Energy and thermal management, air conditioning, and waste heat utilization

Christine Junior Oliver Dingel Editors Energy and Thermal Management, Air-Conditioning, and Waste Heat Utilization 2nd ETA Conference, November 22–23, 2018, Berlin, Germany Tai ngay!!! Ban co the xoa dong chu nay!!! Energy and Thermal Management, Air-Conditioning, and Waste Heat Utilization Christine Junior Oliver Dingel • Editors Energy and Thermal Management, Air-Conditioning, and Waste Heat Utilization 2nd ETA Conference, November 22–23, 2018, Berlin, Germany 123 Editors Christine Junior Engineer Society Automobile and Traffic IAV GmbH Gifhorn, Germany Oliver Dingel Engineer Society Automobile and Traffic IAV GmbH Chemnitz, Germany ISBN 978-3-030-00818-5 ISBN 978-3-030-00819-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00819-2 (eBook) Library of Congress Control Number: 2018960428 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Foreword The efficient and intelligent use of energy resources is of key importance to our future in transport, industrial, and building services As a result, the sparing use and the exploitation of as-yet-unused energy resources are attaining ever greater importance In order to draw on existing potential and also generate new ideas, all the relevant energy and heat flows will need to be considered This means that energy and thermal management, air-conditioning, and waste heat utilization are today analyzed across the board in the search for solutions However, the development of cross-sectoral solutions and ideas is not affected only by physics but also lasting influenced by underlying frameworks Due to the demands of society and policymakers, the requirements concerning the efficient utilization of energy are subject to constant change In addition, the wealth of technically feasible solutions is generating increasing complexity within the development process Thus, interdisciplinary and cross-sectoral solutions are challenged by new constraints which are impacting future concepts and components But how sustainable solutions and innovations in energy and thermal management, air-conditioning, and waste heat utilization need to be structured for this changing environment of the future? ETA 2018 offers answers to this question and shares the latest research results, innovative technologies, and best practices Be inspired by approaches, technical solutions, and possibilities for an energy-efficient future! November 2018 Christine Junior Oliver Dingel v Contents Energy and Thermal Management Choice of Energetically Optimal Operating Points in Thermal Management of Electric Drivetrain Components Carsten Wulff, Patrick Manns, David Hemkemeyer, Daniel Perak, Klaus Wolff, and Stefan Pischinger Higher Cruising Range Through Smart Thermal Management in Electric Vehicles – Interaction Between Air Conditioning and Cooling System Components in the Overall Network Daniel Moller, Jörg Aurich, and Ronny Mehnert 15 Auxiliary Heating, Cooling and Power Generation in Vehicles Based on Stirling Engine Technology Hans-Detlev Kühl 30 Experimental Investigation on Effect of Fuel Property on Emissions and Performance of a Light-Duty Diesel Engine M Thamaraikannan, P L Rupesh, K Raja, and K Manideep 40 Conception and First Functional Tests of a Novel Piston-Type Steam Expansion Engine for the Use in Stationary WHR Systems Michael Lang, Christian Bechter, Sebastian Schurl, and Roland Kirchberger Thermal High Performance Storages for Use in Vehicle Applications Werner Kraft, Veronika Jilg, Mirko Klein Altstedde, Tim Lanz, Peter Vetter, and Daniel Schwarz Determination of the Cooling Medium Composition in an Indirect Cooling System Alexander Herzog, Carolina Pelka, Rudolf Weiss, and Frank Skorupa 49 66 80 vii viii Contents Air Conditioning Approach for the Transient Thermal Modeling of a Vehicle Cabin 101 David Klemm, Wolfgang Rưßner, Nils Widdecke, and Jochen Wiedemann Personalized Air-Conditioning in Electric Vehicles Using Sensor Fusion and Model Predictive Control 119 Henning Metzmacher, Daniel Wölki, Carolin Schmidt, and Christoph van Treeck Simply Cozy - Adaptive Controlling for an Individualized Climate Comfort 130 Martin Noltemeyer, Lanbin Qiu, Christine Susanne Junior, Thomas Wysocki, Johannes Ritter, and Jan Ackermann Waste Heat Recovery Waste Heat Recovery Potential on Heavy Duty Long Haul Trucks – A Comparison 141 Thomas Reiche, Francesco Galuppo, and Nicolas Espinosa Combining Low- and High-Temperature Heat Sources in a Heavy Duty Diesel Engine for Maximum Waste Heat Recovery Using Rankine and Flash Cycles 154 Jelmer Rijpkema, Karin Munch, and Sven B Andersson Simulative Investigation of the Influence of a Rankine Cycle Based Waste Heat Utilization System on Fuel Consumption and Emissions for Heavy Duty Utility Vehicles 172 Kangyi Yang, Michael Grill, and Michael Bargende Requirements for Battery Enclosures - Design Considerations and Practical Examples 194 Jobst H Kerspe and Michael Fischer Design of a Thermoelectric Generator for Heavy-Duty Vehicles: Approach Based on WHVC and Real Driving Vehicle Boundary Conditions 206 Lars Heber, Julian Schwab, and Horst E Friedrich Author Index 223 Energy and Thermal Management Choice of Energetically Optimal Operating Points in Thermal Management of Electric Drivetrain Components Carsten Wulff1(&), Patrick Manns2, David Hemkemeyer2, Daniel Perak2, Klaus Wolff2, and Stefan Pischinger1 RWTH Aachen University, Institute for Combustion Engines, Forckenbeckstr 4, 52074 Aachen, Germany wulff@vka.rwth-aachen.de FEV Europe GmbH, Neuenhofstr 181, 52078 Aachen, Germany Abstract Increasing the efficiency of electric vehicles is a development focus in the automotive industry in order to reach the range targets set by customer requirements Thermal management can have a positive effect on the system efficiency of electric vehicles In this contribution, a simulation model of the drivetrain and cooling system of an electric vehicle has been build up The aim is to investigate the influence of the cooling system control and resulting component temperatures on the drivetrain efficiency Thus, energetically optimal target temperatures for inverter and motor can be identified and implemented in the cooling system control This approach goes beyond the state of the art control strategy of keeping the temperatures under the component protection threshold Related research suggests that the component efficiency of inverter and motor can be increased by reducing their operation temperature The simulation results in this article show that choosing target temperatures for inverter and motor below the components’ safety limit can have a small, positive impact on the system efficiency of the electric vehicle As the model is yet to be validated, these results implicate that the optimal component target temperatures for inverter and motor regarding system efficiency are below the protective limit As a next step, the model will be validated with comprehensive component and vehicle measurement data in order to give a quantitative statement on the possible benefits of optimized thermal management control Keywords: Electric vehicles
Thermal management
Optimal control Introduction Vehicle range shows to be a major contributor to the consumer acceptance of battery electric vehicles As the battery capacity installed into a vehicle is limited by cost- as well as weight-considerations, one development focus for electric vehicles lies in the improvement of the system efficiency [1] Thermal management is seen as a considerable factor in the system efficiency of battery electric vehicles [2] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 C Junior and O Dingel (Eds.): ETA 2018, Energy and Thermal Management, Air-Conditioning, and Waste Heat Utilization, pp 3–14, 2019 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00819-2_1 C Wulff et al This paper aims to investigate the effects of the cooling of electric drivetrain components on the system efficiency of a battery electric vehicle To this end, a simulation model is developed which simulates the energy flows within the electric drivetrain of an A-Segment BEV The model includes map-based models for an inverter as well as motor and transmission, which simulate the effects of component temperatures onto their efficiency The simulation model features comprehensive models for the cooling system as well as the vehicle longitudinal dynamics in order to simulate the system energy consumption This model is used to determine the energy consumption of the drivetrain as well as the cooling circuit components under various ambient and operating conditions Finally, an analysis of these results is conducted to find energetically optimal operating points and control strategies for the cooling system of battery electric vehicles Simulation Model The simulation model is composed of three main parts: The drivetrain model, which consists of a simplified longitudinal dynamics model for the calculation of the loads for the drivetrain, and map-based models for the transmission, electric motor and inverter The cooling circuit model, which consists of physical models for the coolant tubes as well as degas-bottle and map-based models for the coolant pump and radiator The map-based underhood-model, which thermally links the other submodels by calculating the relative air speeds and ambient temperatures for all other components The model has been implemented in Matlab Simulink The following sections provide a detailed description of these submodels 2.1 Drivetrain Model The drivetrain is modeled as an inverse model in which the desired vehicle speed from the drive pattern acts as an input to a signal path Along this path the required power demand in order to follow the drive pattern is calculated (see Fig 1) Within the drivetrain model, the model control provides the desired speed and gradient to the vehicle model In the vehicle model, the drive resistance resulting from the given drive pattern is being calculated with a simple longitudinal dynamics mode [3, 4] The resulting wheel