fuel cells, 286, 288 geothermal energy for, 197–198, 215–226, 216f–223f greenhouse gases from, 345–346, 346f hydrogen for, 283 natural gas for, 13, 62 nitrogen oxides from, 329 nuclear energy for, 14, 351 OTEC for, 261–265 from photovoltaic cells, 105, 118–123, 118f, 121f, 123f renewable, 1–2, 4f renewable energy for, 15 from solar energy concentrating collectors, 112–113 from solar-power-tower plant, 114–117, 115f, 116f storage of, 15 sulfur dioxide from, 326 from tidal energy, 272–276, 273f, 274f toe and, total global, 1, from wave energy, 265, 266–270 from wind energy, 286 wind energy for, 139–157 from wind turbines, 153 Electromagnetic radiation, solar energy from, 77–80 Electromagnetic spectrum, 78, 78f Electromagnetic waves, 77–78, 89 Electrostatic precipitator (EPS), 324, 324f Emissivity: of blackbody, 80–82, 80f, 82f of radiation, 85 in radiation heat transfer, 38–39, 38t of solar radiation, 17, 94t Energy See also specific types balance, 24–27, 25f for steady-flow systems, 55–56 carrier, hydrogen as, 281–286 efficiency, fossil fuels and, environment and, 319–352 forms of, 20–21 transfer, 23–24 Energy grade line (EGL), for hydroelectric energy, 169–170 Engineering economics, of renewable energy, 301–302, 302f 17/04/19 11:43 AM Index    389 Enhanced resources, for geothermal energy, 195, 196f Enthalpy, 21, 21f of binary cycle geothermal power plant, 220 of combustion, 52–55, 53f, 55f of diesel fuel, 73 of fuel cells, 289–291, 291f, 295 of geothermal electricity generation, 217 of geothermal energy, 222 of ideal gas, 23 of OTEC, 262, 262f Enthalpy of formation, 54, 289–290, 369t Enthalpy of reaction hg, 53 Entropy: of fuel cells, 295 of geothermal energy, 222 temperature-entropy diagram, for binary cycle geothermal power plant, 218–219, 219f Environment See also Air pollution energy and, 319–352 greenhouse effect and, 88–89, 89f, 342–349, 342f nuclear waste and, 351–352 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 250–251, 253 EPS See Electrostatic precipitator Equivalence ratio, of AF, 52, 336 Ethanol, 11, 49, 245–246 in biodiesel, 246 in gasoline, 248–249 Euler turbomachine equation, 175, 182, 184 Excess air, 52 Exhaust gas recycling (EGR), 329–330, 340 Exothermic reaction, 53, 207 External shading, 126, 128 F Faraday’s constant, 292 Feedstocks, for biomass energy, 243–244, 244f Fermi, Enrico, 14 FGD See Flue gas desulfurization First-law efficiency, of fuel cells, 291–292, 294, 295–296, 296f First law of thermodynamics, 19–20, 24 Fission, for nuclear energy, 14, 14f, 351 Flat-plate collectors, of solar energy, 105, 106–111, 106f–108f, 110f Flow energy, 21 of hydroelectric power plants, 165 of wind turbines, 143 Flue gas desulfurization (FGD), 326, 327 Fluid mechanics, 19, 41–48, 42f Forced convection, 36 Forestry residues, for biomass energy, 244 15_Kanoglu_Index_p385-402.indd 389 Fossil fuels, 3–4 See also Coal; Natural gas; Oil air pollution from, 320, 322 biomass and, co-firing of, 249–250 carbon dioxide from, 344 cogeneration geothermal and, 226 consequences of, 5–6, 6f depletion of, greenhouse gases from, 343 HC from, 331 for methanol, 247 nitrogen oxides from, 329 sources of, 9–13, 9f sulfur dioxide from, 326–327 Fourier’s law of heat conduction, 31 Fractional loss of velocity, of wind turbines, 150 Francis, James B., 178 Francis mixed-flow turbine, 179, 179f Francis radial-flow turbine, 179, 179f Francis turbines, 178–186, 179f–183f turbine specific speed of, 185–186 Free electrons: conduction heat transfer and, 29 in fuel cells, 287 Freon, 350 Frequency: of electromagnetic waves, 78 of wave energy, 269 Friction: coefficient of, 42 Darcy friction factor, 168 factor, 44, 48 in hydroelectric impulse turbines, 177 in tidal energy, 275 in wind turbines, 147–148, 150, 156, 156t Frosting, for