Tai Lieu Chat Luong A Concise History of Russia Accessible to students, tourists, and general readers alike, this book provides a broad overview of Russian history since the ninth century Paul Bushkovitch emphasizes the enormous changes in the understanding of Russian history resulting from the end of the Soviet Union in 1991 Since then, new material has come to light on the history of the Soviet era, providing new conceptions of Russia’s prerevolutionary past The book traces not only the political history of Russia, but also developments in its literature, art, and science Bushkovitch describes well-known cultural figures, such as Chekhov, Tolstoy, and Mendeleev in their institutional and historical contexts Though the 1917 revolution, the resulting Soviet system, and the Cold War were a crucial part of Russian and world history, Bushkovitch presents earlier developments as more than just a prelude to Bolshevik power Paul Bushkovitch is a professor of history at Yale University, where he has taught for the past 36 years He is the author of Peter the Great: The Struggle for Power, 1671–1725 (Cambridge 2001); Religion and Society in Russia: The Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (1991); and The Merchants of Moscow, 1580–1650 (Cambridge 1980) His articles have appeared in Slavic Review, Russian Review, Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteruopas, and Kritika He is a member of the editorial board for the Cahiers du Monde Russe “For any student trying to get a grasp of the essentials of Russian history this book is the place to start To cover everything from the origins of the Russian people to the collapse of the Soviet Union in one short book requires great skill, but Paul Bushkovitch is one of the leading experts on Russian history in the world and he manages this task with great insight and panache.” – Dominic Lieven, Trinity College, Cambridge University “This is a lively and readable account, covering more than a thousand years of Russian history in an authoritative narrative The author deals perceptively not only with political developments, but also with those aspects of modern Russian culture and science that have had an international impact.” – Maureen Perrie, University of Birmingham “If you want to understand Russia, and the story of the Russians, you can no better than Paul Bushkovitch’s A Concise History of Russia Bushkovitch has performed a minor miracle: he’s told the remarkably complicated, convoluted, and controversial tale of Russian history simply, directly, and even-handedly He doesn’t get mired in the details, lost in the twists and turns, or sidetracked by axe grinding He tells you what happened and why, full stop So if you want to know what happened and why in Russian history, you’d be advised to begin with Bushkovitch’s masterful introduction.” – Marshall Poe, University of Iowa “Both learned and accessible, this short history of Russia’s troubled passage to the present tells a story of a state and a people who created an empire that much of the world saw as a threat Whether as the ‘Gendarme of Europe’ or the ‘Red Menace,’ Russia and its Soviet successor (even Putin’s Russia today!) have been as much misunderstood as they have been feared Paul Bushkovitch brings us a sober reading of Russia’s difficult rises and falls, expansions and contractions, reforms and revolutions Rather than seeing the preceding