Paramater theory and linguistic change

Tai Lieu Chat Luong Parameter Theory and Linguistic Change OXFORD STUDIES IN DIACHRONIC AND HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS GENERAL EDITORS Adam Ledgeway and Ian Roberts, University of Cambridge ADVISORY EDITORS Cynthia Allen, Australian National University; Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, University of Manchester; Theresa Biberauer, University of Cambridge; Charlotte Galves, University of Campinas; Geoff Horrocks, University of Cambridge; Paul Kiparsky, Stanford University; Anthony Kroch, University of Pennsylvania; David Lightfoot, Georgetown University; Giuseppe Longobardi, University of Trieste; David Willis, University of Cambridge PUBLISHED From Latin to Romance Morphosyntactic Typology and Change Adam Ledgeway Parameter Theory and Linguistic Change Edited by Charlotte Galves, Sonia Cyrino, Ruth Lopes, Filomena Sandalo, and Juanito Avelar Case in Semitic Roles, Relations, and Reconstruction Rebecca Hasselbach The Boundaries of Pure Morphology Diachronic and Synchronic Perspectives Edited by Silvio Cruschina, Martin Maiden, and John Charles Smith in preparation The History of Negation in the Languages of Europe and the Mediterranean Vol I: Case Studies; Vol II: Patterns and Processes Edited by Anne Breitbarth, Chris Lucas, and David Willis Gender from Latin to Romance Michele Loporcaro Vowel Quantity from Latin to Romance Michele Loporcaro Word Order in Old Italian Cecilia Poletto Syntactic Change and Stability Joel Wallenberg Parameter Theory and Linguistic Change Edited by CHARLOTTE GALVES, SONIA CYRINO, RUTH LOPES, FILOMENA SANDALO, AND JUANITO AVELAR Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6dp, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © editorial matter & organization editors; chapters their several authors 2012 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted First Edition published in 2012 Impression: All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available ISBN 978–0–19–965920–3 Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by MPG Books Group, Bodmin and King’s Lynn Contents List of figures and tables Notes on contributors Abbreviations Parameter theory and dynamics of change Charlotte Galves, Sonia Cyrino, and Ruth Lopes vii ix xiii Parameters in Old Romance word order: A comparative minimalist analysis Guido Mensching 21 Microparameters in the verbal complex: Middle High German and some modern varieties Christopher D Sapp 43 Language acquisition in German and phrase structure change in Yiddish Joel C Wallenberg 60 Extraposition of restrictive relative clauses in the history of Portuguese Adriana Cardoso 77 Doubling-que embedded constructions in Old Portuguese: A diachronic perspective Ilza Ribeiro and Maria A Torres Morais 97 Brazilian Portuguese and Caribbean Spanish: Similar changes in Romania Nova Mary Aizawa Kato 117 Macroparametric change and the synthetic–analytic dimension: The case of Ancient Egyptian Chris H Reintges 133 A diachronic shift in the expression of person Judy B Bernstein and Raffaella Zanuttini 158 10 The formal syntax of alignment change John Whitman and Yuko Yanagida 177 11 The diachronic development of the Irish comparative particle Elliott Lash 196 vi Contents 12 Deictic locatives, emphasis, and metalinguistic negation Ana Maria Martins 13 Negative changes: three factors and the diachrony of Afrikaans negation Theresa Biberauer and Hedde Zeijlstra 14 Romanian ‘can’: Change in parametric settings Virginia Hill 214 238 265 15 Prepositional genitives in Romance and the issue of parallel development: From Latin to Old French Chiara Gianollo 281 16 Convergence in parametric phylogenies: Homoplasy or principled explanation? Giuseppe Longobardi 304 17 Macroparameters and minimalism: A programme for comparative research Ian Roberts 320 References Name index Subject index 336 371 377 List of figures and tables Figure 3.1 Rate of 2-1 and 1-2 orders over time 52 Figure 4.1 Tense-final and tense-medial chart Figure 4.2 Tense-final and tense-medial chart 70 74 Figure 4.3 Tense-final and tense-medial chart 75 Figure 7.1 Loss of VS and increase of pre-verbal pronominal subjects Figure 7.2 Percentage of non-inversion by subject type 121 123 Figure 15.1 The disappearance of the inflected genitive Figure 16.1 Phylogenetic tree from Longobardi and Guardiano (2009) 292 307 Table 3.1 Syntagm 46 Table 3.2 Prefix type 47 Table 3.3 Class of preceding word Table 3.4 Stress of preceding word 47 48 Table 3.5 Focus type Table 3.6 Focused constituent 48 49 Table 3.7 Extraposition 50 Table 3.8 Genre Table 3.9 Verbal-complex orders in modern varieties 51 53 Table 3.10 Parameters for the position of verbs in continental West Germanic 58 Table 4.1 Tense-final and tense-medial sample corpora Table 7.1 Full DP subjects in VS and SV structures 69 123 Table 8.1 Main parametric differences between the agglutinative and analytic system 156 Table 9.1 Rate of –s marking for 3rd-person plural subject types (N¼527) 163 Table 9.2 Rate of –s marking with non-adjacent personal pronoun subjects (N¼170) 164 Table 10.1 The active system in nominalized clauses 189 Table 15.1 Distribution of genitives