heat pumps, 209 Fuel cells, 286–296 enthalpy of, 289–291, 291f, 295 entropy of, 295 first-law efficiency of, 291–292, 294, 295–296, 296f Gibbs function for, 290, 291f, 292, 293, 295 heat transfer of, 296 heating value of, 291f hydrogen in, 8, 283, 284 open circuit voltage of, 292–293, 296, 296f power from, 298 second-law efficiency of, 291, 292, 298 thermodynamic analysis of, 289–296 work from, 295t Fuels See also Air-fuel ratio; specific types combustion of, 49–51 heating value of, 54–55, 55f HHV of, 54–55 LHV of, 54–55, 55f 17/04/19 11:43 AM 390   Index Fusion: for nuclear energy, 14, 14f in sun, 89 Future value of money, 302 G Gallium arsenide, for photovoltaic cells, 122 Gamma rays, 79 Gas-turbine (Brayton) cycle, for geothermal cogeneration, 226 Gases See also Fluid mechanics; Ideal gas fluid dynamics of, 41 radiation heat transfer of, 39 specific heat of, 21–23 thermal conductivity of, 32–33 Gasoline: carbon monoxide from, 332 catalytic converters for, 339–340, 341f sulfur dioxide from, 327 ethanol in, 248–249 HC from, 332 HHV of, 11, 12f lead in, 320, 338 methanol and, 247 octane in, 49, 321 RFG, 334 Gearbox/generator efficiency, of wind turbines, 147, 151 Generator efficiency, for hydroelectric energy, 166–167, 167f, 170, 171 Geothermal energy, 4, 7, absorption refrigeration from, 205–208, 206f cogeneration of, 197–198, 226–228, 227f for cooling, 205–208, 206f, 227 for electricity generation, 197–198, 215–226, 216f–223f binary cycle plants, 218–220, 219f, 220f combined flash/binary (hybrid) power plant, 221–226, 221f–223f double-flash power plant, 217–218, 218f single-flash power plant, 217, 217f enhanced resources for, 195, 196f enthalpy of, 222 entropy of, 222 geopressurized resources for, 195 for heat pumps, 208–215, 210f–213f, 210t for heating: bin method for, 204 COP for, 201–202 cost-benefit analysis for, 307–308, 307f degree-day method for, 200–205 heating degree-days, 201–202, 202f, 203t 15_Kanoglu_Index_p385-402.indd 390 Geothermal energy, for heating (Cont.): hydrogen sulfide from, 321 hydrothermal resources for, 195 magma for, 195 OTEC and, 262 potential revenues from, 229f, 229t water and, 197 work from, 197 Gibbs function: for fuel cells, 290, 291f, 292, 293, 295 of water, 282 Glazing: of passive solar windows, 125–130, 126t of solar energy flat-plate collectors, 108–110, 109f Global warming: from fossil fuels, 6, 6f from methane, 346 from nitrogen oxides, 346 recycling and, 252 Goswami, Y., 107, 109, 112 Green energy See Renewable energy Greenhouse effect, 88–89, 89f, 342–349, 342f Greenhouse gases, 89, 342 See also specific types from electricity generation, 345–346, 346f from fossil fuels, 6, 6f, 343 recycling and, 252 Ground-source heat pumps, 210–215, 210t, 211f–213f Ground water wells heat pump, 212–213, 212f Groves, William, 288 H Hagen, G., 46 Hagen-Poiseuille flow, 46 HAWTs See Horizontal axis wind turbines HC See Hydrocarbons Head gate, for hydroelectric energy, 169 Heat, 20–21 See also Specific heat chemical energy as, 53 Heat-driven systems, absorption refrigeration as, 207 Heat engines, 58–60, 59f, 60f thermal efficiency of, 60–61, 61f Heat pumps, 63–65, 63f COP for, 208–209 geothermal energy for, 208–215, 210f–213f, 210t for space heating, 213 17/04/19 11:43 AM Index    391 Heat transfer, 19 conduction, 29–31, 30f convection, 35–37, 36f, 37f radiation heat transfer and, 39–40 of solar energy flat-plate collectors, 108 of fuel cells, 296 overall coefficient, for hydrothermal heating, 201 of passive solar energy, 128, 130 radiation, 37–41, 38f–40f, 38t, 93 net, 39 of solar energy flat-plate collectors, 108 rate, 24 by refrigerators and heat pumps, 63–65, 63f of solar energy flat-plate collectors, 108 Heat trap, 88 Heating See also Space heating; Water heaters biomass for, 