millennium as a prelude to the seventy years of the Soviet Union, he gives us a rounded portrait of a country hobbled and humbled by its own geography, institutions like autocracy and serfdom, and grandiose plans to create utopia Judicious in its judgments, this gracefully written work ranges from high politics to music and literature to open a window through which a reader might begin or renew an acquaintance with the enigmas that were Russia.” – Ronald Grigor Suny, University of Michigan Cambridge Concise Histories This is a new series of illustrated “concise histories” of selected individual countries, intended both as university and college textbooks and as general historical introductions for general readers, travelers, and members of the business community Other titles in the series: A Concise History of Australia, 3rd Edition Stuart Macintyre A Concise History of Austria Steven Beller A Concise History of Bolivia, 2nd Edition Herbert S Klein A Concise History of Brazil Boris Fausto, translated by Arthur Brakel A Concise History of Britain, 1707–1975 W A Speck A Concise History of Bulgaria, 2nd Edition R J Crampton A Concise History of the Caribbean B W Higman A Concise History of Finland David Kirby A Concise History of France, 2nd Edition Roger Price A Concise History of Germany, 2nd Edition Mary Fulbrook A Concise History of Greece, 2nd Edition Richard Clogg A Concise History of Hungary Miklós Molnár, translated by anna magyar A Concise History of Modern India, 2nd Edition Barbara D Metcalf and Thomas R Metcalf A Concise History of Italy Christopher Duggan A Concise History of Mexico, 2nd Edition Brian R Hamnett A Concise History of New Zealand Philippa Mein Smith A Concise History of Poland, 2nd Edition Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki A Concise History of Portugal, 2nd Edition David Birmingham A Concise History of South Africa, 2nd Edition Robert Ross A Concise History of Spain William D Phillips Jr and Carla Rahn Phillips A Concise History of Sweden Neil Kent A Concise History of Wales Geraint H Jenkins A Concise History of Russia Paul Bushkovitch Yale University CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Tokyo, Mexico City Cambridge University Press 32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10013-2473, USA www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521543231 © Paul Bushkovitch 2012 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2012 Printed in the United States of America A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data Bushkovitch, Paul A concise history of Russia / Paul Bushkovitch p cm – (Cambridge concise histories) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-521-83562-6 (hardback : alk paper) – ISBN 978-052154323-1 (pbk : alk paper) Russia – History Soviet Union – History Russia (Federation) – History I Title DK37.B86 2011 947–dc23 2011026272 ISBN 978-0-521-83562-6 Hardback ISBN 978-0-52154323-1 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Contents List of Figures Abbreviations Acknowledgments Prologue Russia before russia Moscow, novgorod, lithuania, and the mongols The emergence of russia Consolidation and revolt Peter the great Two empresses Catherine the great Russia in the age of revolution The pinnacle of autocracy 10 Culture and autocracy 11 The era of the great reforms 12 From serfdom to nascent capitalism 13 The golden age of russian culture 14 