in Late Latin Table 15.2 Distribution of adjectives in Late Latin 287 288 Table 15.3 Co-occurrence of genitives in Classical Latin 288 viii List of figures and tables Table 15.4 Old and Middle French texts from the MCVF corpus used in the study Table 15.5 Prepositional versus inflected genitives in the Vie de Saint Alexis Table 15.6 Case declension in Old French 290 291 292 Table 15.7 Distribution of inflected genitives in Old French Table 15.8 Co-occurence of adjectives and genitives 293 298 Table 16.1 Parameter values (adapted from Longobardi and Guardiano 2009) 316 Table 16.2 Distance matrix (from Longobardi and Guardiano 2009) 318 Notes on contributors Juanito Avelar studied in Rio de Janeiro and Campinas and is currently Associate Professor at the University of Campinas He has published on syntactic variation and on the history of Brazilian Portuguese His publications include Ter, ser e estar: dinâmicas morfossintáticas no português brasileiro (RG Editora, 2009) and, co-edited with Fernão de Oliveira, Um gramático na história (Pontes, 2009) Judy B Bernstein is Associate Professor of Linguistics at the William Paterson University of New Jersey Her interest in cross-linguistic phenomena at the morphology-syntax interface led to extensive research on the syntax of the noun phrase In recent years she has also become involved in research on Appalachian English, a stigmatized variety of American English This work sparked interest in the ancestor variety of Appalachian English, Older Scots, as well as the ancestor varieties of standard English Theresa Biberauer is a Senior Research Associate in the Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics at the University of Cambridge, and Senior Lecturer Extraordinary in the General Linguistics Department at Stellenbosch University (South Africa) Her research focuses on comparative syntax, notably word-order variation, subject-related phenomena, negation, and doubling phenomena She is the editor of The Limits of Syntactic Variation (Benjamins, 2008) and, with Anders Holmberg, Ian Roberts, and Michelle Sheehan, a co-author of Parametric Variation (CUP, 2010) Adriana Cardoso is a researcher at the Linguistics Center of the University of Lisbon (CLUL) and lectures at Higher Education College of Lisbon (ESELx) Her PhD dissertation is in Historical Linguistics (Variation and Change in the Syntax of Relative Clauses: New Evidence from Portuguese) Her main research interests are comparative syntax, historical linguistics, and native language teaching Sonia Cyrino studied at the University of Campinas where she is currently Associate Professor She has been a Visiting Scholar at the University of Maryland at College Park and at the University of Cambridge (UK) She is interested in syntactic theory and diachronic change in Brazilian Portuguese Her publications include chapters in the iGoing Romancer series (John Benjamins) and articles in international journals such as Journal of Portuguese Linguistics and Iberia-International Journal on Theoretical Linguistics Charlotte Galves studied in Paris (Paris IV- Sorbonne and Paris VIII-Vincennes) and is currently Associate Professor of Linguistics at the University of Campinas She has published on the comparative syntax of European and Brazilian Portuguese Name index Abels, K 329 Aboh, E O 97, 101, 109 fn 14 Adams, M 10, 24, 325 Adger, D 160 fn 5, 280 Agouraki, Y 37 Ahlqvist, A 199, 202 Alboiu, G 267, 268, 272 Aldridge, E 145 fn 5, 179 Alexiadou, A 119 fn 5, 150, 152, 158 fn 1, 232 fn 13, 284, 314 fn Ambar, M 80, 233 fn 17 Anand, P 178, 179, 182, 191 Anderson, S R 134, 177, 180, 300 fn Androutsopoulou, A 285, 286 Arteaga, D 290, 293, 301 Avelar, J Avesani, C 95 fn 21 Avram, L 266, 269, 273, 276 Ayoun, D 56 Bailyn, J F 232 fn 13 Baker, M C 3, 5, 6, 10, 20, 133, 134, 135, 136, 142, 143, 144, 148, 149, 157, 306, 309, 320, 326, 332, 333 Ball, D 186 Barbiers, S 90 Barbosa, P 82, 232 fn 13 Batllori, M 22, 23, 26, 27, 32, 33, 34, 41 Baxter, W H 145 fn Bayer, J 300 Bader, M 300 Beal, J C 160 fn Béjar, S 243 fn Bell, A 257 Belletti, A 27, 129, 132 Bendjaballah, S 151 Benincà, P 2, 13, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 32, 36 fn 23, 39, 40, 97, 99, 100, 101, 115 Benveniste, E 180, 181, 183, 186 Bernini, G 256 Bernstein, J B 11, 15, 158, 159, 165, 166, 170, 171 fn 20, 172, 285, 313, 314 Berwick, R C 304, 322, 323, 335, 358 Bickerton, D 280 Bies, A 50, 55 Blaszczak, J 248 Besten, H 35, 65, 151, 239, 250 Bianchi, V 86 Biberauer, T 9, 15, 17, 73, 133, 138, 148, 153, 238, 245, 246, 247 fn 10, 248, 250 fn 14, 251, 252, 256, 259, 262, 323, 326, 329, 330, 331 fn Bobaljik, J 138, 143, 149, 158 fn 1, 160, 169, 170 Boeckx, C 137, 259, 320 Bonnet, M 287 Börjars, K 165 Borsley, R D 143, 145 Boucher, P 300 Bowers, J 90, 184 Boyd, R 315 Branner, D P 145 fn Braudel, F 315 Breatnach, L 199 Bresnan, J 270 Brocardo, M T 78 fn 2, 83 Brody, M 39 Broekhuis, H 87 fn 10, 88 fn 12 Brucart, J M 26 fn 7, 83 fn Bures, A 170 Bush, R 62 Butt, M 184, 185, 329 Bynon, T 181, 184, 185 Camões, J 78 fn 2, 85 Campbell, L 180, 192, 329 Campos, H 314 fn 372 Name index Cardinaletti, A 102 fn 7, 109, 114, 119, 125, 228 fn 7, 232 fn Cardona, G 181 Cardoso, A 13, 77, 