Environmental management and governance advances in coastal and marine resources

Coastal Research Library Charles W Finkl Christopher Makowski Editors Environmental Management and Governance Advances in Coastal and Marine Resources Tai Lieu Chat Luong Environmental Management and Governance Coastal Research Library VOLUME Series Editor: Charles W Finkl Department of Geosciences Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, FL 33431 USA The aim of this book series is to disseminate information to the coastal research community The Series covers all aspects of coastal research including but not limited to relevant aspects of geological sciences, biology (incl ecology and coastal marine ecosystems), geomorphology (physical geography), climate, littoral oceanography, coastal hydraulics, environmental (resource) management, engineering, and remote sensing Policy, coastal law, and relevant issues such as conflict resolution and risk management would also be covered by the Series The scope of the Series is broad and with a unique crossdisciplinary nature The Series would tend to focus on topics that are of current interest and which carry someimport as opposed to traditional titles that are esoteric and non-controversial Monographs as well as contributed volumes are welcomed For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/8795 Charles W Finkl • Christopher Makowski Editors Environmental Management and Governance Advances in Coastal and Marine Resources Editors Charles W Finkl Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, FL, USA Christopher Makowski Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, FL, USA Coastal Education and Research Foundation (CERF) Coconut Creek, FL, USA Coastal Education and Research Foundation (CERF) Coconut Creek, FL, USA ISSN 2211-0577 ISSN 2211-0585 (electronic) ISBN 978-3-319-06304-1 ISBN 978-3-319-06305-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-06305-8 Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2014945759 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Preface This volume in the Coastal Research Library (CRL) considers various aspects of coastal environmental management and governance As the world population grows, more and more people move to the coastal zone There are many reasons for this drang to the shore, not the least of which are increased opportunities for employment and relaxation in a salubrious environment But, as population densities increase beyond the carrying capacity of fragile coastal zones and sustainability seems ever more elusive, more than remedial measures seem required Because governance in the coastal zone has generally failed the world over, it is perhaps time to reconsider what we are doing and how we are doing it Depopulation of many coastal zones would be a laudable goal, but just how this might be accomplished in a socially acceptable manner is presently unknown Perhaps some socioeconomic incentives can be devised to lure people back towards hinterlands, but until such goals or efforts are implemented there seems little choice other than trying to make things work with the present state of affairs This volume thus considers a range of selected advances that highlight present thought on a complex subject that invariably, one way or the other, involves consideration of coastal natural resources Whether it is coastal hazards, sustainability of fishers and aquaculture, resolution of environmental conflicts, waste disposal, or appreciation of biophysical frameworks such as coastal karst or impactors such as fluctuating sea levels, more advanced out of the box thinking is required to solve today’s problems Approaches to potential solutions are sometimes based on models or perhaps more commonly on an individual’s ratiocinative powers where one can deduce logical outcomes It is unfortunate that in many cases governmental approaches to solutions are lethargic and ineffective, making it all the more imperative to suggest advanced approaches to old problems that linger on This book thus attempts to highlight some examples of advancements in thought processes, observation, comprehension and appreciation, and better management of coastal resources Environmental Management and Governance: Advances in Coastal and Marine Resources is subdivided into five parts: Part I, Coastal Hazards and Beach Management-Certification Schemes; Part II, Ocean Governance, Fisheries and v vi Preface Aquaculture: Advances in the Production of Marine Resources; Part III, Exploration and Management of Coastal Karst; Part IV, Coastal Marine Environmental Conflicts: Advances in Conflict Resolution; and Part V, Examples of Advances in Environmental Management: Analyses and Applications that collectively contain 17 chapters These subdivision are, of course, artificial and meant only to help organize the material into convenient study groups Chapters in each part are briefly described in what follows Part I contains three chapters that deal with coastal hazards and beach management In Chap (“Geological Recognition of Onshore Tsunamis Deposits”), Costa, Andrade, and Dawson discuss enhancements of our abilities to recognize (paleo) tsunami specific signatures in coastal sediments through the application of diverse sedimentological techniques They show in this chapter how it is possible, through the use of diverse sedimentological proxies, to obtain information about the presence or absence of tsunami