Russia as an empire 15 Autocracy in decline 16 War and revolution 17 Compromise and preparation 18 Revolutions in russian culture 19 Building utopia 20 War 21 Growth, consolidation, and stagnation 22 Soviet culture 23 The cold war Epilogue: The End of the USSR Further Reading Index List of Figures Vladimir Cathedral of the Dormition (Twelfth Century) Birchbark Document 210 Kirillov Monastery (15–16 centuries) “Kremlenagrad” Peter the Great Bashkirs Catherine the Great St Petersburg c 1800 Village Council 10 Alexander II 11 Russian Peasant Girls 12 Ilya Muromets 13 Tchaikovsky 14 Repin/Tolstoy 15 Nomadic Kirghiz 16 Witte 17 Nicholas II 18 Lenin and Colleagues 19 Stalin and Others at Gorky’s funeral 20 Ilyushin II Abbreviations BRBML Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library LOC Library of Congress LOC PG Library of Congress, Prokudin-Gorsky Collection NASM Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum NYPL New York Public Library YCBA Yale Center for British Art Acknowledgments The first chapters of this book were written at the University of Aberdeen, Scotland, during a semester of residence with the support of the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland Without the Carnegie Trust and Aberdeen University the beginning would have been much more difficult I owe a particular debt of gratitude to Paul Dukes, Robert Frost, Karin Friedrich, Jane Ohlmeyer, and Duncan Rice, in their different ways my hosts for an eventful time Over the years my colleagues have kindly read and commented on many of the chapters, letting me know when I was on the right track and when I was not For reading as well as discussion and bibliographical help, I thank Nikolaos Chrissidis, Laura Engelstein, Hilary Fink, Daniel Kevles, John MacKay, Edgar Melton, Bruce Menning, and Samuel Ramer Many years of conversation about Russian culture with Vladimir Alexandrov, Katerina Clark, Nikolai Firtich, Harvey Goldblatt, Vladimir Golshtein, Andrea Graziosi, Charles Halperin, Moshe Lewin, Alexander Schenker, and Elizabeth Valkenier made many chapters much richer than I could have made them alone Valerie Hansen and Frank Turner provided more help than they ever realized As ever, Tatjana Lorkovic was invaluable I would also like to thank Tom Morehouse of the New England Air Museum, Kate Igoe of the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, Maria Zapata of the Haas Art Library of Yale University, David Thompson and Maria Singer of the Yale Center for British Art, and Kathryn James and E C Schroeder of the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library of Yale University Their courtesy and professionalism were invaluable in the search for suitable images Maija Jansson suffered through the long gestation and birth pains of the book, putting up with a distracted and often crabby author She read the whole manuscript, some of it several times, and kept reminding me that it would come to an end, and so it did To her I dedicate the result war of 1827–29 168–170 war of 1877–78 249–251 WW I and 291–293, 297 paganism 6, 15, 16, 26, 28 Pahlen, Count Peter von der 141 Pakistan 446 Panin, Count Nikita 115, 117, 123, 129 Panin, Count N.P (nephew) 141 Paris, Peace of (1856) 171, 188, 250 Paskevich, Ivan 252–253 Pasternak, Boris 345–346, 414–415, 417, 420, 424–425, 428 Paul, Tsar 114, 123, 128–129, 138–142, 145, 151–152, 254–255 Pavlov, Ivan 347, 349 