83 fn 5, 90 fn 13, 92 fn 17, 93 fn 20 Carneiro, Z Carstairs-McCarthy, A 299 Carston, R 226 fn Cavalli Sforza, L 315 Chapman, C 165 Chomsky, N 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 18, 23, 27 fn 9, 28, 30, 38, 41 fn 27, 119, 129 fn 11, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 143, 148, 153, 157, 198, 199, 203, 238, 243, 253, 257 fn 21, 258, 259, 305, 306, 315, 322, 323, 324, 326, 327, 333, 334, 335 Chung, S 177, 186, 199 Cinque, G 144, 146, 265 fn 1, 266, 268, 274, 276, 278, 283 Clark, R 304, 332 Collins, C 184, 327, 330 Colonna, V 307 Comrie, B 133, 134, 144, 330 Corblin, F 248 Corver, N 206 Costa, J 86, 87, 88, 89, 92 fn 17, 217, 228, 229, 230, 232, 234, 235 fn 18, 236 Cottell, S 172 fn 21 Crisma, P 289, 304, 312, 314 Cruschina, S 26 fn 5, 34 fn 14, 40 Culicover, P 77 Cyrino, S 1, 5, 157 fn D’Alessandro, R Dahlstrom, A 187, 188 Davies, W 237, 270 Déchne, R-M 166 Delfitto D 290, 293, 294, 308, 313 Demirdache, H 216, 228, 231, 232 fn 12, 236 Demonte, V 97 den Dikken, M 171 fn 18 Deo, A 329 De Swart, H 260 fn 23 Den Besten, H 35, 65, 151, 239, 250 Den Dikken, M 137, 171 fn 18, 249 fn 13 Devos, M 231 Diamond, J 315 Dickson, R J 161 fn Diesing, M 25, 88 Dixon, R M W 186, 187, 188 Dobrovie-Sorin, C 266, 268, 272, 273, 274 Donaldson, B 240, 254 Dorleijn, M 182 fn Dresher, E 321 Drozd, K F 215 Dryer, M S 330 Duarte, M E 14, 117 fn 1, 118, 120, 121, 122 fn 8, 123, 124 fn 9, 326 Duarte, I 91 Dubinsky, S 270 Ducrot, O 214 Duffield, N 198 Dummett, M 214 fn Dupuis, F 24, 25 Ebert, K 308 Ebert, R P 46, 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 54, 57, 59 Elbourne, P 248 Ellegärd, A 174 Embick, D 142, 230 Emonds, J 143 Espol-Echevarría, M 285, 286 Estival, D 180 Fanselow, G 158 fn Ferreira, J A 237 Fernández-Soriano, O 97 Fontana, J M 23, 25, 33, 34, 40 fn 26, 103 Foulet, L 290, 292, 293, 295, 299, 300 Franchetto B 192 fn 11 Frỵncu, C 265, 266, 270, 272, 280 Fritzenschaft, A 71, 72 Fukui, N 25, 134, 184 Gabriel, C 26 fn Gallego, A J 137, 138, 249 fn 13 Gallmann, P 301 Name index 373 Galves, C 1, 5, 7, 119, 129 fn 11 Garrett, A 185, 221, 329 Gärtner, H-M 248 Gawlitzek-Maiwald, I 71, 72 Gelderen, E 286 Giannakidou, A 238, 241, 242, 243, 245 Gianollo, C 10, 18, 259, 281, 283, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 312, 313, 314 Gildea, S 178, 192 fn 11 Giorgi, A 285, 286, 309 Giurgea, I 21 fn 1, 39 Givón, T 9, 17, 81, 212 Greenberg, J H 54, 133, 141 Grice, H P 214 Grimshaw, J 9, 148, 330 Grohmann, K K 137 Grosu, A 313 Guardiano, C 10, 19, 259, 283, 285, 306, 307, 309, 310, 311, 314 fn 5, 315, 316, 318 Guruianu, V 265 Holmberg A 2, 6, 20, 119 fn 5, 133, 136, 145, 158, 167, 169, 176 fn 25, 259, 323, 324, 325, 329, 330 Hoop, H 88 Hopper, P 254 Horn, L R 214, 215, 217, 239, 247 Huang, C.-T J 136, 145, 157, 323, 326 Huddlestone, K 249 fn 14, 264 Hacquard, V 265 fn Haeberli, E 66, 76 Haegeman, L 57, 58 fn 15, 241, 247 fn 6, 248 Haider, H 22 Haig, G 181, 182, 184 Hale, K 209, 210, 211, 329, 331 Hale, M 331 Hall, J S 158 fn Harris, A C 180, 192, 329 Harris, M 325 Haspelmath, M 134 Heine, B 197 Henry, A 160 fn 5, 171 fn 18, 172 fn 21 Herslund, M 293 Herzog, M 125 Hill, V 9, 18, 180, 265, 268 Hinterhölzl, R 57 fn 14 Hiraiwa, K 244 fn Hohepa, P 329 Holm, J 4, 242 fn Kaiser, G A 24, 25 fn Kallulli, D 32 Kasombo Tshibanda, M 231 Kato, M A 14, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122 fn 8, 123, 124 fn 9, 125, 126, 129, 326 Kayne, R S 4, 6, 13, 14, 26 fn 7, 61, 73, 77, 78, 82, 86, 90, 93, 122, 124, 128, 129, 132, 133, 135, 167, 171, 172, 268, 274, 283, 320, 323 Keenan, E 312 Kikusawa, R 186 Kiparsky, P 260 Kiss, K 153 Kiss, T 82 Klavans, J L 142 Klimov, G A 187, 192 Koch, J 203 Koopman, H 25 Koster, J 77, 92, 93 fn 18 Kratzer, A 154, 165 fn 13, 268 Kroch, A S 1, 7, 8, 12, 54, 55, 58 fn 16, 60, 61, 63, 65, 72, 174 Iatridou, S 72 Ingham, R 159 fn 4, 291 fn Iordan, I 269, 277 Irimia, M 275 Jelinek, E 324, 325 Jespersen, O 251, 253, 256, 263, 299 Johannessen, J 93 Johnson, K 169 Jonas, D 158 fn 1, 160, 168 fn 17, 170 Julien, M 136, 146, 326 fn 1, 329 374 Name index Kurath, H 172 Kuroda, S-Y 25, 91, 92 Kuteva, T 197 Labelle, M 25 Labov, W 125 Ladusaw, W 243 Laka, I 224, 241, 242 fn Lambert, P J 55 Lash, E 9, 16, 17, 196, 203 fn Layton, B 140 Ledgeway, A 25, 97, 100 fn 5, 102 Lee, S-Y 90 Legate, J 179, 180, 188, 191 Lehmann, W 44, 54 Lema, J 34 fn 16, 65 fn Lemieux, M 25 Liberman, M 241 Lightfoot, D 8, 78, 95, 259, 281, 304, 311, 315, 321 Lindauer, T 301 Lohndal, T 244 fn Longobardi, G 10, 19, 197, 259, 281, 282, 283, 285, 286, 295, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 315, 316, 318 Lopes Rossi, M A 118, 121 fn Loprieno, A 140 Lötscher, A 53 Lyons, C 300 Macchi, G 78 fn 2, 84 Manolessou, I 283 Mareş, A 265, 272 Martins, A M 9, 17, 78, 83, 84, 85, 91, 95, 103, 104, 106, 120, 214, 217, 228, 229, 230, 232, 233 fn 16, 235 fn 18, 236 Marušič, F L 152 Mascarenhas, S 97, 112 Massam, D 153, 331 Matras, Y 182 Matthews, W K 180 Mattos e Silva, R V 84 McCafferty, K 160 fn 5, 161 McCloskey, James 147, 209, 210, 211 McCloskey, Jim 198 McCone, K 199 Meillet, A Meng, M 300 Mensching, G 2, 11, 21, 22 fn 2, 23, 26 fn 5, 27, 30 fn 12, 31 fn 13, 38, 39, 40 Meurman-Solin, A 164, 174 Milsark, G 