indicators, establish their likely source, and collect valuable information about tsunami run-up, backwash or wave penetration inland Botero, Williams, and Cabrera, in Chap (“Advances in Beach Management in Latin America: Overview from Certification Schemes”), analyze beach certification schemes as part of beach management in Latin America These authors highlight advances in beach management in Latin America by pointing out main conceptual, methodological, and practical challenges to be achieved for scientific and decision makers of the continent Chapter (“New Methods to Assess Fecal Contamination in Beach Water Quality”) by Sarva Mangala Praveena, Kwan Soo Chen, and Sharifah Norkhadijah Syed Ismail deals with an emerging paradigm for assessment of recreational water quality impacted by microbial contamination Advances in this topic are important because recreational water is susceptible to fecal contamination, which may increase health risk associated with swimming in polluted water Part II also contains two chapters, but these efforts focus on broader issues of advances in ocean governance that involve new developments in coastal marine management and fisheries and aquaculture production Chapter (“New Approaches in Coastal and Marine Management: Developing Frameworks of Ocean Services in Governance”) by Paramio, Alves, and Vieira delves into aspects of “Modern” and “post-Modern” views of ocean uses as a source of resources and space; for example, how economic development is now supplemented by functions the marine environment provides, such as human life and well-being Ocean governance remains a current focus of discussion for policymakers aiming to address sustainability principles and perspectives in a more effective way Chapter (“Interaction of Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Production of Marine Resources: Advances and Perspectives in Mexico”), by the Pérez-Castañeda team (Roberto Pérez-Casteda, Jesús Genaro Sánchez-Martínez, Gabriel Aguirrte-Guzmán, Jaime Luis Rábago-Castro, and Maria de la Luz Vázquez-Sauceda) indicates advances that are indicative of the potential value of aquaculture as a complementary productive activity that will meet the growing human demand for food from the sea This advanced understanding is critical because, in terms of global fisheries production, the maximum fisheries catch potential from the oceans around the world has apparently been reached Preface vii Part III contains Chap (“Advances in the Exploration and Management of Coastal Karst in the Caribbean”) by Michael J Lace This chapter is important because it explains that significant karst areas remain to be explored while illustrating associated landform vulnerabilities, anthropogenic effects, and range of coastal resource management and preservation initiatives that should be applied These advances highlight unreported field research in selected island settings that support an emerging view of complex karst development Four chapters that deal with advances in coastal resources conflict resolution comprise Part IV Chapter (“Mud Crab Culture as an Adaptive Measure for the Climatically Stressed Coastal Fisher-Folks of Bangladesh”) by Khandaker Anisul Huq, S M Bazlur Rahaman, and A F M Hasanuzzaman is an example of new adaptive measures for ensuring the security of food and livelihood of coastal poor people Highlighted here is on-farm adaptive research on crab fattening/culture as a livelihood option for the fisher folks This chapter shows how to recommend and carry out comprehensive crab culture extension programs for building capacity and improving economic conditions in climatically stressed coastal communities Chapter (“The Guadalquivir Estuary: A Hot Spot for Environmental and Human Conflicts) by the Ruiz team (Javier Ruiz, Mª José Polo, Manuel Díez-Minguito, Gabriel Navarro, Edward P Morris, Emma Huertas, Isabel Caballero, Eva Contreras, and Miguel A Losada) demonstrates how the application of robust and cost-efficient technology to estuarine monitoring can generate the scientific foundations necessary to meet societal and legal demands while providing a suitable tool by which the cost-effectiveness of remedial solutions can quickly be evaluated A holistic approach to understanding the estuarine ecosystem, including its physical and biogeochemical dynamics and how these control biodiversity, is identified as the first step towards making knowledge-based decisions for sustainable use Chapter (“Shrimp Farming as a Coastal Zone Challenge in Sergipe State, Brazil: Balancing Goals of Conservation and Social Justice) by Juliana Schober Gonỗalves Lima and Conner Bailey discusses marine shrimp farming in Brazil from the perspective of both social justice and environmental conservation Conflicts arose here because the rearing of marine shrimp became an important local economic activity that increasingly occupied large areas on the coast Shrimp farming is practiced mainly through extensive family-based production systems in mangrove areas that were subsequently declared Permanent Preservation Areas by Brazilian law As a result, these family shrimp farms are considered illegal, but the farms themselves long predate promulgation of the law and represent an important source of livelihood for hundreds of families Chapter 10 (“Regional Environmental Assessment of Marine Aggregate Dredging Effects: The UK Approach”) by Dafydd Lloyd Jones, Joni Backstrom, and Ian Reach