Pechenegs 5–7, 12 Pereiaslav Treaty (1654) 66–68 Perestroika 428, 448–451, 459 Perovskaia, Sofia 206 Pestel’, Pavel 153, 155 Peter, Saint, Metropolitan of Kiev 23, 31 Peter I, the Great, Emperor, xvii, xxi, 60, 74–100, 89, 106, 131, 164, 199, 208, 239, 257, 336 culture and state transformed by 79, 82–83, 92–99, 106 death of 99–100 navy and 80–81 Orthodox church and 90, 95–96 personality and travels by 77, 79–82, 84–85, 88–90 regency of Sofia and 76–78 son Aleksei attempts to overthrow 90–92 St Petersburg built by 85, 87–88, 90 war vs Sweden and 82–87 Peter II, Tsar 99, 102 Peter III, Tsar 113–116, 122–123, 138 Petipa, Marius 236 Petliura, Semyon 312, 314 Petrashevski, Mikhail 165–166, 241–242 Petrov, Yevgeni 345 Photios, Metropolitan of Kiev 35 Piatakov, Georgii 358 Pirogov, Nikolai 170 Plato 5 Platon Levshin, Metropolitan of Moscow 126 Plehve, Viacheslav 279, 282 Plekhanov, Georgii 226–227, 295 Pobedonostev, Konstantin 242–243, 272–273 Poland 1, 28–29, 50, 73, 77, 117–118, 158, 166, 213, 251–255, 258, 270, 288 Anna’s war vs 102 constitution of 1791 134–135, 153 constitution of 1815 166–167 Napoleonic wars and 147, 149–150 partition of 1772 121, 258 partition of 1791 134–135 partition of 1794 135 Peter the Great and 83–84 post-WW II 389, 400, 432, 441, 444 revolt of 1768–72 118, 121 revolt of 1787 133–134 revolt of 1830 and 167 revolt of 1863–64 193, 201, 250, 253–254 Revolution of 1905 and 284, 288 Revolution of 1917 and 314–315, 326 serfdom and 137, 152, 253 treaty of 1667 66, 73 war of 1632 vs 60 Warsaw riots of 1861 193 WW I and 297 WW II and 372, 374–375, 377, 389, 391–392 Poland, Kingdom of 150, 253–254 Poland-Lithuania 28–29, 38–39, 47, 50–51, 57–58, 65–66 Poliakov, Samuel 214–215 Poliane/Rus tribe 6 Polish Home Army 391 Polish National Democrats 254, 288 Politburo (later Presidium) 310, 325, 328, 359, 364–366, 423, 448 Polotskii, Simeon 71–72 Poltava, Battle of 86 Poniatowski, Stanislaw, King of Poland 114, 118, 121, 133–135 Popov, Alexander 423 Portsmouth Treaty (1905) 277, 284 Pospelov, P.N 399, 400 Potemkin, Grigorii 122–124, 130, 133, 134, 211 Potemkin mutiny 284 Pozharski, Prince Dmitrii 58 Prague conference (1912) 291 Preobrazhenskii, Evgenii 322 Presidium (formerly Politburo) 397–398, 401, 402 Prezent, Isaak 419–420 Primary Chronicle 3–4, 8–9, 15, 29 Princip, Gavrilo 292, 294 Prokofiev, Sergei 27, 339, 341–342, 346, 418, 422, 427 Prokopovich, Bishop Feofan 90, 92 Proskurov massacre 312 Protasov, Count N.A 160–161 Protestantism 69, 72, 118, 150, 151, 164 provincial administration 63–64 Alexander II and 193–194 Alexander III and 273–274 Catherine II and 126, 131–133 Paul I and 139 Peter the Great and 83, 87, 93–94, 98 Provincial Assembly of Nobility 132 Provisional Government 298–303, 308, 327 Prussia 26–27, 113, 118, 121, 133, 135, 137, 151, 152, 250, 274 Crimean War and 171 Napoleonic Wars and 146–147, 149–150 Seven Years War and 104, 108, 114–115 Puffendorf, Samuel 94–95, 136 Pugachev, Emelian 123–125, 130, 157, 178 Pugacheva, Alla 427 Pushkin, Alexander 56, 106, 112, 165, 175–182, 185, 234, 243, 367 Pushkina, Natalia 178–179 Putin, Vladimir 427, 456–458 Radek, Karl 358, 416 Radishchev, Alexander 135–136, 139 Rakhmaninov, Sergei 337, 339, 342 Rall, Alexander 174 Rasputin, Grigorii 290, 297–298 Rastrelli, Bartolomeo 104, 131 Razin, Stenka 59–60, 66–67 Razumovskii, Aleksei 103, 111 Razumovskii, Kirill, Hetman of Ukraine 111 Red Army 306–308, 310, 