13, 79 Mithun, M 187, 188 Mišeska-Tomić, O 268 fn Miyagawa, S 39, 190 fn Mobbs, I 334 Molinelli, P 287 Montgomery, M 158 fn 1, 159, 160 fn 5, 161, 162, 163, 164, 172, 174 fn 23, 175 fn 24 Mosteller, F 62 Motapanyane, V 273 Motohashi, T 190 Müller, G 34 fn 14, 35 Munn, A 93 Murray, J A H 158 fn 1, 160, 162, 163 Muysken, P 142 Myhill, J 180 Negrão, E 117, 326 Nevins, A 178, 179, 182, 191 Newmeyer, F 2, 320, 322, 333 Newton, G 199 fn 3, 323 Nichols, J 329 Nikitina, T 323 Niyogi, P 304 Noyer, R 230 Nunes, I 78 fn 2, 83 Nunes, J 104 fn 11, 118, 119, 228 fn Nuñez Cedo, R 118 Ĩ hUiginn, R 199, 200 Obenauer, H-G 236 Olarrea A 14, 118, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 132 Olsvanger, I 66, 67 Ordoñez, F 14, 118, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 132 Name index Pagotto, E Palm, L 293, 294, 299 Panaitescu, P 269, 277 Pantoja Rivero, J C 40 fn 26 Paoli, S 97, 114 Paradisi, P 290, 293, 294, 313 Patrick, P 242 fn Payne, J 183 fn Penner, Z 71, 72, 73, 74 Pesetsky, D 149, 151 Piel, J 78 fn 2, 83 Pietsch, L 160 fn Pintzuk, S 63, 65, 66, 76 Pỵrvulescu, M 267, 268 Plank, F 291, 299 Platzack, C 158, 167, 169, 176 fn 25 Poletto, C 2, 13, 23, 25, 26, 28, 29 fn 11, 32, 34 fn 18, 37, 39, 97, 100 fn 5, 101, 115, 236 Pollock, J-Y 122, 124, 129, 132, 143, 147 Polotsky, H J 142 Pomino, N 23, 30 Ponelis, F 239 Poole, G 25 Postal, P 171 Postma, G Prell, H-P 46, 50 Pulleyblank, E G 145 fn Rackowski, A 249 fn 13 Radford, A 32 Ramat, P 256 Raposo, E 80 Remberger, E-M 21 fn 1, 26 fn 5, 38, 39, 40 Reenen, P 291, 299 Reinhart, T 89 Reintges, C H 14, 133, 139 fn 2, 140, 141, 142, 147, 148 fn 6, 149, 151, 152, 154, 157 fn Renfrew, C 305 Rezac, M 243 fn Ribeiro, I 2, 13, 21, 97, 99, 100, 101 fn 6, 102, 103 fn 8, 106, 124 fn Richards, M D 133, 137 fn 1, 248 fn 13 Richards, N 133, 137 fn 1, 249 fn 13 375 Rigon, G 306 Ritter, E 165, 231 fn 10, 295 Rivero, M L 34 fn 16 Rizzi, L 2, 13, 25, 26 fn 5, 27, 28 fn 10, 37, 82 fn 4, 92, 97, 103 fn 10, 115, 118, 124, 144, 268 Roberge, P 239, 255, 256 Roberge, Y 272 Roberts, I 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 25 fn 3, 73, 97, 98, 100, 103 fn 10, 109 fn 14, 117, 118, 119, 131, 133, 136, 137, 138, 143 fn 4, 145, 148, 153, 163 fn 11, 165, 172, 175 fn 24, 197, 198, 204, 207, 208 fn 12, 211, 212, 213, 228 fn 7, 232, 233, 235, 259, 260 fn 22, 265, 268, 281, 282, 286, 288, 300 fn 8, 301, 302, 304, 306, 320, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 329, 330, 331 fn 4, 332, 335 Robinson, P 160 fn Rochemont, M 77 Rohlfs, G 267 Rosén, H 287 Rosengren, I 22 Roussou, A 8, 9, 16, 18, 133, 197, 198, 204, 207, 208 fn 12, 211, 212, 213, 228 fn 7, 232, 233, 235, 265, 268, 286, 301, 332 Rouveret, A 145 Sagart, L 145 fn Sag, I 241 Saito, M 324 Salvi, G 99, 100 fn 5, 101 fn Sankoff, D 45 Santorini, B 60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 255 Sapir, E 3, 10, 180, 281, 326 Sapp, C D 3, 7, 11, 12, 43, 45, 46, 50, 52, 53, 55 fn 9, 57 fn 13 Sarmento, S 266 Sauerland, U 248 fn 12 Savelsberg F 21 fn 1, 22 fn 2, 31 fn 13 Schlegel, A 326 Schleicher, A 326 Schneider, E W 172 Schroten, J 308 Schøsler, L 291, 293, 299 376 Name index Schumacher, S 200 fn Sheehan, M 323 Shlonsky, U 283, 284 Sigurðsson, H A 170 Siloni, T 295 Silverstein, M 185, 187, 188 Sitaridou, I 34 fn 14, 40 Smith, J 160, 280 Speas, M 25, 129 fn 11, 184 Spencer, A 134, 142 Sportiche, D 25, 36, 298 Sproat, R 142 fn Starke, M 119, 125, 228 fn Stavrou, M 314 fn Strunk, J 81 Takano, Y 87 fn 10, 90 Tanaka, T 173 Taylor, A 12, 54, 55, 58 fn 16, 65, 66 Thiersch, C 35 Thráinsson, H 160, 169 Thurneysen, R 201 fn 7, 202, 207 Togeby, K 294 Toribio, A J 14, 117, 118, 119 Torrego, E 149, 151 Torres Morais, M A 13, 97, 103 fn Tortora, C 158 fn 2, 171 fn 18 Traugott, E 254 Ura, H 30, 244 fn Uriagereka, J 6, 7, 8, 12, 56, 57, 128 Uribe-Etxebarria, M 216, 228, 231, 232 fn 12, 236 Väänänen, V 287 van der Auwera, J 231 van Kemenade, A 323 Vance, B 325 Vayra, M 21 Vikner, S 170, 326 Vincent, N 287, 300, 313 De Vries, M 77, 78, 81, 82, 86, 92, 93 Waddington, C H 321 Wallenberg, J C 3, 12, 60, 66, 73, 74 Wanner, D 109 Washio, R 191 Watkins, C 203 Webelhuth G 35 Wegera, K-P 45 Weinreich, U 125 Weinryb, B 66 Wexler, K 332 Whitman, J 3, 16, 177, 178, 187, 189, 190, 191, 192 fn 11 Wilder, C 284 Wiltschko, M 166, 231 fn 10 Woolford, E 179 Wurmbrand, S 53, 57, 68, 138, 149, 274 Yamada, M 193 Yanagida, Y 2, 16, 177, 178, 187, 189, 190, 191, 192 fn 11 Yang, C 3, 12, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 70, 73, 76 Yoon, J H 184 Zanuttini, R 11, 15, 158, 159, 170, 171 fn 20, 172, 248, 249 fn 13 Zeijlstra, H 9, 17, 238, 242, 243, 243 fn 6, 245, 246, 248, 249, 250, 252, 256, 257, 259, 260, 261, 262 Zubizarreta, M-L 26 fn Zwicky, A M 142 Subject index A’-position 25 acquisition 7–8, 12, 13, 25 fn 3, 60–62, 70–73, 76, 246, 250, 253, 257–62, 264, 288, 299 fn 8, 305, 314, 321, 324 device 321 principle 260, 304 process 56, 64 strategy 260–1, 313, 333–4 see also language acquisition address forms 118 adjacency 77, 143, 164, 224, 230, 283, 285, 295, 297 condition 26 fn effects 167 merger under adjacency 224, 230 non-adjacency 301 requirement 288, 296–7 strict adjacency 230, 297, 300, 302 adjective 47, 86, 90, 276, 283–5, 