describes the MAREA (Aggregate Regional Environmental Assessment) methodology, and shows how similar regional assessment exercises could contextualize the effects and impacts of multiple marine dredging activities in other parts of the world Each MAREA assesses the cumulative impacts of marine dredging activities using regional-scale hydrodynamic and sediment transport models linked to regional-scale mapping of sensitive receptors viii Preface Part V contains seven chapters that consider various aspects of advances in environmental management based on examples of analyses and applications Chapter 11 (“Advances in Large-Scale Mudflat Surveying: The Roebuck Bay and Eighty Mile Beach, Western Australia) by Robert J Hickey, Grant B Pearson, and Theunis Piersma deals with advances in mudflat surveying using the example of shores along Roebuck Bay and Eighty Mile Beach in northwestern Australia, the richest known intertidal mudflats in the world Chapter 12 (“Sea-Level Indicators”) by Niki Evelpidou and Paolo A Pirazzoli illustrates how the study of relative sealevel changes is an essential element of ocean observation and technological advances that are necessary to improve the determination of levels (elevation or depth), chronological estimations, and the identification of appropriate sea-level indicators Although levels are determined with satellites, oceanographic vessels, geophysical equipments, leveling techniques, tide-gauge devices, or even direct measurement by an observer, chronological estimations may result from radiometric analysis of samples, comparison with stratigraphic sequences, archaeological or historical data, assumptions on erosion or deposition processes, or even from glacio-isostatic or climate modeling Indicators of fossil or present-day sea-level positions are nevertheless the most important elements for a sea-level reconstruction, because they provide information not only on the former level but also on the accuracy of the reconstruction In Chap 13 (“Advancement of Technology for Detecting Shoreline Changes in East Coast of India and Comparison with Prototype Behavior) by R Manivanan, various aspects of intake/ outfall of nuclear power plant on the coast, especially the dispersion of warm water discharges under different environmental conditions, is simulated using mathematical modeling techniques and suitable locations of intake and outfall with the minimum recirculation This chapters discusses advances for optimizing the efficiency of power plants by locating the intake/outfall so there is minimum recirculation of warm water in the intake under the prevailing coastal environmental conditions Chapter 14 (“Coastal Dunes: Changes of Their Perception and Environmental Management”) by Tomasz A Łabuz outlines coastal dune types and conditions for their development, while considering functions and practical use of coastal dunes Of special interest here are advancing and changing attitudes to environmental management of coastal dunes that include various new approaches to use and perception of dunes that result from cultural and societal development Chapter 15 (“Advances in Brine Disposal and Dispersion in the Coastal Ecosystem from Desalination Plants”) by R Manivanan observes brine water plume behavior in the vicinity of coastal areas with different outfall locations This study indicates that higher velocity and larger port diameter enhances dispersion rates and minimizes adverse effects on the marine ecosystem Chapter 16 (“Estuaries Ecosystems Health Status – Profiling the Advancements in Metal Analysis”) by Ahmad Zaharin Aris and Looi Ley Juen demonstrates advanced analytical methods and detection techniques available for metals analyses Environmental forensic approaches and application of various metal pollution indicators, indices, modeling, and statistical analysis are used to assess estuarine ecosystem health status Chapter 17 (“Floating Offshore Wind Farms and Their Preface ix Application in Galicia (NW Spain)”) by Laura Castro-Santos and Vicente Diaz-Casas provides a methodology for calculating the life-cycle costs of developing a floating offshore wind farm This example was developed for a semisubmersible floating offshore wind platform and a general offshore wind turbine of MW The farm will be composed of 21 offshore wind turbines, with a total power of 107 MW While it is understood this volume does not include all advancements in the management and governance of environmental systems, a thorough selection of topics have been addressed From coastal hazards, to ocean services, to aquaculture, this book presents a diverse cross-section of studies that provide innovative environmental stewardship on an international scale However, these studies are only the beginning From these new ideas spring forth new ways of thinking to effectively protect, manage, and govern fragile coastal ecosystems found around the world By delving into original, pioneering methods and practices, as illustrated throughout this volume, true advancements are then achieved Coconut Creek, FL, USA Boca Raton, FL, USA Charles W Finkl Christopher Makowski 17  Floating Offshore Wind Farms and Their Application in Galicia (NW Spain) SOURCE ONSHORE ENERGY OFFSHORE ENERGY Wind Onshore wind Offshore wind Solar Solar Water Height Hydraulic Tidal Tidal energy Currents Onshore currents Offshore currents Geothermal Thermal gradients Waves Heat 457 Wave energy Salt gradients Salinity