312–316, 327, 372–382, 385, 387, 389– 392 Air Force 377–379, 384 purge of 1937–38 359, 377 Red Guards 301, 303–304, 306 Red Terror of 1918 308 Repin, Ilya 238–239 Reutern, Mikhail 214 Rhee, Syngman 436 Rhineland 140, 150, 373 Ribbentrop, Joachim von xvi, 375 Rimskii-Korsakov, Nikolai 232–234, 236, 337, 339 Rokotov, Fyodor 131 Roman Catholic Church 7, 9–10, 28–29, 69, 97, 72, 107, 111, 118, 164 Romanov, Fyodor Nikitich See Filaret Romanov-Koshkin, Iurii 48 Roosevelt, Franklin D 388–389 Roosevelt, Theodore 284 Rosen, Baron G.F 174 Rostovtsev, Iakov 189–190 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 136, 152 Rubinstein, Anton 174, 231–233 Rubinstein, Nikolai 231–232, 234, 237 Rublev, Andrei 32–33, 426 Ruffo, Marco 43 Rumania 21, 169, 171, 372, 377, 389, 391, 402, 432, 441, 450 Rurik, ruler of Novgorod 3–4 Rurikovichi dynasty 3–4, 6–7, 13 Rus, origin of xvi, 3–4 See also Kiev Rus Rus Justice 11–12 Russia idea of xviii formation of state, with rise of Moscow 22–25 maps of xx–xxiii post-Soviet See (Russian Federation) Soviet See (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) Russian Academy of Sciences 94, 105, 107, 125–126, 135, 347, 349, 406–407, 416, 419 Russian Association of Proletarian Music 414 Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP) 414 Russian Constitution (Fundamental Laws) of 1906 285–286 of 1993 456 Russian Duma 1905–17 211, 285–288, 290, 295, 297–298, 327, 338 post-Soviet 454, 456, 458 Russian Federation (post-Soviet) xvi–xvii, 457–459 Russian language 19, 35 first dictionary 129 grammar codified 106 Russian Ministry of Education 142, 150–151, 159–160, 172, 228, 230, 260, 274 Russian Ministry of Finance 208, 214, 215, 220, 228, 229, 269, 276, 281 Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs 176, 208, 267, 303 Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs 156 Russian Ministry of Justice 144 Russian Ministry of the Court 173, 230, 236, 338 Russian Ministry of the Interior 188–189, 193–195, 205–206, 208, 279 Special Department 151, 176–177 Russian Ministry of the Navy 188–189 Russian Ministry of War 147, 151, 189, 196, 266 Russian Navy 80–81, 102, 121, 170, 252, 284, 294 Russian Revolution of 1905 221, 248, 272, 283–288, 294, 338 Russian Revolution of 1917 xviii, 293, 296, 298–304, 335, 341–342, 346–347, 360–361 Russian Senate (Tsarist) 87, 90–91, 101–103, 138, 144, 208 Secret Department of 136 Russification 258, 270, 274 Russo-Japanese War (1904–5) 269–270, 282–284, 293–294 Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) 215, 243, 251 Rustaveli, Shota 423 Rutherford, Ernest 349 Rutskoi, Alexander 454 Rykov, Aleksei 324, 360 Ryleev, Kondratii 153, 155 Sakharov, Andrei 406–407, 411–412, 426, 448–449 salt trade 42, 64, 110 Saltykov, Sergei 114 Samoilovych, Ivan, Hetman of the Ukraine 77 Sand, Georges 181–182 Sarai 20–22 Savvatii, Saint 30–31 Schelling, Friedrich 162 Scott, Sir Walter 175 Scythians 2, 147 Sechenov, Ivan 229–230 Secret Chancellery 102 Semenov, Iulian 427 Senkovskii, Osip 178, 181 Seraphim of Sarov, Saint 161 Serbia 169, 250, 291, 293–294 serfs and serfdom 67, 139–140, 145, 152–153, 157, 159, 164, 166, 171, 183–184, 253, 261–262 Catherine II and 117, 120–121, 123–126, 136–137 emancipation of 188–193, 197 emancipation of, in Baltic provinces 150, 254 emancipation of, in Georgia 167 ended on church lands 117 established 27, 54–56, 59, 61–62, 108–112, 120 Sergii of Radonezh, Saint 29–31, 