287–9, 294–301, 312–13 attributive adjectives 313 cardinal adjectives 316 possessive adjectives 294, 299, 300 predicative adjective position 314 fn adnominal argument 19, 282–83, 286, 290–91, 293 fn affixes 119, 140, 142, 146, 155 Afrikaans 17–18, 238–43, 245–64 agglutinative 15, 133, 134, 138, 139, 140, 142, 146, 148, 149, 155, 166, 157 fn 7, 326 agree relation 16, 144, 145, 148, 153, 178–180, 191, 199, 209, 260 fn 22 agreement 5, 18, 102 fn 7, 118–19, 138–9, 154, 158–9, 161, 167, 177, 180, 182–3, 204, 209–12, 268, 295–300, 301 absence of agreement 158, 171 fn 18 affixes 119 features 207 inflection 118, 150 marking 324–5, 327 morphology 143, 325 paradigm 118 projection 299 nominative agreement system 137 past-participle agreement 330 fn person agreement 167, 203, 330 possessor agreement 324 prepositional agreement 16, 209–10, 212 pronominal agreement 14, 119, 127, 325 object agreement 324, 333 rich agreement 139, 150, 172 subject-verb agreement 139, 161 verbal agreement 160–1, 163, 166, 172 preverbal agreement markers 335 see also agreement parameter see also impoverishment see also WH-agreement alignment 16, 20, 177–8, 179–80, 181, 183, 185, 186–8, 190, 191, 192, 194, 327–30, 331 fn4, 332–3, 334 Alsatian 53 analyticity 14, 136, 142, 145, 157 parameter 15 analytic system 145–6, 152–6 analyticization 134, 136, 138, 142, 146 Anti-Babelic Principle 310 argument 7, 15, 17, 18, 50, 73, 99, 100, 101, 128, 129, 148, 150, 151, 152, 154, 156, 179, 181, 183, 184, 185, 186, 188, 206, 231, 232, 273, 275, 279, 282, 285, 287, 291, 294, 296, 298, 299, 307, 308, 324, 325, 329, 328, 332, 333, 334 adnominal arguments 19, 282, 283, 286, 290, 291, 293 crowding 146, 150, 151, 156 ergative arguments 182 378 Subject index argument (cont.) external argument 16, 119, 128, 130, 177, 178, 179 fn 1, 180 fn 2, 181, 183, 184, 185, 188, 189, 191, 192, 193, 194, 231, 327, 327 genitive argument 287, 308 null arguments 20, 324, 326, 332, 333, 334 pronominal arguments 324, 325, 332, 333 voiding 152, 154, 155, 156 Arabic 306 fn 2, 308 aspect 15, 138, 139–42, 144, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150, 151, 153, 154, 155, 156, 191, 231 fn 10, 268, 328, 331 Phrase (AspP) 27, 145, 151, 155 projection 151 Austria 53 auxiliary 15, 18, 22, 42, 53, 54, 67, 69, 74, 124 fn9, 131, 139, fn3, 141, 142, 143, 175, 176, 183, 185, 194, 272, 273, 275, 278, 279 selection 131 Bantu languages 236, 333 Bavarian 53 Basque 56, 306 fn 2, 308, 329 Borer-Chomsky (Conjecture) 3, 134, 135, 157 Bulgarian 306 fn case cas régime absolu 19, 282, 290, 291, 292, 293 fn 4, 294, 295, 297, 300, 301, 302 genitive case 18, 19, 177, 181, 182, 184, 187, 189, 192, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285–302, 308, 313 marking 177, 185, 188, 189, 200, 206, 208, 299, 313, 331 Catalan 82 See also Old Catalan Celtic 321, 323, 326, 331 chain-effect 10, 19, 281, 282, 301 Chinese 323, 324, 326 Archaic Chinese 145 Classical Chinese 145 Mandarin Chinese 136, 138 Medieval Chinese 145 see also Old Chinese Chuckchi 330 clause clause-typing 129, 130 comparative clause 196, 198–9, 202, 206, 208, 212 subcomparative 206 relative clause 13, 43, 55 fn 9, 72, 162, 202, 204, 285, 308 reduced relative clause 283 restrictive relative clause 77, 86, 90, 93, 94 subordinate clause 11, 24, 43, 45, 50, 64, 65, 67, 68, 71–2, 74, 86, 97, 115, 146–7, 152, 187, 188–9, 193 clitic 8, 11, 22, 36, 37–8, 40, 42 fn 27, 85 fn 8, 99, 101, 102 fn 8, 104, 105, 119, 139, 142, 147, 164, 165 fn 12, 166, 173 fn 22, 203, 205, 272, 273, 276, 278, 325, 333 Clitic Phrase 37 Clitic Left Dislocation (CLLD) 11, 22, 26, 36, 101, 128, 141 cliticize/cliticization 142, 161, 164, 165, 203, 205, 206–7, 212, 293 fn 5, 308 enclisis/enclitic 139 fn 2, 141, 142, 205, 208, 212, 309, 316 non-clitic 274 placement 7, 230 fn proclisis/proclitic 85 fn 8, 99, 101, 201 fn resumptive clitic 99 fn 4, 101 subject clitics 14, 119, 176 competing grammars 68, 73, 75 consonant mutation 198, 199, 205 copula 139 fn 3, 181 fn 3, 194, 196, 203–5, 207–10, 212 fn 14 copular verb 150 core functional categories (CFCs) 23, 29, 37, 39 core grammar 7, 117, 307 Subject index CP contrastive CP 28 domain 40, 236 exploded CP 124 field 233, 236, 279 informational CP 28 layer/layered CP 13, 97, 115, 270, 272 recursion 40, 69, 71, 72 split CP 25, 28, 92, 98, 102, 105 Czech 242–6, 258 Daco-Romance 313 Danish 167 definiteness 308–9, 312 agreement 296 effect 78–9, 81, 83, 90, 93 feature 295, 313 inducing elements 294 inheritance 295 requirement 294, 294 deictic DP 99 locatives 214–16, 222, 228–30, 233, 235–6 see also utterance-anchored locatives deflexion 19, 282, 299, 302 determiner phrase (DP) complex DP 128 extended DP 330 internal structure 19, 306 diachronic implementation 125 theory 281, 304, 305 dialect 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 16, 45, 51, 53, 56, 57, 59, 104 fn 8, 133, 174 conservative dialects 65, 174 contemporary dialects 12, 43, 53, 56 of German 53 individual dialects 53 modern dialects 1, 3, 7, 44, 145 see also Munster dialect, Italian dialects, German dialects, Dutch dialects, Carribean dialects of Spanish, dialectal 4, 5, 11, 51 379 doubling determiner doubling 284 negative doubling 260 PP 230 que 13–14, 97, 