Fig 17.1  Types of onshore and offshore renewable energies N FLOATING OFFSHORE WIND TURBINES Offshore wind turbine Floating offshore wind platform Mooring Anchoring Electric system onshore SUBSTATION Fig 17.2  Main components of a typical floating offshore wind farm 17.2  Main Components of a Floating Offshore Wind Farm A typical floating offshore wind farm is composed of five main components (Fig.  17.2): offshore wind turbine, floating offshore wind platform, mooring, anchoring and electric system Firstly, there are two types of offshore wind turbines, depending on the position of their axis: vertical and horizontal (Vita et al 2010) However, the most common is the horizontal axis wind turbine Regarding the floating offshore wind platform, there are many types of devices, but the three most important ones are the following (Jonkman et al 2009), Fig. 17.3: semisubmersible, Tensioned Leg Platform (TLP) and spar The semisubmersible platform is composed of three steel columns which helps the structure to keep its stability (ECN et al 2002) The TLP is a platform ballasted and moored by sever-al vertical tendons in tension Each tendon attaches to an horizontal spoke from the bottom of the substructure (Jonkman and Matha 2009) The spar platform is a slender spar buoy with several mooring lines Nowadays, two floating prototypes have already been installed (European Wind Energy Association (EWEA) 2012): the 458 L Castro-Santos and V Diaz-Casas Semisubmersible TLP Spar Fig 17.3  Types of floating offshore wind platforms: semisubmersible, TLP and spar Hywind spar substructure, which has been installed closed to Bergen (Nor-way), and the WindFloat semisubmersible platform, located in Aguỗadoura (Portugal) Referring to the mooring, three types of lines can be used (Tong 1998): chain, cable and synthetic fiber On the other hand, four types of anchors can be used (American Petroleum Institute (API) 1996; Chakrabarti 2005): drag embedment anchor, suction pile, gravity anchor and plate anchor Finally, the electric system is composed of two main components (Kaiser and Snyder 2010): the substation, which can be installed onshore or offshore, and the electric cables, whose main characteristics differs depending on the location of the electric cable: onshore or offshore 17.3  Floating Offshore Wind Energy Costs Nowadays, one of the most important issues is the fact that there are no floating offshore wind farms in operation in the world This is the main reason why its costs are yet unknown However, if the floating offshore wind industry wants to start its development, it will be absolutely essential that entrepreneurs become aware of the main costs of this technology, in order to reduce them in the future In this sense, this chapter will analyse the main costs of a floating offshore wind farm taking into account its life-cycle (Castro-Santos et al 2013a) In this context, six phases can be defined in the life-cycle of a floating offshore wind farm: conception and definition, design and development, manufacturing, installation, exploitation and dismantling Each of them will be associated with a particular cost of the life-cycle as Figs. 17.4 and 17.5 shows In addition, each of these phases are made up of several sub-phases, composing the cost breakdown structure of a floating offshore wind farm For instance, the 17  Floating Offshore Wind Farms and Their Application in Galicia (NW Spain) 459 Total cost Conception & definition cost Design & development cost Manufacturing cost Installation cost Exploitation cost Dismantling cost Fig 17.4  Phases of the life-cycle of a typical floating offshore wind farm: conception and definition, design and development, manufacturing, installation, exploitation and dismantling Conception & definition cost Market study Law factors Design of the farm Design & Manufacturing cost Installation cost Exploitation cost Dismantling cost development Offshore w.turb Offs.w turb Offs.w turb Taxes cost manufacturing installation dismantling Float.platf Float.platforms Float.platfor Engineering Assurance dismantling manufacturing installation project Moor.&anch Mooring Mooring Administration dismantling manufacturing installation Electrical elem Anchoring Anchoring O&M dismantling manufacturing installation Electrical elem Electrical Cleaning manufacturing installation Start up Materials disposel Fig 17.5  Sub-phases of the life-cycle of a typical floating offshore wind farm conception and definition phase will be based on the market study, legal factors, and farm design, while the design and development phase concerns project engineering Otherwise, there are other phases whose components are focused on the five main components of the floating offshore wind farm cited previously (wind turbine, floating platform, mooring, anchoring and electric components) There-fore, the manufacturing, installation, exploitation, and dismantling phases will be disaggregated in order to consider each of these devices Furthermore, the dismantling phase will also include clearing the geographical area where the floating off-shore farm is located and the decommissioning of all the elements that compose the farm The total cost will depend on, among others (Castro-Santos and Diaz-Casas 2013): the number of wind turbines (NWT), the power of each offshore wind turbine (PWT), the mass of the platform (mp) (ECN et al 2002), the diameter of the wind turbine (Dwt), the cost per MW of each wind