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Water Pollution Control - A Guide to the Use of Water Quality Management Principles Edited by Richard Helmer and Ivanildo Hespanhol Published on behalf of the United Nations Environment Programme, the Water Supply & Sanitation Collaborative Council and the World Health Organization by E. & F. Spon © 1997 WHO/UNEP ISBN 0 419 22910 8 Case Study IX* - The Danube Basin * This case study was prepared by Ilya Natchkov IX.1 Introduction The Danube river basin is the heartland of central and eastern Europe (Figure IX.1). The main river is among the longest (ranked 21) in the world and the second longest in Europe. It has a total length of 2,857 km from its source at a height of 1,078 m in the Black Forest, Germany, to its delta on the Black Sea, Romania. The watershed of the Danube covers 817,000 km 2 and drains all or significant parts of Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, Hungary, Croatia, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine and parts of the Federal Republics of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The watershed represents 8 per cent of the area of Europe (Figure IX.2). Between the source and the delta, the main Danube river falls a total height of 678 m and its character varies, therefore, from a mountain stream to a lowland river. Upstream of the Danube delta the mean flow of the river is about 6,550 m 3 s -1 with maximum and minimum discharges of 15,540 m 3 s -1 and 1610 m 3 s -1 respectively. About 120 rivers flow into the Danube, such as the Tisza and Sava which have their own significant flow. The contribution from the main tributaries is given in Figure IX.3. The mean altitude of the river basin is only 475 m, but the maximum difference in height between the lowland and alpine peaks is over 3,000 m. However the basin can be conveniently divided into an upper, middle and lower region (according to its geological structure and geography), and the Danube delta. The range of mean monthly temperature increases in an easterly direction from 21 °C in Vienna to 23 °C in Budapest and to 26 °C in Bucharest. The average annual precipitation in the Danube river basin varies from 3,000 mm in the high mountains to 400 mm in the delta region. The mean annual evaporation varies between 450 mm and 650 mm in lower regions. Approximately 80 million people are living in the basin (Table IX. 1). The economic conditions vary from the highly developed countries of Germany and Austria, to countries with modest economical and technological possibilities. Most of the countries in the region are in transition after recent political changes and are suffering severe economic and financial constraints. Figure IX.1 Location map showing the countries drained by the Danube river basin IX.2 Economic activities in the basin Throughout the basin, the tributary rivers and the main Danube river provide a vital resource for water supply, sustaining biodiversity, agriculture, industry, fishing, recreation, tourism, power generation and navigation. In addition, the river is an aquatic ecosystem with high economic, social and environmental value. A very large number of dams and reservoirs, dikes, navigation locks and other hydraulic structures have been constructed in the basin to facilitate important water uses; these include over 40 major structures on the main stream of the Danube river. These hydraulic structures have resulted in significant economic benefits but they have also caused, in some cases, significant negative impacts downstream. These impacts include, for example, increased erosion and reduced assimilative capacity where river diversions have resulted in reductions in flow below the minimum required for desired water uses, such as fisheries and maintenance of aquatic ecosystems. Figure IX.2 Detailed map of the catchment area of the Danube river basin Figure IX.3 The contribution made to the total flow of the Danube river by the various tributaries along its length Table IX.1 Area and population data for the countries included in Environmental Programme for Danube river basin 1 Country Total area (10 3 km 2 ) Area within (10 3 km 2 ) Danube basin (% of the total) Population (10 6 ) Population in (10 6 ) Danube basin (% of the total) Urban population (%) Germany 356.9 59.60 16.7 80.0 9.00 11.25 Austria 83.9 80.70 96.2 7.42 7.42 100.00 Czech Republic 78.9 22.49 28.5 10.36 2.74 26.45 78 Slovak Republic 49.0 48.68 99.3 5.31 5.10 96.00 78 Hungary 93.0 93.0 100.0 10.60 10.60 100.00 61 Croatia 56.5 33.75 59.7 4.76 3.25 68.30 51 Slovenia 20.25 15.20 75.0 2.00 1.76 87.75 56 Bulgaria 111.0 48.20 43.4 8.80 4.07 46.25 68 Romania 238.0 233.20 98.0 22.76 22.00 96.70 54 Moldova 33.7 8.79 26.1 4.34 0.77 17.60 47 Ukraine 604.0 36.31 6.0 51.70 3.00 5.80 67 Total in the area of EPDRB 679.92 69.7 FR Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina 134.25 10.5 Others 2.83 80.2 Total 817.00 1 Some data are estimates because statistics were not available specifically for the Danube river basin The main water uses in the basin are domestic drinking water supply, industry and irrigation. Many water works along the Danube and its tributaries use bank-filtered water. The Nussdorf water works provides about 15 per cent (150,000 m 3 d -1 ) of Vienna's water demand from bank wells. The water supply of Bratislava relies on bank-filtered water (160,000 m 3 d -1 ). In Hungary, most drinking water (90 per cent) actually comes from sub- surface water resources. The total pumped amount is approximately 6,000 × 10 6 m 3 d -1 of which 70 per cent provides public water supplies and 30 per cent is used for irrigation and industrial purposes. In Bulgaria, the total water abstraction from the Danube is 1,142 × 10 6 m 3 a -1 (surface and bank-filtered) of which 70 per cent goes to irrigation, 20 per cent serves industry and 10 per cent provides public water supplies. In the downstream countries the main user is agriculture, which accounts for 85 per cent of total use in Moldova. In upstream countries, such as Slovakia, the main water user is industry (accounting for up to 71 per cent of total surface water withdrawals). Economic activities and land use in this large river basin are very diverse, including numerous large urban centres and a wide range of industrial, agriculture, forestry and mining activities. There are also numerous important natural areas, such as wetlands and flood plain forests. The water resources and the environmental quality of the basin are under great pressure from these activities. Microbiological contamination is evident throughout the river system and is generally due to the discharge of urban wastewater and storm water. Urban and industrial discharges from inadequate waste treatment and disposal facilities also contribute significant quantities of oxygen depleting substances (measured in terms of their biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)). Nutrients from domestic and industrial sources, chemical fertilisers used in agriculture, and manure from intensive and large-scale livestock operations, have leached into the groundwater and into the surface waters and their sediments. The resultant increases in nutrient levels have stimulated eutrophication and degraded the aquatic ecosystem. Water quality for the eight countries of the Danube basin is summarised in Table IX.2. The countries of the middle and lower Danube basin are undergoing a major restructuring and transformation of their political, social, administrative and economic systems. From an environmental perspective, some of the most important changes will be in the industrial sector, where the nearly exclusive emphasis on production in the past resulted in significant pollution and waste of resources. Some institutional changes, such as the decentralisation of management and financial responsibility for water supply and wastewater management to local authorities, are creating opportunities for substantial improvements in water services and in environmental benefits. Table IX.2 Proportion of river network conforming to different water quality classes in eight countries of the Danube basin (according to national classification systems) Water Quality Class Country I II III IV V Austria 1 23 71 6 0 Bulgaria 2 37 22 24 16 1 Czech Republic 3 Oxygen regime 0 22 19 36 23 Basic physical and chemical indicators 0 0 0 1 99 Biological and microbiological parameters 4 26 66 4 0 Germany 4 Baden Württemberg 17 75 7 Bavaria 8 87 4 Hungary 5 31 54 15 Romania 6 42 24 24 12 22 Slovakia Oxygen regime 0 22 33 16 29 Basic physical and chemical indicators 0 0 17 27 56 Chemical components 16 26 11 26 21 Biological and microbiological parameters 0 0 13 18 69 Slovenia 7 0 50 32 12 6 Unless otherwise noted the water quality classification is based on five classes. 1 I & I-II, II & II-III, III & III-IV, IV system for 1992; Source: IUCN, 1994 2 Source: IUCN, 1994 3 Source: Haskoning, 1994 4 I & I-II, II & II-III, III & III-IV, IV system; Source: IUCN, 1994 5 I, II. III system, 1991 figures; Source: IUCN, 1994 6 Source: IUCN, 1994 7 I & I-II, II-III, III-IV, IV system for Drava basin only; Source: Haskoning, 1994 IX.3 The Environmental Programme for the Danube river basin Recognising the growing regional and transboundary character of water resources management and the related environmental problems, the Danube countries (together with the interested members of the international community) met in Sofia in September 1991 to consider a new regional initiative to support and to enhance national activities for the management of the Danube basin. The countries agreed to develop and to implement a programme of priority actions and studies in preparation for the