249–250 carbon dioxide from, 345 geothermal energy for, 198–205, 198f, 199f, 201f bin method for, 204 COP for, 201–202 cost-benefit analysis for, 307–308, 307f degree-day method for, 200–205 heating degree-days, 201–202, 202f, 203t producer gas for, 248 Heating degree-days, for hydrothermal heating, 201–202, 202f, 203t Heating-degree hours, for hydrothermal heating, 201–202 Heating value See also Higher heating value; Lower heating value of fuel cells, 290, 291f of fuels, 54–55, 55f Heliochemical process, solar energy from, 105 Helioelectrical process, solar energy from, 105, 118–123, 118f, 121f, 123f Heliostats: of solar energy, 105 in solar-power-tower plant, 114–117, 115f, 116f Heliothermal process, solar energy from, 105 Herbaceous energy crops, for biomass energy, 243 Higher heating value (HHV): of biodiesel, 246 of biogas, 247 of coal, 11, 12f of diesel fuel, 11, 12f of ethanol, 245 of fuel cells, 290 of fuels, 54–55, 55f of gasoline, 11, 12f of hydrogen, 281 of methanol, 247 of natural gas, 12, 12f, 13 of synthesis gas, 248 15_Kanoglu_Index_p385-402.indd 391 Hodge, K., 107, 118, 288 Hoover Dam, 163, 164f Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs), 140, 141f, 143 wind turbine efficiency of, 151, 151f Horizontal loop heat pump, 211, 211f Hottel-Whillier-Bliss equation, 109 Hybrid power systems (HPS), 288 Hydraulic diameter, 46 Hydraulic turbines: for hydroelectric energy, 163, 165 for tidal energy, 272 Hydraulics, 41 Hydrides, hydrogen in, 284 Hydrocarbons (HC): in air pollution, 319, 331–332 from automobiles, 336 catalytic converters and, 339, 340 from fossil fuels, 322 hydrogen and, 283 from methanol, 247 ozone, 332 in smog, 333 Hydrodynamics, 41 Hydroelectric energy, 1, 4, 7, accumulation reservoir for, 163–164, 164f dynamic turbines for, 165 EGL for, 169–170 generator efficiency for, 166–167, 167f, 170, 171 global capacity of, 163 head gate for, 169 hydraulic turbines for, 165 irreversible head loss of, 168–169, 171 overall efficiency of, 167, 167f, 171, 173 penstock for, 167–168, 168f, 169 power plant for, 165–173 run-of-river plants for, 186–187, 187f turbines for, 163–169 efficiency of, 166–167, 167f, 170 impulse, 165, 173–177, 174f, –176f reaction, 165, 177–185, 178f, 184f turbine specific speed of, 185–186, 186f water cycle in, 9f water wheels for, 187–189, 188f Hydrogen: in biogas, 247 in biomass, 244 chemical energy of, 291 as energy carrier, 281–286 from fuel cells, 288 in fuel cells, 8, 283, 284 oxygen and, 322 17/04/19 11:43 AM 392   Index Hydrogen (Cont.): in producer gas, 248 production, storage, and utilization of, 283f, 284 refueling stations for, 284–285 in synthesis gas, 248 from water electrolysis, 282–283, 285–286 Hydrogen-air fuel cells, 294, 295t Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells, 287–296, 287f, 296f Hydrogen sulfide, from geothermal energy, 321 Hydrology, 41 I Ideal gas, 21 air density and, 144 enthalpy of, 23 fuel cells and, 293 internal energy of, 23 Ignition temperature, 50 Impulse turbines, for hydroelectric energy, 165, 173–177, 174f–176f Incident angle modifier, 109 Incident radiation, 85–87 Incomplete combustion, 321 Incompressible substance, 23, 23f Inflation, 305 Inflation-adjusted interest rate, 305 Inflation-taxation-adjusted interest rate, 305 Infrared radiation (IR), 78, 79, 80 blackbody radiation and, 83 greenhouse effect and, 88–89, 89f of solar radiation, 91, 93 Interest rates, 305 Internal energy, 20–21, 21f of ideal gas, 23 Internal shading, 126, 128 IR See Infrared radiation Irreversible head loss, of hydroelectric energy, 168–169, 171 Irrigation, hydroelectric energy and, 165 Isotropic materials, 35 J Joules, 20 K Kanoğlu, M., 216, 229 Kaplan, Viktor, 178 Kaplan turbines, 178–179, 185–186 Kerosene, 49 Kilojoules, 20 Kinematic