turbine (CMW), the probability of failure of each component of the floating wind farm (Pfailure), the period (Tw) and height (Hw) of the waves (Cerda Salzmann 2004; Alari and Raudsepp 2012), the shape (kw) and scale (cw) parameter of the wind (Hunt 2009), the depth (D), the distance to shore (d), the distance from the farm to the storage area (dstorage) and the distance from the farm to the platform construction area (dconstruction) (The Crown Estate 2009) In addition, the results of a previous technical study on electric cables, anchoring, and mooring dimensioning will support this cost estimation of a floating offshore wind farm It will help to determine the failure probability of the mooring and anchoring systems, the weight of mooring and anchoring, and the length and section of the electrical cables (Castro-Santos et al 2013b) (Fig. 17.6) 460 L Castro-Santos and V Diaz-Casas Conception & definition cost NWT PWT Manufacturing cost Installation cost Exploitation cost Dismantling cost Design & development NWT NWT NWT Pfailure cost NWT PWT PWT CMW mp Hw Tw kw cw D Dwt d dstorage dconstruction dstorage dstorage dconstruction Fig 17.6  Main dependences referring to the life-cycle costs of a floating offshore wind farm In this context, the total Life-cycle Cost System (LCS) of a Floating Offshore Wind Farm (FOWF) will be formulated taking into account a geo-referenced map for each k point of the geography Equation 17.1 shows that the conception and definition cost (Cc&d) and the design of development cost (Cd&d) are independent of the geography considered, as results will show for the particular case of Galicia However, the other costs will depend on the location point considered (k): manufacturing cost (Cm(k)), installation cost (Ci(k)), exploitation cost (Ce(k)) and dismantling cost (Cd(k)) Obviously, they will directly be dependent on the distance to shore, regarding the fleet transport of the specialized vessels needed for installing, exploiting and dismantling the floating offshore wind farm, and the wind and wave resources LCS FOWF ( k ) = C c & d + C d & d + C m ( k ) + C i ( k ) + C e ( k ) + C d ( k ) (17.1) All these costs are calculated for each point of the geography, obtaining a geo-­ referenced map of the total cost of developing a floating offshore wind farm This method was carried out using MatlabTM software, which introduces the input variable matrices, the values of which depend on the study region’s settings (wave period, height of waves, shape and scale wind parameters, depth, distance to shore, distance from farm to the storage area and distance from farm to the platform construction area) and transforms them into vectors (Fig. 17.7) Consequently, the soft-­ ware calculates the cost of each phase of the wind farm’s life-cycle for each of the points involved Thus, the total cost of the life-cycle of a floating offshore wind farm can be calculated for the selected floating platform 17.4  Case of Study: Galicia (NW Spain) The area selected to develop a floating offshore wind farm should be located in deep waters, where the floating offshore wind platforms can be installed In this sense, the region chosen has been Galicia, located in the North-West of Spain, and whose 17  Floating Offshore Wind Farms and Their Application in Galicia (NW Spain) Regional variables (matrix): wind parameters, wave parameters, depth, distances Regional variables (vector): wind parameters, wave parameters, depth, distances Phases Cost (matrix) 461 Total Cost (matrix) Fig 17.7  The main components of the method proposed are: regional variables and phases cost matrix They will calculate the total cost matrix for each point of a particular geography Fig 17.8  Location of Galicia in the North-West of the Iberian Peninsula (Google 2013) offshore bathymetric characteristics are appropriate In addition, this area has a great offshore wind resource whose exploitation can generate a great deal of electricity; a developed naval sector, which can build the floating offshore wind platforms; and several ports with appropriate characteristics for the specific installation and maintenance vessels (Fig. 17.8) On the other hand, the selection of one of the three most common floating wind platforms previously defined will be considered The present paper has taken into account a semisubmersible platform, because its installation process is wellknown since the Portuguese WindFloat experience occurred in 2011 (Roddier and Cermelli 2009) The method has been developed for a floating offshore wind farm composed of 21 offshore wind turbines (Repower 5 M) of 5 MW of power, it has a diameter of 126 m and 90 m of hub height Therefore, the total power of the floating offshore wind farm is 107 MW. Otherwise, there will be 21 floating offshore semisubmersible platforms with three columns of 8 m of diameter, six mooring lines, 76 m of 462 L Castro-Santos and V Diaz-Casas Fig 17.9  General schema of a floating offshore wind farm composed of 21 wind turbines length and 12 m of draft, following the Dutch Tri-Floater device (ECN et al 2002) In addition, the substation will have a relation 20 kV/220 kV. The general schema of the planned floating offshore wind farm is shown in Fig. 17.9 17.5  Results The costs of the phases of conception and definition and the design and development are independent of the geographic point considered, their values being 6.79 M€ and 0.24 M€ respectively However, the costs