46 Serov, Valentin 337 Sevastopol, siege of 170–171, 186, 244 Seven Years War 104, 114–115, 117 Shaliapin, Fyodor 337, 342 Shamil, Imam 168, 264 Shemiaka, Dmitrii 33–34 Sherwood, John 154 Shevchenko, Taras 261–262, 367, 423 Shishkin, Ivan 239 Sholokhov, Mikhail 414, 420, 428 Shostakovich, Dmitrii 343–344, 385, 414, 416–418, 421–424, 427– 428 Shuiskii, Prince Vasilii 57 Shulalov, Alexander 103 Shulalov, Peter 103 Shuvalov, Count Ivan 104–106 Shuvalov, Count Petr 203 Siberia 1, 37–38, 42, 53, 59, 70–71, 110, 155–156, 216–218, 222, 249 border of 61 Civil War and 308, 312–314, 316 railroad and 276–277 USSR and 329, 365–366, 368, 394, 408 WW II and 380, 385, 386 Sigismund, King of Poland 57 Sikorsky, Igor 221, 342 Silvestr, Priest 50–51 Skobelev, Mikhail 266 Skoropadskii, Ivan 93 Skoropadskii, Pavel 306 Skriabin, Alexander 337 Slansky, Rudolf 433 Slavophiles 95, 162, 164, 181, 200–202, 213, 241–242, 244, 255, 272 Smolensk 14, 28, 47, 58, 60, 66 Smol’nyi Institute 126, 302–303 Sobchak, Anatolii 456 Social Democratic Workers’ Party 227 Social Democrats 282, 285, 288 “socialism in one country,” 322–323 socialist realism 335, 416 Socialists-Revolutionaries, Party of (SRs) 227, 280–283, 288, 294, 299–304, 306–308, 310, 321, 325 Sofia, Tsarevna (regent, sister of Peter the Great and Ivan V) 76–79, 82 Solari, Pietro Antonio 43 Solomoniia Saburova, Grand Princess of Moscow (wife of Vasilii III) 47 Solzhenitsyn, Alexander 411–412, 424–426 Sophia Paleologue, Grand Princess of Moscow (wife of Ivan III) 47 South Ossetia 328, 451 South Western Railway 275 Soviet Union See Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Soviet Ministry of Defense 402 Soviet Ministry of Education 347 Soviet Ministry of Finance 346, 347 Soviet Ministry of Internal Affairs and State Security 397 Soviet Ministry of Natural Gas Industry 449 Soviet Ministry of State Security 396 Soviet People’s Army (1918–20) 306, 308 See also Red Army Soviet People’s Commissariat of Food Supplies 309 Soviet People’s Commissariat of Health 368 Soviet People’s Commissariat of Heavy Industry 357, 358 Soviet People’s Commissariats 305, 325, 359 soviets 285, 299–303 Spain 4–5, 45, 147, 151, 155 Civil War 373–374, 377 special settlements 354–355, 362, 375, 396, 400 Spencer, Herbert 199 Speranskii, Michael 144–145, 155, 157 Sputnik 437 Stael, Germaine de 152 Stakhanov, Aleksei 357 Stalin, Joseph xvi, 291, 295, 364, 403, 407, 415–416, 418, 420–423, 429–436, 440 Civil War and 309–311, 314–315 centralized power under 363–366 collectivization and industrialization and 350–357, 367–369 Comintern and 331–333 death of 397–399 Eastern Europe and 432–434 federalism and 326, 328, 366–367 Hitler and WW II and 369–378, 380–383, 386–392, 399 Khrushchev’s secret speech of on 399–400 post-WW II repression by 393–397 purges and GULAG under 353, 358–365, 399–400 Revolution of 1917 and 300, 303 struggle for control of Party and 321–326 Stalingrad, Battle of (1942–43) 386–387, 390 Stanislavsky, Konstantin 336, 343 Stankevich, Nikolai 162–165, 183 Stasov, Vladimir 232–238, 337 Stefan Bathory, King of Poland 52 Steiner, Rudolf 340 Stendhal 149 Stolypin, Peter A 211, 221–222, 287–289, 291, 294 St Petersburg (Petrograd, Leningrad) 131, 142, 144, 153, 158–159, 161, 165, 172–181, 208–213, 219–220, 225–226, 236–240, 252, 257–261, 271, 323, 339, 341 Anna moves capital to 102, 104–105 Finnish border and 257, 376 renamed Petrograd 295 Peter the