torque and speed are propagated to the transmission model The transmission model calculates the resulting motor speed with the final drive ratio and uses an efficiency map to calculate the required motor torque This efficiency map uses wheel torque and transmission oil temperature as inputs The consecutive motor and inverter model also use efficiency maps to calculate the resulting power demand for the given drive pattern These efficiency maps use the component temperatures as an additional dimension TEG for HD Vehicles 209 highway driving The WHVC was developed as chassis dynamometer test For comparing the results and realistic environmental conditions the WHVC is also performed as on-road driving With the two reference cycles our future objectives are to evaluate the TEG technology under different driving conditions like variation in vehicle load points, in GVW, in dynamic behaviour and to evaluate the fuel-saving potential Fig Reference road circuit Stuttgart-Hamburg-Stuttgart (S-HH-S) for on-road measurement, map data from [12] Measurement Setup The diesel reference vehicle is the Mercedes-Benz Actros in the Gigaspace Version as semi-trailer tractor type 963-4-A, Euro VI, with a 12,8-litre in-line six-cylinder diesel ICE and 350 kW rated power For installing the measurement equipment a cooperation to a local freight forwarder is established For an in-depth measurement of the vehicle system the ICE data has to be recorded, as well as the exhaust, the coolant and the electrical on-board system Besides that a Global Positioning System (GPS) and environmental data loggers are used For details of the measurement setup of the exhaust system see Fig The exhaust pipe from the turbo charger outlet to the Aftertreatment System (ATS) is equipped with additional temperature and differential pressure sensors For measuring the dynamic temperature profile four additional Measurement Points (MP) are installed which measure the inhomogeneous temperature distribution in the exhaust pipe (see 2(c)) The ATS itself also has senors which have been measured The complexity of the measurement is required for the system design of a TEG, as an additional component in the exhaust system, as tested by [13] 210 L Heber et al Fig Measurement setup of the exhaust system after the turbo charger in the Actros Euro VI reference vehicle 2.2 TEG Model Development Thermoelectricity The efficiency of a TEG depends on Carnot’s theorem and therefore on the available hot Th [K] and cold side temperature Tc [K] High efficiency and electrical output power are essential and therefore the system design, the thermoelectric materials, and the derived structured modules are decisive Efficient materials are characterized by a high Seebeck coefficient S [V/K] and high electrical conductivity σ [1/(Ωm)] as well as simultaneously low thermal conductivity λ [W/(mK)] (see Eq (1)) This performance indicator can be described by the figure of merit ZT = S2σ T λ (1) S varies as function of the temperature, depending strongly on the composition of the conductor, and is defined by the electrical voltage divided by the temperature difference ΔT The electrical output power of the TEMs in a TEG is controlled by Power Electronics (PE) including a Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) and its efficiency can be described as η¯P E ≥ 90% For maximizing the electrical output power Pel [W] of a TEG system the heat transfer rate Q˙ [W] of the Hot Gas Heat Exchanger (HGHX), the PE efficiency and the maximum power efficiency ηT EM [14], including the Carnot efficiency ηc have to be taken into account TEG for HD Vehicles Pel = Q˙ · ηT EM · ηP E = Q˙ · ZTh ηc +2− ηc · ηP E 211 (2) Systemic TEG Approach This development approach uses real driving data from conventional diesel and innovative natural-gas-powered long-haul HDVs The system evaluation shall be carried out at the overall vehicle level and as a techno-ecological approach as described in the introduction Typical for the commercial vehicle industry is the TCO analysis which is also implemented for this TEG development TCO represents a financial estimate intended to support (potential) customers in determining the direct and indirect costs of a product or system A TCO analysis includes total cost of acquisition, operating and maintenance costs, as well costs related to replacement at the end of the life cycle Focusing on TCO means concentrating on application-related development The objectives of the development are to minimize the TCO of the vehicle CT CO [EUR] while at the same time maximizing the TEG efficiency This optimization problem includes as one major constraint the limited capacity of the coolant system The correlation can be determined on the basis of the costs for the vehicle and the TEG, by the acquisition costs Cf ix [EUR], the operating costs Cvar [EUR], and the associated mileage x [km] CT CO = Cf ix + Cvar = Cf ix,V eh + Cf ix,T EG + (cvar,V eh + cvar,T EG ) · x (3) Cf ix,T EG [EUR] represents the TEG system costs, cvar,T EG [EUR/km] the