associated to the other phases of the 17  Floating Offshore Wind Farms and Their Application in Galicia (NW Spain) 463 Fig 17.10  Total life-cycle costs of a floating offshore wind farm depending on the location and for the particular case of the Galician region (NW of Spain) life-cycle of a floating offshore wind farm: manufacturing, installation, exploitation and dismantling, depend on the depth of the location and the distance to the shore This is the main reason why there is a particular map for the cost of each phase In this sense, the cost of manufacturing all the components of a floating offshore wind farm (offshore wind turbine, floating offshore wind plat-form, mooring, anchoring and electric system) ranges from 215 to 405 M€ de-pending on the distance to the Galician shore In addition, the installation cost ranges from 19 to 392 M€, exploitation cost ranges from 108 to 114 M€ and dismantling cost varies from 0.0058 to 30.87 M€ The value of exploitation is basically composed of the costs of operation and maintenance, and as expected for an earlier stage, it does not change considerably with the number of trips made by maintenance vessels Furthermore, the total life-cycle cost, which includes the sum of the cost of each phase, ranges from 366 to 946 M€ Figure shows how the cost of installation increases in a different way from that of the manufacturing: the deeper the sea, the more expensive the installation (Fig. 17.10) 17.6  Conclusions This chapter has explained the main components of the offshore wind energy sector In addition, the differences between fixed and floating offshore wind farm have been established in terms of depth and platforms 464 L Castro-Santos and V Diaz-Casas On the other hand, this study has proposed a method to calculate the cost of a floating offshore wind farm, which is one of the most important issues for investors Therefore, these costs have been calculated for each point of the geography, which helps to develop economic maps for a particular geographical region Furthermore, this methodology has been developed for the particular area of Galicia (North-West of Spain), where depth and offshore wind resource offer the best conditions to install a floating offshore wind farm References Alari V, Raudsepp U (2012) Simulation of wave damping near coast due to offshore wind farms J Coast Res 28(1):143–148 doi:10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-10-00054.1 American Petroleum Institute (API) (1996) API recommended practice 2SK. Recommended practice for design and analysis of stationkeeping systems for floating structures Castro-Santos L, Diaz-Casas V (2013) Cost comparison of three floating offshore wind platforms J Coast Res, pp 1–14 Castro-Santos L, Prado G, Costa P et al (2013a) Methodology to design an economic and strategic offshore wind energy roadmap in Portugal In: SINTEF (ed) 10th deep sea wind R&D conference Trondheim, Norway, pp 168–176 Castro-Santos L, Prado G, Costa P (2013b) Methodology to study the life cycle cost of floating offshore wind farms In: 10th deep sea wind R&D conference Trondheim, Norway, pp 179–186 Cerda Salzmann DJ (2004) Ampelmann, development of the access system for offshore wind turbines TU Delft University ISBN: 9789088911941 Chakrabarti SK (2005) Handbook of offshore engineering Elsevier Ocean Engineering ISBN: 978-0080443812 ECN, MARIN, Lagerwey the Windmaster et al (2002) Study to feasibility of boundary conditions for floating offshore wind turbines European Wind Energy Association (EWEA) (2012) The European offshore wind industry key 2011 trends and statistics Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) (2012) Global wind statistics 2010 Google (2013) Google maps Retrieved 11 Jun 2013, from https://maps.google.com Hunt GL (2009) Maine offshore wind energy Wind resources, technologies and energy production Maine Instituto Enerxético de Galicia (INEGA) (2010) Balance enerxético de Galicia 2010 Instituto para la Diversificación y el Ahorro de la Energía (IDAE) (2012) Web Atlas lico de Espa Ministerio de Industria Turismo y Comercio Retrieved 10 Dec 2012, from http:// atlaseolico.idae.es/ Jonkman J, Matha D (2009) A quantitative comparison of the responses of three floating platforms In: European offshore wind 2009 conference and exhibition Stockholm, pp 1–21 Jonkman J, Butterfield S, Musial W et al (2009) Definition of a 5-MW reference wind turbine for offshore system development Kaiser MJ, Snyder B (2010) Offshore wind energy installation and decommissioning cost estimation in the U. S outer continental shelf Louisiana Maciel JG (2010) The WindFloat Project Ministerio de Industria Turismo y Comercio (2009) Resumen del Plan de Energías Renovables Official Journal of the European Union (2009) Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC 17  Floating Offshore Wind Farms and Their Application in Galicia (NW Spain) 465 Roddier D, Cermelli C (2009) Windfloat: a floating foundation for offshore wind turbines Part I: design basis and qualification process In: ASME 28th international conference on ocean, offshore and arctic engineering (OMAE2009) Honolulu, pp 1–9 The Crown Estate (2009) A guide to an offshore wind farm Tong KC (1998) Technical and economic aspects of a floating offshore wind farm J Wind Eng Ind Aerodyn 76:1–12 Vita L, Paulsen US, Pedersen TF (2010) A novel floating offshore wind turbine concept New developments, pp 1–10 Index A Abrasion platforms, 292 Aeolian, 