eventual agreement of a new convention that would provide an effective mechanism for regional co-operation. The countries also agreed to form a Task Force to oversee this programme, and the Commission of the European Communities (CEC) agreed to provide support and co-ordination for the Task Force. The international community agreed to assist the participating countries to develop a three-year programme of pre-investment activities, data collection, studies and fact finding to support the development of a strategic action plan. The Environmental Programme for the Danube River Basin (EPDRB) includes national reviews, basin-wide studies of point and non-point sources of pollution and biological resources, institutional strengthening and capacity building activities, and pre-investment studies in selected tributary river basins. Many activities are ongoing, such as the development of international systems for monitoring, data collection and assessment and emergency response systems. International funding for these activities is provided by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), CEC-PHARE, the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) partners (including the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)), the World Bank, several bilateral donors (including the Austrian, Netherlands and USA governments), and the private Barbara Gauntlett Foundation. Furthermore, to secure the legal basis for protecting the water resources, the Danube river basin countries and the European Union (EU) signed the Convention on Cooperation for the Protection and Sustainable Use of the River Danube (the Danube River Protection Convention) of 29 June 1994, in Sofia. The Convention is aimed at achieving sustainable and equitable water management. In parallel, the development of the strategic action plan has been a major task of the environmental programme for the Danube river basin. The action plan makes a significant contribution to efforts to improve water and environmental management in the Danube basin as defined in the Convention, and contributes to the implementation of the Environmental Action Programme for Central and Eastern Europe. IX.4 The strategic action plan The action plan provides direction and a framework for achieving the goals of regional integrated water management and riverine environmental management for the period 1995-2005. It also aims to provide a framework in support of the transition from central management to a decentralised and balanced strategy of regulation and market-based incentives. The action plan lays out strategies for overcoming the environment problems related to water in the Danube river basin. It sets short-, medium- and long-term targets and defines a series of actions to meet these targets. Despite the diversity of problems, interests and priorities across the Danube river basin, the countries share certain important values and have agreed on principles that underlie the goals and actions of the plan. They include the precautionary principle, the use of best available techniques (BAT) and best environmental practice (BEP) for the control of pollution, the control of pollution at source, the polluter-pays-principle; and a commitment to regional co-operation and shared information among the partners implementing the action plan. The action plan has four equally important goals: • Reduce the negative impacts of activities in the Danube river basin on riverine ecosystems and the Black Sea. • Maintain and improve the availability and quality of water in the Danube river basin. • Establish control of hazards from accidental spills. • Develop regional water management co-operation. The approaches to be taken are set out in a series of strategic directions covering key sectors and policies, including phased expansion of sewerage and municipal wastewater treatment capacity; reduction of discharges from industry; reduction of emissions from agriculture; conservation, restoration and management of the wetland and flood plain areas of the tributaries and main stream of the Danube river basin; integrated water management; environmentally sound sectoral policies; control of risks from accidents; and investments. IX.5 Problems and priorities Five priority problems that affect water quality, water use and ecosystems were identified in the basin. These were: • Microbiological contamination. • Contamination with substances that enhance the growth of heterotrophic organisms and with oxygen-depleting substances. • High nutrient loads and eutrophication. • Contamination with hazardous substances including oil. • Competition for available water. Table IX. 3 indicates the relationship between these five water management problems in the Danube river basin and the primary water uses of drinking water, fisheries, industry, irrigation and recreation. Microbiological