specific variable costs and is defined by the net fuel-saving potential F C T EG [kg] of the TEG This parameter must be explained in more detail as it shows the interdependence between the technical development and its system costs For a high TEG efficiency a high net electrical output power Pel,net [W], calculated in relation to the drive shaft, is characteristic due to its design for low weight PR [W] and low back pressure PV [W] The performance of the cooling pump PCo [W] must also be balanced with regard to the shaft performance of the vehicle With the addition of the specific fuel cost pF [EUR/m3 ], the specific fuel saving f cT EG [kg/(Ws)], the density of the fuel ρF [kg/m3 ] and the vehicle average speed v¯V eh [km/s] it can be described as follows cvar,T EG = f cT EG · (Pmech − Pel,net + PR + PV + PCo ) · pF ρF · v¯V eh (4) An example of a typical trucking cost structure for a diesel long-haulage HDV based on assumptions by [15] with division into the individual cost blocks can be taken from Fig 3(a) The fuel costs has the dominant share by typical yearly mileages of long-haul transportation and represent the significant variable that can still be influenced in terms of operating costs Fuel reduction at moderate system costs of a WHRS is therefore of great interest to manufactures and customers TCO depend heavily on the yearly mileage as shown in Fig 3(b) The TCO model is generally developed by assumptions of [16–18] The HDV market is 212 L Heber et al Fig Common cost structure and system cost analyzing for a Euro VI Diesel respectively Gas HDV dominated by diesel vehicles which have the lowest TCO by comparing to alternatives like the natural Gas HDV In cases of very high yearly mileage a Gas HDV can become competitive Because of the expected lower emissions, it is still a promising alternative for the future By considering the vehicle data and the transportation task, the fuel reduction by the TEG can be optimized (see Eq 4) and the TEG Target Costs (TC) can be calculated For a TEG as WHRS a requirement is to fulfill the payback time or amortization time Ta This should be reached within two, or, respectively, at least three years In Fig 3(b) the TCs for a Diesel HDV with a TEG-BSFC reduction of −1,2% and a Gas HDV with a TEG-BSFC reduction of −1,8% is shown The TEG cost estimate, which represents the TEG component costs, should be lower than the TC to be attractive A comparison with Table shows that the TEG can be an attractive technology for HDVs TEG Model The HDV-TEG is designed in a counterflow stack architecture with flat-plate TEMs and flat-plate fin compact Heat Exchangers (HXs) It consists of several HGHX channels, Thermoelectric Module (TEM) and Coolant Heat Exchanger (COHX) layers (see Fig 4(a)) There is thermal interface material between each layer and all layers are pressed together by bolts to minimize the thermal contact resistance in a cost-effective way The TEM layers are electrically-connected in rows vertical to the mass flow of the hot gas For higher efficiency multichannel MPPTs are considered The concept is simulated in a multiphysical model in ANSYS FLUENT, which considers heat transfer, fluid flow and macroscopic thermoelectric equations Furthermore, the interactions with the vehicle system are taken into account by the power loss due to pressure drop in the exhaust system and added TEG for HD Vehicles 213 weight The additional power for the cooling pump is very low and therefore not included To validate the physical simulation model a small-scale model (width scale 1:6) of the TEG with one HGHX channel is manufactured (see Fig 4(b)) The size is one sixth of the original width for the HDV application The HGHX is manufactured by innovative 3D rapid prototyping from stainless steel X2CrNiMo17-12-2 and the COHXs are sheet metal constructions made of AlMg1 Commercially available Selenium/Tin-Telluride (SnSe) high temperature TEMs with specification number TEG 070-600-6 are used for this prototype [19] The maximum hot-side temperature Th is 600 ◦ C Fig TEG small-scale prototype with one HGHX channel (width scale 1:6) 3.1 Results and Discussion Potential Analyses The measurement of the exhaust system is focused on the exhaust pipe following the turbocharger and the high complex ATS The Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) is not specifically considered for the TEG caused by the lower exhaust energy and the complexity in relation to the evaluation of the impact to the ATS The work of [20] reports for nine steady-state-points of the Long Haulage Cycle form a dynamometer test, whereby the EGR mean temperatures are around 26,3% higher but the mass flow is around 75% lower compered to the ATS 214 L Heber et al S-HH-S The road circuit is measured by a two-day driving period under comparable ambient and road conditions with a 40 ton GVW Daimler Actros Euro VI with a trailer As shown in Fig 5, areas with engine speed at around 1300 rpm and areas in the full load curve dominate as expected The large number of partial