viscosity, 43 pressure drop and, 46 15_Kanoglu_Index_p385-402.indd 392 Kinetic energy, 31–32 of hydro turbines, 183 in steady-flow systems, 56 of waves, 268–269 of wind turbines, 143, 147, 148, 150 Kinetic theory of gases, 32–33 Kirchhoff, Gustav, 87 Kirchhoff ’s law, 38, 87 Klystrons, 79 Kreider, J F., 107, 112 Kreith, F., 107, 112 Kyoto Protocol, 343 L Laminar flow, 44, 45f, 46 for hydroelectric energy, 168 Land fill gas (LFG), 3, 247–248 Landfill-gas-to-energy (LFGTE), 253 Latent energy (heat), 21, 28 Latent heat of vaporization, 28 Lead, in gasoline, 320, 338 Levelized annual cost, 306 in life cycle cost analysis, 309 UPC and, 309 Levelized annual value, 306 of geothermal heating, 308 Lewis, B J., 163 LFG See Land fill gas LFGTE See Landfill-gas-to-energy LHV See Lower heating value Life cycle cost analysis, for renewable energy, 306–311 Light-induced recombination current, of photovoltaic cells, 118 Lignite, 10 Linear concentrating solar power collectors, 112 Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 11, 49 Liquid-vapor saturation curve, 28, 29f Liquids See also Fluid mechanics specific heat of, 21–23 thermal conductivity of, 33 Lithium: hydrogen and, 284 for MCFC, 289 Load factor, for wind turbines, 155 Lower heating value (LHV): of biodiesel, 246 of biogas, 247 of coal, 11 of ethanol, 249 of fuel cells, 290 of fuels, 54–55, 55f of hydrogen, 281 17/04/19 11:43 AM Index    393 Lower heating value (LHV) (Cont.): of methanol, 247 of natural gas, 12, 13 of synthesis gas, 248 LPG See Liquefied petroleum gas M Magma, for geothermal energy, 195 Magnetrons, 79 Manwell, J F., 140, 146, 151 Mass balance, 50–51 Maximum power: for blackbody radiation, 82f for ethanol, 248–249 for fuel cells, 290 for hydroelectric energy, 165, 169, 171 for solar energy, 120 for wave energy, 272 for wind energy, 140, 143 Maxwell, James Clerk, 77 MCFC See Molten carbonate fuel cell Mechanical energy: of hydroelectric power plants, 165, 166, 172–173 of wind turbines, 143 Metals: alloys, thermal conductivity of, 34 emissivity of, 85 Meteorology, 41 Methane: from anaerobic digestion, 250 in biogas, 247 global warming from, 346 hydrogen from, 281–282 in natural gas, 12–13, 49, 321 in producer gas, 248 work from, 286, 287f Methanol, 49 in biodiesel, 246 in fuel cells, 288 Methyl alcohol, 49 Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE), 319 Micrometer (micron), 77 Microscopic energy, 20, 21f Microwaves, 79 Modulated single-pool tidal system, 275–276 Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), 289 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 351 Moody chart, 46, 47, 48 for hydroelectric energy, 168 Morse, E L., 124 15_Kanoglu_Index_p385-402.indd 393 MSW See Municipal solid waste MTBE See Methyl tertiary-butyl ether Municipal solid waste (MSW), 3, 250–255, 251f–254f biogas from, 247 for biomass energy, 244 recycling of, 252–253 N Natural (free) convection, 36 radiation heat transfer and, 40 Natural gas, 12f as alternative fuel, 49 for electricity generation, 62 fuel cells and, 288 geothermal heating and, 200 HC from, 331 hydrogen from, 281, 282 methane in, 12–13, 321 for methanol, 247 producer gas and, 248 for SOFC, 289 sulfur dioxide from, 326 synthesis gas from, 248 Neap tide, 273 Near-shore power plants, for wave energy, 271 Nernst equation, 293 Net present value (NPV), 306 in life cycle cost analysis, 309 Net radiation heat transfer, 39 Newton, Isaac, 42 Newtonian fluids, 42 Newton’s law of cooling, 36–37 Nitrogen: in biogas, 247 nitrogen oxides and, 329 in producer gas, 248 Nitrogen oxides: in air pollution, 319, 329–331 from automobiles, 336 catalytic converters and, 339–340 Clean Air Act of 1990 and, 320 from coal, 10 from combustion, 50 from fossil fuels, 6, 6f, 322 global warming from, 346 as