98–99, 104, 109, 110–12, 114, 115, 116 subject doubling 120, 127 Dravidian 321, 332 drift 10, 145, 281 Dutch 18, 43, 45, 54, 58, 61, 67, 68, 81, 82 fn 4, 87 fn 10, 88 fn 12, 92 fn 17, 93, 239, 240–41, 245, 255, 260, 321 dialects 58 fn 15 Egyptian Ancient/Old Egyptian 1, 14–15, 133–4, 138, 139–41, 145–51, 156 Coptic 1, 14–15, 138, 139–42, 144–5, 152–7 Middle Egyptian 139 fn emphatic markers 17, 216–17, 222 fn 4, 228, 232–3, 235, 235–6 empty category 119 English Appalachian English 15–6, 158–61, 166, 168, 170–76 Belfast English 160 fn Buckie English 160 fn Middle English 58 fn 16, 65, 159 fn 4, 161 Northern Irish English 160 fn Southern Irish English 160 fn Standard 15–16, 158, 159, 161, 170, 172, 173, 175, 176 Tyneside English 160 fn see also Old English EPP 119, 156 anti-EPP feature 184–85 feature 11, 22, 23, 27, 30, 31, 35–9, 41 fn 27, 42, 178–81, 183–4, 186, 191–2, 327, 334 equidistance 30, 38 equi distance Principle 32 exaptation 209, 210 expletives 39 fn 25, 173, 330 see also transitive expletives 380 Subject index extraposition 13, 50, 53–5, 58, 66, 68 RRC extraposition 77–87, 89–96 feature phonological features 259 semantic features 259, 260, 276 formal features 6, 20, 134–5, 157, 197, 246, 253, 259–60, 300, 320–22, 324, 326, 334 (un)interpretable features 156, 243, 244 fn Phi-features 15, 39, 119 see also EPP feature Fin 13, 15, 98–113, 115, 144, 268, 275 Fin-to-Force 98, 104, 112, 115 V-to-Fin 14, 99–107, 110, 114–15 see also Spec of Fin Finnish 306 fn fitness 62, 64, 65, 70, 75 focus 2, 12, 13, 14, 34, 36, 39, 44, 45, 48–51, 53, 57, 82, 89, 92, 97–9, 102, 104, 106, 108, 109, 112, 115, 147, 148 fn 6, 154, 249 contrastive focus 26, 29, 48, 92, 100 domain 92, 249, 261 driven 249 feature 101, 156 field 26, 97–8, 100, 106, 109 activated FocusP field 101 focused 12, 26, 28, 29, 45, 48–50, 55, 58, 85, 95, 99, 100, 101, 105, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 148, 240, 247, 248, 249, 251, 261 unfocused 92 focus P/ Phrase 13, 98, 100, 102, 104–6, 108, 154, 248 fronting 22, 24, 26, 34, 39, 40, 240 head 99, 101, 105–06, 109, 113 information(al) focus 26, 29, 48, 98, 105, 127, 128 marker 139, 222 fn movement 40, 42, 110 position 28 preposed focus 80, 82, 84 scrambling 92 fn 17 Force 13, 14, 26, 98, 103, 108, 115, 124, 137, 268–9, 275, 278 ForceP 98, 104–15, 129–31, 268–9, 276–8 see also Fin-to-Force French 19, 26 fn 7, 82, 119, 124, 143, 172, 291, 294, 297, 298, 311, 312, 314, 317, 325 Colloquial French 325 Middle French 19, 282, 289–90, 291 fn 3, 297, 301 See also Old French functional 130, 138, 207, 276 category 2–3, 6, 9, 16, 20, 23, 27, 38, 92, 133–6, 157, 320, 322, 330 see also Core Functional Category (CFC) domain 273 element 153, 207, 232 feature 274 field 274 head 5, 15–16, 95, 97, 138, 139 fn 2, 144–5, 149, 153, 161, 170, 173–7, 180, 197, 224, 266, 269, 278, 320, 331, 334 hierarchy 232 item 131, 133 layer 289, 297, 300 modal 267, 274–5 morpheme 136, 141 particle 154 position 216, 313 preposition 300 (maximal) projection 18, 37, 101, 115, 144, 147, 152, 153, 169–70, 175–6, 178, 200, 233, 268, 271–2, 274, 279, 283, 285, 289, 300, 301 superstructure 147, 151, 154 system 17, 228, 232, 233, 235 verb 79 Gallo-Italian 312 German 2, 3, 7, 11, 12, 24, 25 fn 3, 34, 35, 43, 44, 49, 52–9, 60–1, 65, 67, 71–3, 75–6, 81, 87 fn 10, 88 fn 12, 124 fn 9, 245, 300, 306, 321 dialects of 53 Subject index Continental West Germanic 57, 58, 59 Early New High German (ENHG) 46 Medieval German 54 Middle High German (MHG) 7, 11, 43, 45 Swiss German 53, 54, 57, 68, 72, 73, 75 Bernese Swiss German 71 Zurich German 53, 58 Gothic 312 gradual change 130 grammaticalization 8, 9, 14, 16, 17, 18, 24, 41, 118, 133, 196–8, 203–5, 207–8, 212–13, 232–3, 235, 265–9, 272, 275–9, 291, 301–2, 308–9 Greek 4, 37, 204, 208 fn 12, 245, 284, 286, 306, 308, 310, 311, 313, 314 fn 5, 323 Classical Greek 37, 283, 284, 310 New Testament Greek Koiné 310 Grico 306 fn GroundP 124–5, 129–31 heavy NP shift 54, 68 Hebrew 65, 306 fn hierarchy adverb hierarchy 274 alignment hierarchy 328 cartographic hierarchy 268 Cinque’s hierarchy 268 functional hierarchy 232 NP/nominal hierarchy 185, 187–9, 192 null-argument hierarchy 326 thematic hierarchy 283–5, 287 see also parameter hierarchy Hindi 178–80, 182, 185, 191, 306 fn 2, 329 historical linguistics 10, 311 modern historical linguistics 10 quantitative historical linguistics 306 Hungarian 306 fn Ibero-Romance 21 fn 1, 22 fn 2, 24, 34, 313 impoverishment 14, 19, 118–19, 282, 299 fn 8, 301, 324 incorporation 14, 119, 326, 335 Indic 184–5 381 Indo-European 4, 5, 285, 323, 325, 326, 331 Indo-Iranian 1, 16, 177, 178, 180, 181, 183–4, 328–30, 331 infinitive 18, 34, 45–6, 139 fn 3, 265–8, 270, 272–5, 277, 279 causative infinitive 139 fn fronting 34 modal-infinitive 53, 58–9, 266 restructuring infinitives 230 fn inflection 135, 137, 268, 276, 278, 326, 331 fn agreement inflection 118, 150 person/number inflection 196 tense inflection 15, 138–9, 142, 148–9, 154 verbal inflection 14, 119, 326 inflectional 144, 275–6, 282, 284, 285, 290–91, 293–4, 301–2 affixes 142, 146 categories 140, 153 change 138 domain 143 fn 4, 156, 174–6 endings 14, 118, 300 features 153, 278–9 field 272–3, 276–7 genitive 19, 282, 287, 291 fn 3, 