11, 15, 22, 324, 325, 327–329, 332, 340, 342, 345, 350–351, 367, 385 Agricultural storage, 166 Algae, 125, 181, 293, 294, 296, 433 Alluvial plains, Analytical methods, 437 Anthropogenic, 5, 9, 11, 19, 38, 149, 150, 166, 202, 223, 227, 238, 370, 436, 448 Anthropogenic activities, 430 Aquaculture, 50, 99, 111–136, 176, 177, 183, 189, 201, 234, 236, 239, 240, 245, 248, 255, 430 Aquatic organisms, 113–115, 136, 430, 431, 433, 434, 445 Arawak, 167 Arches, 162 Atomic fluorescence spectrometry (AFS), 437, 439, 444 Australia, 7, 42, 275–288, 325, 328, 329, 331–333, 336, 345, 356, 359, 360, 363, 364, 366, 369, 372, 376, 381, 388–390, 395, 396, 436 B Bacteria, 66, 67, 69–75, 77, 78, 126, 134, 433 Bangladesh, 175–198, 279 BCS See Beach Certification Schemes (BCS) Beach Certification Schemes (BCS), 39, 41, 44–50, 52, 53, 55–59, 61 Beaches, 11, 15, 34–42, 44–57, 59–61, 66–68, 77, 78, 162, 331, 334–337, 346, 348–350, 363, 365–367, 370, 372, 383, 393 Beach management (BM), 33–61, 381 Beach replenishment, 254 Beachrock lithification, 303 Beachrocks, 8, 292, 298, 300, 303–305 Beach water quality, 65–78 Benthos, 276, 277, 280, 281 Better management models, 85 Bioaccessibility tests, 443 Bioaccumulation, 430, 431, 433, 434, 445 Bioaccumulation factor (BAF), 434 Bioconcentration, 434 Bioconcentration factor (BCF), 434 Biodiversity, 53, 54, 87, 96, 97, 99, 103–105, 143, 151, 159, 161, 163, 169, 197, 200, 202, 222–226, 228, 236–238, 249, 278, 288, 336–337, 355, 356, 377, 380, 385, 388, 389, 391–393, 430 Biodiversity loss, 104 Bioerosion, 6, 293, 294, 296, 303 Bioerosional agent, 293 Biomagnification, 434–435 Biomagnification factor (BMF), 434–435 Biomarker, 301, 303, 431, 433–437 Biomimetic devices, 443 Biomonitoring, 433, 435 Biostratigraphy, 300, 301 Bioturbation, C.W Finkl and C Makowski (eds.), Environmental Management and Governance: Advances in Coastal and Marine Resources, Coastal Research Library 8, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-06305-8, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 467 468 Black Sea, 112, 330 Blue economy, 86, 98–100, 102 Blue Flag, 34, 39, 40, 42, 44, 47–49, 55–58 Blue Flag award, 56 Blue growth, 100–102 Brackish water, 235, 412, 413, 433 Breakwater, 36, 302, 303, 315, 319, 378 Brine dispersion, 411–426 C Carbonates, 8, 10, 11, 19, 20, 143, 148, 154, 155, 157, 159, 160, 162, 163, 166, 217, 224, 225, 293, 296, 298, 303, 351 Carib, 167 Caribbean, 8, 34, 38, 47, 53, 113, 117–119, 127, 143–169 Catastrophic inundation events, Certified reference materials (CRM), 208, 437 Chemical analysis, 431, 435, 444 Chemical extractability tools, 443 Cliff retreat, 155, 159 Cliffs, 6–8, 147, 155, 159, 162, 163, 293, 294, 304, 331, 333, 338 Climate change, 99, 101, 105, 112, 176, 324, 376, 385 modeling, 160, 292 stressed, 175–198 Climatic change, 36, 300, 412 Cluster analysis (CA), 207, 208, 445–447 Coastal and Marine Spatial Planning, 88 Coastal areas, 6, 14, 35, 36, 39, 54, 86, 88, 112, 149, 163, 164, 168, 176, 177, 181, 276, 300, 301, 305, 314, 321, 326, 333–335, 337, 341, 342, 344, 346, 350, 354, 358, 363, 370, 386, 390, 391, 414, 415, 425, 430 Coastal community, 149, 177, 198 Coastal defence, 34, 258, 259 Coastal engineering, 36, 37, 59, 292, 306 Coastal geomorphology, 146, 147, 169 Coastal Impact Studies (CIS), 269, 270 Coastal karst, 143–169 Coastal lagoons, 5, 117, 126, 135, 329 Coastal processes, 34, 36, 156, 269, 341, 342, 366, 368, 371 Coastal resource management strategies, 149–154 Coastal speleogenesis, 143, 159, 160 Coastal springs, 296 Coastal systems, 37, 59, 60, 361, 379, 396, 430, 445–447 Coastal zone, 4, 6, 9, 14, 15, 44, 45, 50, 53, 88, 94, 144, 149, 151, 162, Index 163, 169, 202, 203, 218, 227, 233–249, 271, 303, 313, 321, 342, 363, 368, 381, 412 Coastlines, 6, 9, 21, 40, 66, 113, 132, 143, 146, 149, 154, 162, 165, 234, 254, 256, 258, 262, 269, 270, 278, 293, 300, 301, 313–317, 319, 321, 328, 330, 331, 339, 367, 368, 377, 381 Community-based approach, 151 Complex system approach, 87 Conceptual modeling, 38 Conference of the United Nations on Environment and Development (CNUMAD), 35 Contaminants, 66, 77, 430, 433–436, 444, 445, 448 Contamination degree (Cd), 436 Contamination factor (Cf), 436 Coral, 8, 22, 37, 299, 335 Corallines, 301 Costa Rica scheme, 39, 47, 48 Crab fattening, 176, 177, 179–181, 190–196 Crustaceans, 114, 115, 125, 234, 284, 433 Cumulative effects, 259 Cuspate ridges, Cycles, 59, 159, 192, 194, 224, 239, 417 Cyclone, 176 Cyclonic wave conditions, 203 D Deep embayments, 162 Desalination plants, 411–426 Detection techniques, 69, 443, 444 Dilution, 11, 19, 71, 133, 413, 415, 419, 423–426, 434, 445 Discriminant analysis (DA), 445–447 Dissolved oxygen (DO), 69, 72–75, 78, 125, 184, 204–209, 215, 219, 223 Dune remobilisation, 21 Dutch Tri-Floater device, 462 E Ecological Blue Flag (EBF), 47–49, 57 The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB), 104, 105 Ecosystem degradation, 104 health status, 431, 433, 436 Ecosystem based management (EBM), 88, 92–95, 99, 226 Ecotourism, 54, 151, 152, 248 Ecotoxicology, 433 Effluent discharge, 246, 248, 419, 426 Index 469 Embayments, 5, 146, 147, 162, 167, 278 English Channel, 254, 255 Enrichment factor (EF), 436 Environmental forensic, 435, 447 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), 254, 255, 268–271 Environmentalism, 169 Erosion, 4, 5, 11, 12, 14, 19, 21, 22, 36–38, 227, 254, 258, 292–294, 296, 315, 319, 325, 328, 329, 335, 336, 338, 339, 345, 355, 