greenhouse gas, 342 ozone and, 332 in smog, 333 NPV See Net present value Nuclear energy, 1, 9f, 13–14, 21 hydrogen from, 282 waste from, 351–352 17/04/19 11:43 AM 394   Index O Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), 7, 8, 118 Anderson cycle for, 262, 264–265 Claude cycle for, 262–264 closed system for, 262, 264–265 for electricity generation, 261–265 open system for, 262–264, 262f Oceanography, 41 Octane, in gasoline, 49, 321 Oil, 11–12, 11f, 49 See also specific product derivatives for electricity generation, 62 HC from, 331 hydrogen from, 282 for methanol, 247 O&M See Operating and maintenance Opaque materials, 84 Open circuit voltage: of fuel cells, 292–293, 296, 296f of photovoltaic cells, 119–121 Open systems, 60 for OTEC, 262–264, 262f Operating and maintenance (O&M), 301 for geothermal heating, 308 OTEC See Ocean thermal energy conversion Overall efficiency: of hydroelectric energy, 167, 167f, 171, 173 of steam power plants, 62–63 Overall heat transfer coefficient, for hydrothermal heating, 201 Oxygen: carbon monoxide and, 332 for combustion, 51, 321–322 hydrogen and, 322 Ozone: in air pollution, 333–334, 334f Clean Air Act of 1990 and, 320 depletion of, in stratosphere, 350–351 HC, 332 nitrogen oxides and, 332 UV and, 80 P PAFC See Phosphoric acid fuel cells Parabolic trough solar energy collectors, 111, 111f, 112–113, 113f Paris Agreement, 343 Particulate matter (PM): in air pollution, 319, 324–325 Clean Air Act of 1990 and, 320 from fossil fuels, 6, 6f, 322 in smog, 333 Particulate traps, 331 Passive solar energy, 106, 123–130, 124f, 125f, 126t, 127f, 129f 15_Kanoglu_Index_p385-402.indd 394 Payback period analysis, for renewable energy, 311–313 Pelamis Wave Energy Converter, 271 Pelton, Lester A., 173 Pelton-type impulse turbine, 173–174, 174f Pelton wheel, 173–177, 173f, 174f, 176f PEMFC See Proton exchange membrane fuel cell Penstock, for hydroelectric energy, 167–168, 168f, 169 Percent deficiency of air, 52 Phenol, from pyrolysis oil, 247 Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC), 288, 289 Photo biological conversion processes, 244 Photochemical smog See Smog Photons (quanta), 78 Photosynthesis, 89 of biomass, 244 heliochemical process as, 105 Photovoltaic cells, 118–123, 118f, 121f, 123f from helioelectrical proces, 105 payback period analysis for, 312–313 Pinch-point temperature difference, 220 Pipes: for geothermal heating, 198 for hydrogen, 285 pressure (head) loss in, 44–48, 45f, 46f, 47t, 48f Planck, Max, 78 Planck’s constant, 78 Planck’s law, 81, 83 PM See Particulate matter Poiseuille, J., 46 Poiseuille’s law, 46 Potassium, for MCFC, 289 Potential energy, 19 in steady-flow systems, 56 of waves, 268–269 of wind turbines, 143 Power, 23–24 See also Maximum power from fuel cells, 298 from hydroelectric impulse turbines, 175 from OTEC, 261 from PEMFC, 288 from photovoltaic cells, 121–123 potential, of wind turbines, 143–145, 144f rating, for wind turbines, 155 from solar-tower-power plants, 117 from tidal energy, 275–276 from wave energy, 265, 266–270 Power grid: smart, 15 wave energy and, 266 wind power and, 155 Power performance curve, for wind turbines, 140–143, 143f 17/04/19 11:43 AM Index    395 Power plants: geothermal: binary cycle, 218–220, 219f, 220f combined flash/binary (hybrid), 221–226, 221f–223f double-flash, 217–218, 218f single-flash, 217, 217f steam, 59 overall plant efficiency of, 62–63 water vapor in, 22 wave energy: breakwater power plants for, 271 near-shore power plants for, 271 shore line power plants for, 271 Present value of money, 302–303 Pressure (head) loss, in pipes, 44–48, 45f, 46f, 47t, 48f Producer gas, 248 Propeller mixed-flow turbine, 179, 179f Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), 288 Pyrolysis, 244 Pyrolysis oil, 