292, 294, 297, 302 heads 155 morphemes 141 paradigm 119 projection 125 system 15, 16, 175, 134, 160, 174–5, 287 information structure 14, 36, 39, 49, 56, 91, 152, 268 input generalization 320, 333 interface 2, 9, 56–7, 135, 136, 137, 265, 322 (internal) reconstruction 10, 145, 186, 196, 198, 289, 301 inversion 28, 56, 57, 94, 118, 122 fn 8, 123, 234 Romance inversion 118 stylistic inversion 122, 124–5, 129, 132 Iranian 177–8, 180, 181–6, 194 Middle Iranian 181–3 see also Old Iranian 382 Subject index Irish 9, 16, 17, 147, 196–212, 306 fn Middle Irish 200, 210, 211, 306 Northern Irish 160 fn Southern Irish 160 fn see also Old Irish Italian 4, 19, 26, 82, 98, 165 fn 12, 243, 244, 245, 246, 249, 257, 258, 306, 308, 310, 311, 313, 314 dialects 4, 114, 310, 313 Northwestern 114 see also Ligurian, Turinese Medieval Italian 28, 29 see also Gallo-Italian see also Old Italian Italo-Romance 25 Japanese 16, 129, 178, 186, 187, 190, 192, 194, 195, 321, 324, 329, 331, 333 Middle Japanese 188, 192, 193, 194 Pre-modern Japanese 177, 178 see also Old Japanese Jespersen’s Cycle 251, 253, 256, 263 Sub-Jespersen’s cycle 251 Korean 184, 185, 321, 332 KP 300 Kurmanji 178, 182 language acquisition 1, 9, 25 fn 3, 59, 60, 76, 78, 95, 259, 282, 299, 302, 305, 315, 321, 322, 332 Latin 1, 18, 19, 206, 266, 275, 283, 286, 293 fn 5, 296, 307, 310–15, 329 Classical Latin 283, 286, 288, 310, 314 Late Latin 18, 282, 286, 287, 288, 296, 299, 301, 302, 313, 314 Vulgar Latin 42, 275, 279, 281, 282 laws of history 304, 315 left periphery 13, 22, 23, 26, 27, 37, 86, 92, 97, 98, 104, 110, 115, 116, 136, 153, 156, 216 low left periphery 28 phenomena see also Low vP periphery lexicon 23, 38, 135, 142, 265, 305 substantive 131 Lezgian 329 Ligurian 114 linearization 61, 320, 323, 334 low vP periphery 14, 129, 131, 132 macro-parameter 3, 4, 5, 6, 14, 20, 133, 134, 135, 136, 144, 157, 320, 321, 322, 323, 331, 334 Marathi 329 markedness 10, 136, 197, 261, 334 merge 6, 13, 16, 20, 23, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104 fn 11, 106, 107, 108, 111, 145, 147, 150, 173, 197, 198, 204–5, 212, 232, 233, 268, 275, 276, 283, 300, 322, 323, 335 external merge 98, 228, 232 internal merge 98 merge-over-move 301 metaparameter 157 micro-parameter 3–6, 14, 20, 43, 44, 56, 133–36, 320, 321, 322, 325 Mirror Principle 149 modal 15, 18, 45–6, 53, 58, 138, 144, 175, 176, 225, 265–77 auxiliary 18, 272, 279 bem 234 features 138 infinitive 53, 58–9 particle 146 projection 144, 154 semantics 18, 266 verbs 34, 35 fn 18, 53, 58 movement A’-movement 86 head-movement 3, 23, 34, 136, 141, 146, 149, 230, 274, 326 operator movement 40, 41 fn 27 PF movement 57 verb-movement 7, 14, 15, 26, 30, 65, 71, 98, 136, 138, 142–7, 155–6, 170, 174–5, 233 fn 15, 272, 274 remnant verb-movement 152 Subject index verb-to-tense (V-to-T) movement 138, 143, 150, 198, 230, 326 remnant movement 23, 34, 40, 91 fn 14 see also focus movement Munster dialect 212 fn 15 negation 17–18, 65–67, 71–72, 104, 146–8, 152, 155, 214–37, 238–64 metalinguistic negation 17, 214–64 semantic negation 238–64 sentential negation 65, 240, 243, 249, 254, 261 constituent negation 240, 241, 251, 244 negative concord 18, 238, 242, 263, 264 Niger-Congo Norwegian 306 fn noun raising 302, 297 null arguments 20, 324, 326, 332–334 null operator 102, 107, 119 null subjects 14, 112, 117–19, 121, 124, 138, 139 fn 2, 181, 182 fn 4, 203, 325, 333 non-null subject 324–5 see also pro-drop numeration 119, 129, 148, 272 object shift 22, 148, 154, 155, 167, 168, 169, 327 Old Catalan 22 fn Old Chinese 145 fn Old Egyptian 1, 139–157 Old English 76 Old French 19, 281–303, 313 Old Japanese 16, 177–95 Old Iranian 180, 182, 183 Old Irish 9, 16, 196–213 Old Italian 23, 26, 28, 29 Old Persian 181 Old Portuguese 13, 14, 98–116, 228 fn 7, 233 Old Romance 2, 11, 21, 23–31, 33, 35–42 Older Scots 15, 159–76 Old Spanish 22, 26, 34, 36, 40 paradigm 14, 118, 119, 138, 139, 161, 162, 163, 165, 179, 201, 275, 292, 332 parameter 1–20 383 agreement parameter case parameter core parameter 56 directionality parameter hierarchy 8, 56, 136, 321–5 lexical parameter 23, 38, 39 NS parameter 323 order parameter 12, 56, 44, 55–59 PF parameter 323 Polysynthesis parameter 5, see also polysynthesis syntactic parameter 133, 134, 136, 315, 332 UG parameter 311, 312, 315 see also macro-parameter, micro-parameter participle 11, 16, 22, 23, 27, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36 f n 20, 40, 46, 149, 180, 183, 185, 186, 194, 266 fn 2, 275, 330 fronting 23, 33–35, 40 particles 9, 15, 16, 46, 54, 55, 65, 66, 67, 109, 138–56, 185, 189, 196, 198, 199, 201 fn 6, 203, 205, 209, 213 passive 3, 16, 27, 32, 33, 45, 46, 137, 140, 145 fn 5, 147, 152, 177, 178, 180, 183, 184, 185, 186, 194, 271, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331 perfect 43, 45, 46, 53, 58, 59, 62, 139, 140, 141, 145, 149, 150, 151, 152, 268, 274 periphery 14, 129, 130, 131, 132 core/periphery 7, 8, 12, 44, 56, 57, 59 sentence periphery 2, 13, 22, 23, 26, 27, 28, 37, 42, 86, 92, 97, 98, 102 fn 8, 103, 110, 111, 115, 116, 136, 153, 156, 216 high sentence periphery 126, 128, 131 refined sentence periphery 129, 130, 132 Persian 181 Middle Persion 181, 183 see also Old Persian person 