loads when the vehicle is fully loaded shows that a WHRS cannot only be optimized for one design point, for example at full load The distribution of the exhaust gas temperature after the ATS shows high average values between 250 ◦ C and 350 ◦ C and the dominant mean exhaust gas mass flow values are between 0,15–0,3 kg/s Fig Overview of the evaluation of the real road circuit S-HH-S Figure shows a detailed evaluation of the exhaust gas temperatures along the exhaust gas line and the pressure loss across the ATS as a distribution across the speed-torque characteristic diagram The average temperatures fall along the flow, but a dynamic behaviour can be observed through the catalytic reactions, which not confirm this relationship at every operating point The temperature distribution becomes increasingly homogeneous, as can be also seen in the Fig 7(a) and (b) in comparison with the pipe profiles and with the mean temperature values over time in (c) In addition, the ATS with a weight of approx 180 kg shows that it has a high thermal mass, which equalizes temperatures and delays changes over time As expected, the back pressure of the exhaust system is usually high at high speeds and torques (see Fig 6(d)) WHVC The reference cycle is performed with the same vehicle type and, unlike the road circuit, no gradient is provided The influence of the load between an empty run with approx 15 ton (see Fig 8(a)) and 40 ton GVW full load (see Fig 8(b)) is measured This corresponds to a typical application in long-distance traffic In addition, today’s HDVs are primarily fully loaded volumetrically and TEG for HD Vehicles 215 Fig Evaluation of the road circuit S-HH-S by the distribution of the temperatures and the pressure drop in the ATS Fig Exhaust gas temperature profiles and distributions in the exhaust pipe during the road circuit S-HH-S 216 L Heber et al not gravimetrically As expected, the exhaust temperatures are lower when driving empty, on average, at approx 55 ◦ C The exhaust gas mass flow behaves in the same way and is slightly lower on average More significant for a WHRS is the exhaust gas energy, which is on average approx 25,4 kW when driving empty or 46,2 kW when fully loaded at the reference point behind the exhaust box Absolutely identical conditions could not be met, of course The ambient conditions varied slightly and due to the vehicle inertia on the one hand and the measuring conditions on the other hand, the original speeds of the WHVC could not be incorporated With a deviation of approx 7,8% for the 15 ton drive and 2,9% for the 40 ton drive, the measured values still have sufficient accuracy for the further TEG development Fig Diesel HDV measurement on the WHVC cycle with 15 ton and 40 ton GVW Besides the measurement of the exhaust gas enthalpy as a potential hot side of the TEG, the engine coolant offers temperatures as a cold side of approx 85– 100 ◦ C The second significantly smaller cooling circuit offers lower temperatures of approx 40–60 ◦ C, but with lower heat capacity The position behind the ATS serves as a possible installation location for the TEG At this point there is an installation space of approx 150–700 (depending on tank configuration) × 750 × 550 [mm] There is a conflict between the installation space and the additional fuel tank or storage compartment However, the next generation of the ATS will be approx 30–40% more compact, which will reduce installation space TEG for HD Vehicles 3.2 217 Simulation Results and Validation The validation of the simulation with the TEG small-scale model compares the temperatures on the hot and cold side of the TEM, the pressure drop along the HX and the electric power produced The inlet temperatures are based on mean values of typically 85 km/h long-haul highway driving conditions, which are Tex = ˙ ex = 0,25 kg/s The 550 ◦ C for the hot gas, Tco = 85 ◦ C for the coolant, and m data is measured by a 40 ton GVW semi-trailer tractor with a 7,8-litre in-line six-cylinder natural gas-powered ICE with 243 kW from [21] For the small-scale experiment the mass flow is adjusted to the minimal possible value of the test bench This operating point can be used for validation purposes only and causes much higher back pressures than usual in the application The simulated and experimental temperatures on the hot and cold side of the TEM match well (see Fig 9(a)) The deviation is lower than 5,6% on the hot side and 5,3% on the cold side, which is very close to the uncertainty of the measurement The simulated electrical power has, with 54,3 W, a derivation of 6,8% from the experiment’s mean value of 50,6 W (see Fig 9(b)) The fluctuation in output power by the experiment is predicted to be caused by the unsteady thermodynamic conditions of the hot gas test bench and the electrical connection to the multichannel MPPTs In the same figure the pressure drop is shown by about 50 mbar The derivation is lower than 1% By taking the fluctuation and the uncertainty of the measurement into account the values of the simulation and