247 Q Quanta (photons), 78 Quantum theory, 78, 81 R R-11 See Refrigerant-11 R-12 See Refrigerant-12 Radiation: atmospheric radiation, 89 blackbody, 37–38, 38f, 80–84, 80f, 82f–84f electromagnetic, solar energy from, 77–80 IR, 78, 79, 80 blackbody radiation and, 83 greenhouse effect and, 88–89, 89f of solar radiation, 91, 93 properties of, 84–89, 85f, 88f solar, 80, 89–96, 90f–93f, 94t, 95t, 96f, 107 for concentrating collectors, 112 data for, 96–99, 97t, 98t for passive solar energy, 124–130, 125f, 126t, 127f, 129f for photovoltaic cells, 120, 122 for solar-tower-power plants, 117 thermal, 79–80, 79f UV, 78, 79, 80 ozone depletion and, 350 in solar radiation, 90–91 Radiation heat transfer, 37–41, 38f–40f, 38t, 93 net, 39 of solar energy flat-plate collectors, 108 Radio waves, 79 Rankine cycle: for geothermal cogeneration, 226 for OTEC, 264 15_Kanoglu_Index_p385-402.indd 395 Rated speed, of wind turbines, 140 RDF See Refused dried fuel Reactants, of combustion, 50, 286 Reaction turbines, for hydroelectric energy, 165, 177–185, 178f, 184f Recycling: from automobiles, 338 EGR, 329–330, 340 of MSW, 252–253 Reference glazing, 126 Reflectivity: of radiation, 85–88, 86f of solar radiation, 91–92 Reformulated gasoline (RFG), 334 Refrigerant-11 (R-11), 350 Refrigerant-12 (R-12), 350 Refrigerants, 63 in absorption refrigeration, 205–208, 206f ozone and, 80 ozone depletion and, 350–351 Refrigeration, 63–65, 63f absorption: COP of, 207 from geothermal energy, 205–208, 206f ozone depletion and, 351 tons of, 64 Refused dried fuel (RDF), 253 Regenerative fuel cells, 288 Renewable energy, 9f cost-benefit analysis for, 306–308, 307f economics of, 301–313 for electricity generation, 15 engineering economics of, 301–302, 302f fossil fuels and, 6, 7f life cycle cost analysis for, 306–311 payback period analysis for, 311–313 sources of, 7–8 thermal sciences for, 19, 20f time value of money for, 302–305, 304f Residual oils, 12 Reverse saturation current, of photovoltaic cells, 118, 121 Reversible fuel cells, 288 Reynolds numbers, 46–47 for hydroelectric energy, 168 RFG See Reformulated gasoline Rotor shaft power output, of wind turbines, 147 Roughness, of pipes, 46–47, 47t Rubin, E S., 301 Run-of-river plants, for hydroelectric energy, 186–187, 187f Runners, on hydro turbines, 163, 169, 177–178, 183 17/04/19 11:43 AM 396   Index S Salvage value, 301, 312 Saturation pressure, 27–29, 28t, 29f Saturation temperature, 27–29, 28t, 29f SC See Shading coefficient SCR See Selective catalytic reduction Second-law efficiency, of fuel cells, 291, 292, 298 Second law of thermodynamics, 20 fuel cells and, 286 for wind turbines, 148 Selective catalytic reduction (SCR), 330 Semitransparent materials, 85 Sensible energy (heat), 20 Sensible enthalpy, 55 Shading coefficient (SC), for passive solar energy windows, 126, 128 Shaft power, of hydroelectric impulse turbines, 177 Shear stress, 41 SHGC See Solar heat gain coefficiency Shore line power plants, for wave energy, 271 Silicon, for photovoltaic cells, 118, 122 Simple payback period, 312 Simple single-pool tidal system, 274, 276 Single-flash geothermal power plant, 217, 217f Single regulated reaction turbines, 179 Smart grid, 15 Smog, 333–334, 334f SOFC See Solid oxide fuel cell Solar energy, 4, 7–8, 7f, 77–99 active solar, 106 for water heater, 107, 107f applications, 105–130 concentrating collectors of, 105, 111–114, 111f, 113f disposal of panels for, 320 from electromagnetic radiation, 77–80 flat-plate collectors of, 105, 106–111, 106f–108f, 110f from heliochemical process, 105 from helioelectrical process, 105, 118–123, 118f, 121f, 123f from heliothermal process: concentrating solar collectors, 105, 111–114, 111f, 113f from flat-plate collectors, 105, 106–111, 106f–108f, 110f solar-power-tower