contamination is probably the most important health-related water quality problem in the region. The generally agreed conclusion, based on available data, is that the Danube and its tributaries are heavily polluted with faecal bacteria and viruses in most river reaches. The overall situation is that the Danube should not be used as a drinking water source without treatment, such as extensive sand filtration, and that bathing in the river should be discouraged. Current health statistics are believed to record only a limited number of the actual incidents of water-born diseases. Some information suggests that there are a number of epidemics each year and that thousands of people in the basin suffer each year from water-born diseases including dysentery, hepatitis A, rotavirus and cholera. Table IX.3 Relations between key water management problems and the primary water uses in the Danube river basin Problem Drinking water supply Fisheries Industry Irrigation Recreation Nutrient load and eutrophication; Factor: nitrogen and phosphorus; Sources: municipal wastewater, industry, agriculture Increased cost of treatment; consumer acceptance problems; nitrate contamination of groundwater Loss of sensitive species Increased cost of treatment and reduction in some uses, e.g. cooling Degradation of environmental quality and loss of opportunities and benefits Hazardous substances, including oils; Sources: industry, agriculture, transport The presence of these pollutants in significant concentrations would seriously affect drinking water, fisheries and the riverine ecosystems. However, present data and monitoring systems are inadequate to establish current levels in most areas of the basin and to determine the overall priority for dealing with these pollutants. At the local level, serious problems may already exist in some tributary river basins. Metals and some micro- pollutants that are readily absorbed onto fine particles may be stored in the sediments trapped by the numerous hydraulic structures in the Danube basin Microbiological pollution; Factor: bacteria, viruses, etc.; Sources: municipal Renders surface waters and ground-water unfit for water supply or Increases cost of treatment in some types of processes, Water unfit for certain crops Loss of opportunity, including elimination of some uses such wastewater, livestock, lack of adequate sanitation increases the cost of treatment particularly food processing as bathing and other contact activities Growth of heterotrophic organisms and oxygen depletion; Factor: Organic matter, ammonia; Sources: municipal wastewater, industry, livestock Surface water unfit for water supply; reduced groundwater infiltration and lower quality water Severe loss of habitat when O 2 conc. drop below minimum required; fish loss due to toxic conc. of ammonia Increased cost of water treatment Modern irrigation equipment may clog Loss of opportunity and economic benefits Competition for available water; Factor: water planning, allocation, and operation; Sources: sectorial authorities Reduced or intermittent supplies Loss of habitats; disrupted migration and spawning patterns Reduced or intermittent water supply Reduced water supply during the critical crop growth period Loss of opportunity and economic benefits Source: Strategic Action Plan of the Danube River Basin, 1994 Microbiological contamination is normally a local problem, because most pathogens have a limited survival time in water. However, there are reported situations where regional or transboundary impacts occur such as in the Koros river flowing between Romania and Hungary. Hazardous and toxic substances are of particular concern, particularly pesticides, other organic micropollutants such as PCBs and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and heavy metals. There are serious concerns about pollutants accumulated in sediments in reservoirs and in river reaches downstream of industrial areas. A survey of 55 sites in 1991, along the Danube River, revealed that 23 of these sites should be treated as hazardous waste. The main sources of such pollution are industry and mining. Transport activities appear to be important sources of oil pollution, and the main source of lead, to the Danube and its tributaries. The transport of oil in pipelines has also created continues and accidental spills into the rivers of the basin. The most recent accident occurred when an oil pipeline in the Ukraine led to contamination of the River Tisza and threatened water supplies in Ukraine and Hungary. Diffuse discharges from agriculture are important sources of micro-pollutants. About 300-500 different active agents of pesticides have been used in the basin. Serious health concerns also exist due to the high levels of nitrogen found in drinking water and that can lead to methaemoglobinaemia. High levels of nitrate have been reported in groundwaters from aquifers in several parts of the basin, particularly in the intensively cultivated areas of Hungary, Romania and Slovakia. The nitrate level in the [...]