Great builds 84–85, 87–90, 95, 98 Revolution of 1905–6 and 282–285 Revolution of 1917 and Civil War and 298, 300–302, 305, 311–312, 314, 341 WW I and 294, 298 WW II and, siege of (1941–44) 379–380, 384–386, 391 St Petersburg Academy of Arts 105, 130–131, 173, 237–239, 261 St Petersburg Conservatory 231, 233–234 St Petersburg Philharmonic Society 174, 338 St Petersburg Polytechnic Institute 216, 346 St Petersburg Technological Institute 159, 215–216, 228–229 St Petersburg University 197 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties (SALT, 1972, 1979) 445 Stravinskii, Igor 335, 339 strikes 213, 226, 283–285, 294 Stroganov, Pavel 143 Sumarokov, Alexander 105, 126, 128 Sun Yat-sen 332 Supreme Economic Council 305, 324–325, 330, 349, 353, 357 Supreme Executive Commission 205 Supreme Privy Council 99, 102 Supreme Soviet 450, 453–454 Surikov, Vasilii 239 Suvorov, Alexander 134–135, 140 Sviatopolk-Mirskii, Prince Petr 282 Sviatopolk “the Cursed,” Grand Prince of Kiev Rus 16 Sviatoslav I, Grand Prince of Kiev Rus 7 Sviatoslav II, Grand Prince of Kiev 17 Sweden 39, 58, 67, 90, 93, 98, 146, 286 early wars vs 27, 51, 54 treaty of 1609 and 57 war of 1700–21 82–87, 92, 95–96 war of 1741–43 102–103 war of 1787 133 WW II and 378 Swordbearers 26–27 Table of Ranks 92 Tacitus 114 Tadjikistan 329 Tadzhiks 63 Tambov revolt 318 Tamerlane 23–24, 34 Tamm, Igor 406 Tarkovsky, Andre 426–427 Tatars 21, 37–39, 42–43, 47, 49, 61–63, 67, 77, 111, 123, 263, 288, 327, 400 Tatarstan 1, 453 taxes and tariffs 63, 64, 83, 93, 98, 110, 158, 211, 215, 220 Tchaikovsky, Ilya 215, 235 Tchaikovsky, Peter xvii, 177, 230–232, 234–237, 235, 337 Teheran Conference 388–389 Temporary Regulations of 1881 273 Temriuk, Prince of Circassia 51 terrorism (pre-1917) 203–205, 211, 227, 260, 279, 281 Terror of 1936–38 358–363, 366–368, 399, 402, 420 Teutonic Knights 26–29, 38 Theodore, Saint 18 Theognostos, Metropolitan of Kiev 23 Theophanes the Greek 26, 32 Third Section 156–157, 159, 165, 172, 178, 184, 191, 198, 203, 205, 252 Thucydides 5 Time of Troubles 56–58, 60, 84 Timmerman, Frans 77 Timoshenko, Marshal Semyon 376, 378–380 Tito, Josip Broz 391, 401, 433 Tokhtamysh, Khan 23–24 Tolstoi, Count I.M 214–215 Tolstoi, Peter 91 Tolstoy, Alexei 342 Tolstoy, Lev Nikolaevich (Leo) xvii, 106, 148, 230, 240, 243–248, 246, 338, 416 Tolstoy, Sofya Bers 245 Tomskii, Mikhail 324 Tomsk Polytechnical Institute 216 Toon, Konstantin 160 township courts 195 Transcaucasia 146, 167–168, 263, 265–266, 450, 455 Transcaucasian Federation 316, 327–328 Transsiberian Railroad 217, 220, 269, 276–277, 282, 284, 306 Trepov, General Fyodor 204 Tretyakov, Pavel 238 Trivolis, Michael 46–47 Trotsky, Leon 280, 285, 291, 295, 301, 303, 305–311, 307, 314, 316, 318, 321–325, 343, 345, 358–360, 364 Tsaritsyn, Battle of (1918) 309 See also Stalingrad, Battle of Tsarskoe Selo (Detskoe Selo, Pushkin) 159, 348 Tsarskoe Selo Lycée 161, 165, 176 Tsvetaeva, Marina 342–343 Tukhachevskii, Marshal M.N 314–315, 318, 359, 373 Tupolev, Andrei 421 Turgenev, Ivan 112, 183–185, 196, 230, 240–241, 340, 417 Turkestan 239, 327 Turkey 316 See also Ottoman Empire Turkic people 2, 5–6, 168, 266, 329 Turkmenistan 408 Tver 22, 33, 42, 67 U-2 flight 437, 442 Ukraine 1, 29, 135, 139, 243, 252–253, 258, 261–262, 271 Civil War and 312–316, 326–327 collapse of USSR and 450, 452, 458 Cossacks revolt (1648) 65, 66 Hetmanate 67–68, 73–74, 77, 86, 93, 111 Revolution of 