plants, 114–117, 115f, 116f parabolic trough collectors for, 111, 111f, 112–113, 113f passive, 106, 123–130, 124f, 125f, 126t, 127f, 129f from solar radiation, 93–94 wave energy from, 265 Solar heat gain, 125 15_Kanoglu_Index_p385-402.indd 396 Solar heat gain coefficiency (SHGC), 125–126 Solar insolation, 107 Solar ponds, 117–118, 118f Solar-power-tower plant, 114–117, 115f, 116f Solar radiation, 80, 89–96, 90f–94f, 95t, 96f, 107 for concentrating collectors, 112 data for, 96–99, 97t, 98t for passive solar energy, 124–130, 125f, 126t, 127f, 129f for photovoltaic cells, 120, 122 for solar-tower-power plants, 117 Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), 289 Solids: fluid mechanics of, 41 radiation heat transfer of, 37 specific heat of, 21–23 thermal conductivity of, 33–34 Space heating: biogas for, 247 coal for, district, 198–199, 199f cogeneration geothermal for, 227 flat-plate solar collectors for, 105 heat pumps for, 213 Specific enthalpy, 21, 21f Specific heat, 21–23, 21f, 22f constant-pressure, 23, 23f constant-volume, 22, 23, 23f of geothermal water, 199–200 for solar energy flat-plate collectors, 111 Speed of light, 77 Spring tide, 273 Standard reference state, 53 Statics, 41 Stay vanes, of reaction turbines, 178, 178f Steady-flow energy equation, for hydroelectric energy, 167 Steady-flow systems: carbon dioxide in, 54 energy balance for, 25–27, 55–56 Steam power plants, 59 overall plant efficiency, 62–63 water vapor in, 22 Steam reforming, hydrogen from, 281, 282 Steam-turn (Rankine) cycle: for geothermal cogeneration, 226 for OTEC, 264 Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 81 Stefan-Boltzmann law, 37, 81, 83 Stoichiometric (theoretical) air, 52, 57 for combustion, 321 ethanol and, 248–249 Stratosphere, ozone depletion in, 350–351 Subbituminous coal, 10 Sugar, ethanol from, 245–246 17/04/19 11:43 AM Index    397 Sulfur dioxide: acid rain from, 334–336, 335f in air pollution, 319, 326–328, 327f from catalytic converters, 327 from coal, 10 in combustion, 321 from diesel fuel, 340, 355–356 from fossil fuels, 6, 6f, 322 Superconductors, 35 Sustainable energy See Renewable energy Swamp gas See Biogas Synthesis gas (biosynthesis gas), 248–249 T Tailrace, for hydroelectric energy, 169 Tapering, of HAWTs, 143 Tarquin, A., 301 Taxation, 305 Temperature-entropy diagram, for binary cycle geothermal power plant, 218–219, 219f Thermal comfort, passive solar energy and, 128 Thermal conductivity, 31–35, 32f–35f conduction heat transfer and, 30, 30f Thermal efficiency, of binary cycle geothermal power plant, 218–220 of ethanol, 248, 249 of fuel cells, 295t of geothermal electricity generation, 216, 217 of heat engines, 60–61, 61f of OTEC, 261, 264 of solar energy: concentrating collectors, 112–113 flat-plate collectors, 108–110 of solar ponds, 118 of solar-tower-power plants, 117 Thermal gasification, of producer gas, 248 Thermal radiation, 79–80, 79f Thermochemistry, 49–58 of biomass into biofuel, 244 Thermodynamics, 19–29 first law of, 19–20, 24 second law of, 20 fuel cells and, 286 for wind turbines, 148 Thermosyphon solar water heater, 106, 107f Tidal energy, 272–276, 273f, 274f Time value of money, for renewable energy, 302–305, 304f Tone of oil equivalent (toe), Tons of refrigeration, 64 Topping cycle, for cogeneration geothermal, 227, 227f Total energy E, 20 Total energy supply, 1, 2f, 2t 15_Kanoglu_Index_p385-402.indd 397 Total solar irradiance, 89 Transmissivity: of passive solar energy, 126, 126t of radiation, 85–88, 86f, 88f of solar energy flat-plate collectors, 108–109 Trombe walls, for passive solar energy, 124, 124f Turbines: for geothermal electricity generation, 216–226, 216f–223f for hydroelectric energy, 163–169 efficiency of, 166–167, 167f, 170 impulse, 165, 173–177, 