... Vazuzskaya water system augments the water supplies and provides water for inter-basin transfer to the Moskvoretskaya water system and to the Volga river The system incorporates linked canals, pumping and hydro-power plants The reliable water supply (i.e 95 per cent probability for the year) is 19m3 s-1 for the Moskvoretskaya water system, 5 m3 s-1 for the Volga river and 1 m3 s-1 for local water use... needs (9.7 m3 s-1) Apart from water diversions by the Water Supply Plants for the Moscow City water supply, some 4 0-5 1 per cent of available resources in the basins are released for ecological, power, navigation and other uses, 2 4-3 2 per cent for inter-regional water transfers, 2 per cent for consumptive water use and losses, and 1-2 .6 per cent for filling reservoirs At present, the total water withdrawals... 3 m3 s-1 released to the Cherkizovskaya system and conveyance losses from the Moscow Canal of 3 m3 s-1 Of the total amount of water diverted to the Mosvodokanal system, 35.1 m3 s-1 (55 per cent) is used for domestic needs, 22.5 m3 s-1 (17 per cent) is used for industry and 4.5 m3 s-1 is used for miscellaneous needs In industry, water is used for domestic and drinking purposes (5 m3 s-1) and for technological... the Moscow City drinking water supply is carried out by approved water management sub-regions using selected control points (Figure X.3) The total water resources allocated for Moscow City and diverted from surface water sources amounts to 124 m3 s-1 (with 97 per cent probability for the year), including the conveyance of 73 m3 s-1 of water to the Mosvodokanal system, 45 m3 s-1 released to the Moscow,... Moskvoretskaya water system comprises the Moscow river and its tributaries, with storage reservoirs and diversion dams, and provides a reliable water supply of 51 m3 s-1 (with 95 per cent probability for the year) and 46 m3 s-1 (with 97 per cent probability for the year) The system conveys water for the Rublevskaya and Western water supply plants with a total diversion of 96.7 m3 s-1 The Volzhskaya water system... average run-off is 6. 5-9 .0 1 s-1 km-2, with the spring flood flows accounting for 4 0-6 0 per cent and summer flows for 1 0-2 0 per cent of the annual stream-flow The existing stationary hydrological network consists of gauging stations maintaining regular hydrometric and hydrochemical observations Water quality studies are also carried out using surveillance and monitoring data The assessment of water resources... place Water- use and pollution charges can be used as incentives for large or medium-sized industrial and municipal wastewater treatment plants to improve their performance In the past, these charges or fines have usually been too low to cause any change in behaviour by enterprises • Monitoring and information systems Information is needed to develop integrated water management plans, to assess ambient water. .. m3 s-1 The major facilities of the water system were completed in the period 193 5-6 7 and they now require technical restoration and/or remodelling Figure X.2 Map of the basins of the Moscow region that are used for drinking water supplies Table X.1 The major water bodies of the Moscow region water systems Vazuzskaya System Moskvoretskaya System Volzhskaya System Water body Location (Oblast, City) Water. .. strategy for improvement of the region's water supplies should be based on a comprehensive and environmentally-sound approach The Ministerial Conference on Drinking Water and Environmental Sanitation "Implementing UNCED Agenda 21" (held in Noordwijk, the Netherlands, March 1993) set forth guiding principles for safe drinking water supply schemes, thereby providing the basis for immediate action by... 15 0-3 00 m above sea level The areas of small, flat-top hills (Valdai, Smolensk-Moscow) and ridges (GzhatskMozhaisk, Klin-Dmitrov) are separated by shallow river valleys and plains Forest cover in the watersheds varies from 66 per cent of the area at the Volga River headwater to 39 per cent at the site of the Ivankovskoye Reservoir dam Native birch and aspen tree forests are dominant but pine tree forests . cent probability for the year) is 19m 3 s -1 for the Moskvoretskaya water system, 5 m 3 s -1 for the Volga river and 1 m 3 s -1 for local water use. The Moskvoretskaya water system comprises. Factor: bacteria, viruses, etc.; Sources: municipal Renders surface waters and ground -water unfit for water supply or Increases cost of treatment in some types of processes, Water. bank-filtered water. The Nussdorf water works provides about 15 per cent (150,000 m 3 d -1 ) of Vienna's water demand from bank wells. The water supply of Bratislava relies on bank-filtered water