the behaviour of the physical model are considered Fig Comparison of the experiment and the simulation of the TEG small-scale model (width scale 1:6) with one HGHX-channel 218 L Heber et al valid and used for further examinations The experiment and the physical model have shown high uncertainty as regards the thermal resistances considered and the high sensitivity to small-scale geometric parameter variations For example, increasing the width of the HGHX fins by about 0,1 mm results in a doubled pressure drop These variations are within the manufacturing tolerances of the rapid prototyping process and have to be taken into account, and the validation of different TEG configurations and scales are necessary for a precise simulation model The development with low back pressure represents a boundary condition of the engine developers On average a limit of 20 mbar for diesel engine sizes of 50–500 kW [22] is recommended Engine manufacturers are usually much more conservative and set the limit to 10 mbar or below Therefore, the conventional heat exchangers examined in this paper reach their limits and require alternative designs For HDVs the TEG model predicts that multiple short channels of a wide HGHX would deliver the best performance (see Fig 10) In this configuration we achieve a maximum at about 1,5 m2 active surface area The red arrow in the figure represents the flow direction of the hot gas and the blue ones, respectively, the coolant The model also includes a novel thermomechanic concept for these wide channel designs Fig 10 CAD model of the TEG prototype with one HGHX channel (scale 1:1) The predictions for the electrical net power that can reduce the shaft power are listed in Table The values are simulated by the TEG model for steady highway driving points which are based on our measurements for the Diesel HDV and on [21] for the Gas HDV As a result of a lower temperature gradient of the DT, Bismuttellurid (BiTe) TEMs show better performance in this case and therefore a higher efficiency Half-Heusler TEMs predict better performance than the SnSe for the Gas HDV The current results predict a BSFC reduction of about 1–1,8% for the different engine types caused by the saved shaft power However, this is highly dependent on the driving cycle and its load profile (for details see [5]) TEG for HD Vehicles 219 Table Overview of the electrical net output power achieved by the different engine types and thermoelectric materials Property Unit SnSe HH BiTe Diesel HDV* [kW] - 0,8 1,5 Gas HDV** [kW] 1,4 * Operating point: Tex = 350 ◦ C, ˙ ex =0,25 kg/s Tco = 80 ◦ C and m ** Operating point: Tex = 550 ◦ C, ˙ ex =0,25 kg/s Tco = 80 ◦ C and m The next step is to build up a generic prototype, which can be used for different experiments targeting both applications, to further investigate the behaviour of the full-scale TEG channel Based on this prototype, it will be possible to examine the vertical temperature distribution and the thermomechanic concept, among other effects Conclusions A TEG installed in the exhaust pipe provides a high potential to fulfill the future requirements for HDVs by helping reduce the fuel consumption and therefore the CO2 emissions The validated TEG model achieves peak electrical performance for stationary highway operating points of up to 1,5 kW for Diesel HDVs and 1,4 kW for Gas HDVs The system costs and the limited cooling system in particular represent challenging limitations These results can lead to fuel savings of 1–1,8% concerning dynamical HDV applications The measurements taken on the diesel reference vehicle confirm that a thorough understanding of the system is required and the exhaust gas enthalpy strongly depends on the load profile and driving conditions On-road driving measurements are necessary and the TEG development must be application-oriented In the following steps, the generic TEG model relevant for both HDV applications will be tested and the optimization with regard to TCO will be focused The dynamic TEG design based on the real driving data with additional consideration of the cooling system and the electrical system will be part of further work Acknowledgments This work was supported by the Ministerium fă ur Wirtschaft, Arbeit und Wohnungsbau Baden-Wă urttemberg, Germany in the form of the Project “HD-TEG: Thermoelectric Generators for Heavy-Duty Vehicles” The authors would like to thank the local freight forwarder for its cooperation and its support, as well as the students Prinz, F and Bă ohmer, A.-K for their contributions within this work 220 L Heber et al References Eurostat, European statistics http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database Accessed 20 Aug 2018 Lastauto-Omnibus, various magazines, Vereinigte Motor-Verl., Stuttgart (1963– 2018) Pasini, G., Lutzemberger, G., Frigo, S.: Evaluation of an electric turbo compound system for SI engines: a numerical approach Appl Energy 162, 527–540 (2016) Heber, L., Vale, S., Friedrich, H.E.: 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