174f, –176f reaction, 165, 177–185, 178f, 184f specific speed of, 185–186, 186f turbine specific speed of, 185–186, 186f for OTEC, 262f, 263–265, 265f for wave energy, 270, 270f for wind energy, 139 aerodynamic drag of, 150 angular velocity of, 150 applications for, 153–157 atmospheric pressure and, 149 blade diameter for, 155, 156f capital cost breakdown for, 157, 157f control volumes of, 148–149, 149f fractional loss of velocity of, 150 friction coefficient of, 156, 156t friction in, 147–148, 150 kinetic energy of, 143, 147, 148, 150 load factor for, 155 power performance curve for, 140–143, 143f power potential of, 143–145, 144f power rating for, 155 types of, 140–143, 141f–142f wind towers for, 153–155 WPD for, 145–147, 146f Turbulent flow, 44, 46–47 Twist, of HAWTs, 143 U Ultraviolet radiation (UV), 78, 79, 80 ozone depletion and, 350 in solar radiation, 90–91 Uniform series amount, 303 Unit product cost (UPC), 309 UV See Ultraviolet radiation V Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs), 140, 142f Vertical loop heat pump, 212, 212f Viscosity, 42–44, 42f, 43f, 44t coefficient of, 43 dynamic, 43, 45f pressure loss and, 46 of water, 48, 48f 17/04/19 11:43 AM 398   Index Visible light, 79 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): in air pollution, 319 HC and, 331 in smog, 333 W El-Wakil, M M., 266, 274 Waste prevention, 253 Waste to energy (WTE), 253 Water See also Hydroelectric energy; Ocean thermal energy conversion; Tidal energy; Wave energy in combustion, 49, 321 density of, hydroelectric energy and, 171–172 fuel cells and, 288 for geothermal energy, 195–229 Gibbs function of, 282 solar radiation and, 92 viscosity of, 48, 48f Water electrolysis, hydrogen from, 282–283, 285–286 Water-gas shift, 281–282 catalytic converters and, 339 Water heaters: active, closed loop solar, 107, 107f active solar energy for, 107, 107f biogas for, 247 coal for, flat-plate collectors for, 105, 106–111, 106f–108f, 110f thermosyphon solar, 106, 107f Water-lithium bromide, for absorption refrigeration, 206 Water-lithium chloride, for absorption refrigeration, 206 Water-to-water heat pump, 213 Water vapor, 50 in fuel cells, 290 in geothermal energy, 217 greenhouse effect from, 89 as greenhouse gas, 342 partial pressure of, 57 solar radiation and, 91 in steam power plants, 22 Water wheels, for hydroelectric energy, 186–189, 188f Wave energy, 265–272, 267f, 268f, 270f–272f power from, 265, 266–270 technologies, 270–272 turbines for, 270, 270f 15_Kanoglu_Index_p385-402.indd 398 Wicket gates, for reaction turbines, 177–178 Wien’s displacement law, 82–83 Wind energy (power), 4, applications for, 153–157 hydrogen from, 285–286 turbines for, 139 aerodynamic drag of, 150 angular velocity of, 150 applications for, 153–157 atmospheric pressure and, 149 blade diameter for, 155, 156f capital cost breakdown for, 157, 157f control volumes of, 148–149, 149f efficiency of, 147–153, 148f, 149f, 151f–153f friction in, 147–148, 150, 156, 156t kinetic energy of, 143, 147, 148, 150 load factor for, 155 power performance curve for, 140–143, 143f power potential of, 143–145, 144f power rating for, 155 types of, 140–143, 141f–142f wind towers for, 153–155 WPD for, 145–147, 146f wave energy from, 265 Wind farms, 140, 140f optimum spacing in, 153–154, 154f Wind parks, 153, 154f Wind power density (WPD), 145–147, 146f Wind towers, 153–155 Windmills, 139 Windows, passive solar energy through, 124–130, 125f, 126t, 127f, 129f With-rotations wirl, of reaction turbines, 183 Work, 23–24 from fuel cells, 294, 295t from geothermal energy, 197 of heat engines, 58–60, 59f, 60f from methane, 286, 287f from tidal energy, 276 WPD See Wind power density WTE See Waste to energy Z Zero-emission vehicles (electric cars), 8, 284 17/04/19 11:43 AM