1905 and 284, 289 USSR and 326–327, 329, 352, 365–367, 408 WW I and 306, 309 WW II and 379, 380, 383, 390–391, 393 Ukrainian Church 29, 68–70, 126 Ukrainian language 262, 329 Ukrainian Rada 302, 304, 312 Ulanova, Galina 423 Ulbricht, Walter 434, 440 Uniates 65 Union of Liberation 282 Union of Salvation 153 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union, USSR) boundaries of, at end of Civil War 315–317 collapse of xv, xviii, 447, 452–453 Constitution of 1936 366 creation of 310–312, 319–320, 324, 328–331 federal structure of 326, 365–367 map of, in WW II xxiv Union of St Michael the Archangel 275 Union of the Russian People 285 Union of Welfare 153 Union of Zemstvos 298 United Nations 389, 436 United States 152, 186, 232, 260, 319, 320, 348–349 Cold War and 409, 429–430, 437, 442–446 Russian Civil War and 308, 314 WW I and 306 WW II and 388 Urals 1, 53, 70, 110, 111, 123–124, 215, 222, 312, 327, 352, 368, 380, 394 Uvarov, Count S.S 159–161, 201 Uzbek, Khan 21–22 Uzbekistan 329, 408 Uzbek khanates 266 Vasilii I, Grand Prince of Moscow 33 Vasilii II, Grand Prince of Moscow 33–34, 36 Vasilii III, Grand Prince of Moscow 37, 47–48 Vasilii IV (Shuiskii), Tsar 57 Vasilii Iur’evich “the Squint-eyed,” 33 Vavilov, Nikolai 348–349, 415, 420 veche (popular assembly) 11, 13 Vereshchagin, Vasilii 239 Vernadskii, Vladimir 347, 349 Viazemskii, Prince Peter 179 Vienna siege of 1529 38 siege of 1683 77 Vienna, Congress of 150, 253 Vietnam 20, 435–436, 443–445 Vikings 3–4, 12 Vladimir I, Saint, Grand Prince of Kiev Rus 7–8, 16, 45 Vladimir II Monomakh, Grand Prince of Kiev Rus 12 Vladimir, Principality of 12, 14, 14, 20–24 Volga Bulgaria 1, 7, 20–21 Volga Tatars 263, 268–269 Voltaire 105, 107–108, 114, 125 Volunteer Army 306, 308 Volynskii, Artemii 102–103 Vonifat’ev, Stefan 68 Voroshilov, Kliment 309, 363, 366, 375, 394, 401 Voznesenskii, Nikolai 396 Vsevolod, Grand Prince of Kiev 12, 17 Vyshinskii, Andrei 360 Vysotskii, Vladimir 426 Wagner, Richard 233, 337 War Communism 310, 316–318 Warsaw Pact 439 Warsaw Polytechnical Institute 216 Warsaw uprising (1944) 391 Westernizers 95, 162, 164, 181–183 Whistler, G.W 159 White armies 306, 308–309, 312–315, 326–328, 342, 346 Wielhorski, Count Matvei 174–175 Wielhorski, Count Mikhail 174–175, 179, 231 Winter Palace 88, 104–105, 144, 176, 208, 283, 303 Winter War 376–377 Witte, Count Sergei 211, 216, 220, 269, 272, 275–277, 277, 279, 285–287, 346 Wladyslaw, Prince of Poland 57 Wolff, Georg Christian 107 Women’s Battalion of Death 303 World of Art 210, 334, 337–338 Wrangel, Baron Peter 314–315 Writers’ Union 415–417 Yalta Conference 389 yasak (tribute) 49, 67, 111 Yedigei, Emir 47 Yeltsin, Boris 308, 447–448, 450–458 Yermak the Cossack 53 Yevtushenko, Evgenii 424 Youth Scientific-Technical Groups 449 Yudenich, Nikolai 297 Yugoslavia 389, 391, 432–433, 437 Zamiatin, Evgenii 346, 414 Zarutskii, Ivan 58 Zasulich, Vera 204 zemstvos 193–195, 200, 202, 206, 219, 262, 273, 281–282, 289, 297 Zhdanov, Andrei 363–364, 394, 416, 421–422 Zheliabov, Alexander 206 Zhirinovsky, Vladimir 457 Zhukov, Georgii 379–380, 386, 390–391, 395, 397, 401–402, 438 Zhukovskii, Vasilii 174–176, 178–181, 261–262 Zinoviev, Grigorii 303, 310–311, 314, 321–323, 331, 358 Zionists 260, 271, 411 Ziuganov, Gennadii 455, 457 Zoe Paleologue, Grand Princess of Moscow (wife of Ivan III) 43 Zola, Emile 241 Zoshchenko, Mikhail 421–422 Zosima, Saint 30 Zubatov, Sergei 282