14, 15, 16, 117, 118, 121, 125, 128, 131, 139 fn 2, 158–6, 181, 182, 183, 188, 189, 196, 198, 201, 203, 208, 210, 231, 276, 278, 312, 316, 322, 330 PF 16, 30 fn 12, 57, 134, 137, 199, 205, 207, 212, 248, 322, 335 384 Subject index Phase 28, 31, 38, 132, 134, 136, 137, 138, 146, 148, 150, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 191, 248, 249 fn 13, 251, 327 Theory 31, 152 Picard 291 fn polysynthesis 3, 5–6, 133–4, 136, 326–7, 332–3 Portuguese 5, 8, 13, 14, 42, 77–96, 97, 98, 109, 115, 116, 124 fn 9, 215, 228 fn 7, 230, 242, 145 Brazilian Portuguese 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 13, 98, 109, 112, 117–32, 157 fn 7, 325 European Portuguese 4, 8, 13, 17, 77, 112, 215, 216, 217–37, 242 Pragmaticization 232, 235 Prefix 45, 46, 47, 65, 140, 145 fn 5, 242 fn 4, 333 prescriptive grammar 240 fn presupposition 88, 89, 130, 214, 217, 247 Primary Linguistic Data 8, 9, 95, 178, 248, 258, 320, 321, 332 pro 119, 183 fn 4, 209, 211 PRO 181 Probe 6, 23, 31, 38, 39, 137 fn 1, 138, 148, 150, 154, 155, 156, 243, 248 fn 11, 274, 230, 324, 326, 327, 328, 329, 334 pro-drop 332, 324, 325, 333 progressive 46 pronoun 14, 15, 47, 48, 54, 55, 69 fn 5, 72, 104, 108, 112, 118, 119, 120, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 139 fn 2, 148, 158 fn 2, 159 fn 3, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 169, 171, 173 fn 22, 181, 182, 183, 188, 189, 192, 193, 194, 209, 231, 236 fn 19, 276, 294, 301, 324, 325, 332, 333 free weak pronouns 14, 119, 126, 127 relative pronouns 86, 163 strong pronouns 14, 120, 125, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131 weak pronouns 14, 71, 119, 120, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 131, 132, 167, 168 prosody 12, 44, 49, 53, 56, 57 reanalysis 42, 58, 59, 60, 177, 178, 180, 183, 185, 186, 193, 194, 202, 204, 205, 206, 209, 253, 256, 262, 286, 289, 296, 300, 301 morphological reanalysis 209 syntactic reanalysis 196, 197 upward(s) reanalysis 197, 204, 208, 212, 232 register - 44, 56, 279 Rhaeto-Romance 25 fn rhetorical questions 216, 225, 226, 228, 233, 235 Romance 1, 4, 18, 19, 22, 24, 37, 39 fn 24, 131, 138, 165 fn 12, 281–2, 289, 295, 300, 307, 310–5, 321, 323, 325, 326, 330 medieval/medieval stages of 11, 21, 23–4, 37, 39, 99–101, 301 Modern Romance 11, 19, 22, 26, 29, 30, 38, 39, 42 fn 27, 282, 310, 315 Proto-Romance 42, 312, 313 Western Romance 19 see also Daco-Romance, Ibero-Romance, Italo-Romance, Old Romance, Rhaeto-Romance see also Romance inversion Rumantsch 25 fn Russian 306 fn 2, 307, 329 Salentino 306 fn Sanskrit 181, 185, 331 Sardinian 26 fn Scots Ulster Scots 160 fn see also Older Scots scrambling 35, 36, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 230 IP-scrambling 95, 78, 85, 95, 236 medial scrambling 95 middle scrambling 217, 228, 229, 230, 233, 236 short (distance) scrambling (SDS) 22, 86, 89, 90, 95 interpolation/scrambling 104, 105 Semitic 295, 308, 313, 331 fn Ethiopian Semitic 323 Serbo-Croatian 245, 306 fn Sicilian 26 Subject index Sinhalese 309 small clause 26 smuggling 327 sociolinguistic 4, 7, 11, 45, 51, 56, 59 Spanish 22, 26, 40, 82, 83, 125, 215, 245, 306, 313, 317 Caribbean Spanish 117, 118, 120, 122, 124–6, 128, 130, 132 General Spanish 117, 124 Modern Spanish 26, 36 See also Old Spanish Spec/specifier of AgrOP 88, 93 of CP 24, 91, 199, 207 of Clitic Phrase 37 of D 128 of Fin/FinP 99–102, 104, 106–11 of Focus/ FocP 99–102, 104, 109 of FP 170 of INFL/IP-T/TP 24, 25, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 38–40, 73, 74, 93–5, 119, 126, 131, 148, 170, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 216, 227, 228–33, 236, 327, 328, 330 of MoodP 154, 155 of SigmaP 234 of VP 87, 88, 89, 128, 132, 151 of v/vP 23, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 38, 40, 178, 179, 180, 183, 191, 274, 327, 328 of *vP 148 of VoiceP 328 position 23, 31, 32, 37, 85, 95, 144, 154, 155, 230 vs adjunct position 92 vs complement 143 stress 49, 50 focal stress 247 nuclear stress 89 sentential stress 53 stressed vs unstressed prefix 46, 47 stressed vs unstressed word 48, 50 stressed, unstressed, non-stressed items 203 subcomparative 206–8 385 subject doubling 120 postposed subject 121, 122, 125, 127 raising 154, 182, 327 preposed subject 127, 130 referential null subject 117, 118, 125 subject-in-Situ generalization 150 VP internal subject 25, 184 Subset Principle 259 Swabian 53, 72 Swedish 158, 167, 176 fn 25, 245 Swiss 25, 53, 58, 72 Bernese Swiss 72 synchronic variation 44, 125, 157 synthesis 145, 157 Tense features 137, 148, 149, 150 markers 148, 149, 165 position 60, 61, 64–76 Third Factor 6, 9, 10, 257, 258, 260–63, 322, 333–5 topicalization 26, 35, 36, 38, 81, 82, 85 transitive expletives 15, 158–9, 167–70, 172–3, 175 Turinese 114 typology 133, 135, 141, 143, 144, 238, 242, 243, 245, 249, 283, 326 Universal Grammar (UG) 3, 9, 244 fn 8, 320 utterance time (UT-T) 17, 216, 228, 231, 236 utterance-anchored locatives 228, 229, 231, 233 verb projection raising (VPR) 12, 43–4, 58 fn 15, 59, 68, 71–6 verb raising 15, 43, 57, 143, 146, 153, 156, 167–70, 172–4 verbal complex (VC) 11, 12, 43–6, 48 fn 5, 50, 53, 55 fn 9, 56, 57 fn 14 verb-second 24, 45, 145, 151–69 Walloon 313 Welsh 306 fn