357, 358, 363, 366–369, 373, 376–378, 382, 386, 388, 392, 394, 396 Erosional/depositional balance, 12 Escherichia coli (E coli), 66, 67, 69–72, 74, 75, 77, 78 Estuaries, 5, 126, 147, 149, 176, 179, 181, 203, 210, 211, 215, 220–222, 224–227, 245, 279, 304, 324, 325, 330, 429–448 Europe, 38, 41, 42, 56, 88, 101, 102, 176, 201, 225, 328, 330, 332, 336, 341, 355, 356, 358, 359, 363, 376, 384–388, 390–392, 396 European Union (EU), 40, 100–102, 177, 202, 378, 456 Eutrophication, 135, 243, 426 G Galician shore, 463 Gas chromatography (GC), 443, 444 Genomic, 435 Geo-accumulation index, 436 Geoarcheology, 161, 167–168 Geochemical, 11, 12, 19–20, 22, 447 Geographic Information System (GIS), 169, 264, 267, 282, 286, 324, 340–342, 344, 345, 349, 353 Geomorphological factors, 38 Geotourism, 151 Glacio-isostatic modeling, 292 Global governance, 90, 98, 105 Global Positioning System (GPS), 209, 282, 284, 339, 340, 344–348, 353 Good Beach Guide, 34, 40, 42 GPS See Global Positioning System (GPS) Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (GFAAS), 437, 438, 441 Gravel, 7–8, 253, 254, 293, 331 Gravel-ridge complexes, Green economy, 98–105 Grenada, 162–169 Groundwater quality, 145 F Fecal contamination, 65–78 Finite difference model (FDM), 417 Finite element model (FEM), 414, 417 Fish, 112–115, 129–136, 177, 185, 187, 190, 191, 223, 224, 228, 234, 237, 241, 242, 244, 246, 248, 257–259, 263, 302–304, 307, 355, 360, 433, 441 Fisheries, 86–88, 97, 99, 102, 103, 111–136, 177, 178, 189, 191, 196, 198, 228, 236, 244, 255, 257, 259, 263, 305, 412 Fissures, 148 Flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS), 437 Flank margin caves, 148, 155, 157, 159, 166 Flood and tidal surge, 176 Flooding, 4, 21, 149, 254, 300, 305, 306, 308, 309, 367–369, 378, 379 Fluvial caves, 148 Food chain, 430, 434, 445 Fractal analysis, 156–160 geometry, 156 Freshwater systems, 200 Function approximation, 417 H Hard solutions, 36 High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), 443, 444 Holocene, 7, 10, 218, 297, 298, 352 Humber estuary, 254 Hurricanes, 8, 149, 330, 335, 343, 346, 367, 378, 379 Hydrodynamics, 14, 19, 202–204, 207, 209, 211, 216, 258, 259, 262, 263, 270, 307, 413–417, 420, 423 Hydrogeology, 149, 155 Hywind spar substructure, 458 I ICP-AES See Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES) Indicators index, 436 Indo-Pacific, 278 Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES), 437, 438, 440, 444 470 Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), 437, 443, 444 Infralittoral zones, 301 Integrate Coastal Areas Management (ICAM), 88 Integrate Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), 88, 94 Integrated coastal management (ICM), 33, 37, 50, 99, 101 Integrated management, 35–38, 59, 60, 226 Integrate Maritime Policy (IMP), 100, 101 Intertidal mudflats, 276, 288 Intertidal zone, 6, 112, 202, 294, 298, 303, 320 Island, 5, 7, 8, 21, 22, 47, 102, 129, 144–147, 151, 154, 155, 158–160, 162–164, 166–169, 293–295, 297, 298, 302, 304, 325, 330, 331, 333, 341, 358, 361, 363, 366, 368, 369, 383, 384, 393, 394 Italian Ministry of the Universities and Research (MURST), 306 Italy, 42, 44, 292, 303–309, 329, 331, 335, 338, 361, 368, 378, 391, 394, 395 J Jetties, 36, 363, 378 L Landform, 21, 144, 147, 149, 150, 159, 160, 162, 163, 169 Latin America, 33–61, 235 Law of the Sea (4COS), 94 Life-cycle phases, 455 Limestone coastlines, 301 Limit of detection (LOD), 437, 438, 440, 442 Limit of quantification (LOQ), 437, 438, 440, 442 Lithologies, 147, 155, 158, 162, 294, 300 Lithostratigraphy, 300, 301 Littoral cave development, 143 Littoral processes, 155 Littoral sink, 164, 165 LOD See Limit of detection (LOD) LOQ See Limit of quantification (LOQ) M Macrofauna, 224, 370 Macrophytes, 433 Malaysia, 17, 66–68, 71, 77, 78, 176, 177 Mangrove, 17, 18, 126, 176, 177, 234–236, 238, 240–243, 245–248 Index Man-made caves, 148 Marine Aggregate Regional Environmental Assessment (MAREA), 255–271 Marine Conservation Society (MCS), 40 Marine dredging, 254, 255, 257–259, 261 Marine ecosystem based management, 88 Marine environments, 5, 59, 86, 87, 89, 94, 101, 102, 115, 176, 226, 254, 271, 430, 436, 446 Marine Management Organisation (MMO), 254, 255 Marine/Maritime Spatial Planning (MSP), 94, 101, 103 Marine notches, 292, 293 Marine protected areas (MPAs), 88, 94, 98, 151, 160, 163, 237, 254 Marine resources management, 88 Marine terraces, 292, 300, 304, 306 Maritime activities, 87, 97, 99, 103 Mean sea level (MSL), 294, 303, 326, 378 Megaclasts, Meiofauna, 288 Membrane filtration, 69 Mercury accumulation, 133 Metabolomics, 435 Metals, 19, 430, 431, 433–438, 443–445, 447, 448 concentration, 434 pollution, 67, 430, 431, 435, 436, 446–448 Microbial pathogens, 66 Micropalaeontological analysis, 22 Microtextural analysis, 22 Microwave induced plasma optical emission spectrometer (MIP-OES), 444 Mid-littoral zones, 294, 301 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), 96 Modelling, 3, 4, 202, 259–262, 264, 269, 270, 314, 320, 321 Mollusks, 114, 115, 125, 180, 182, 185, 187, 433 MoSE Project (Experimental Electromechanical Module), 306, 307, 309 Mud crab, 175–198 Multibeam bathymetry, 258 N Nearshore circulation, 426 Nuclear Desalination Demonstration Project (NDDP), 413 Numerical modelling, 4, 259 Index O Ocean acidification, 98 planning, 88 services, 85–105 zoning, 88 Oceanography, 36, 208 Offshore, 5, 10, 11, 17, 86, 117, 145–147, 151, 162, 163, 234, 254, 259, 267, 271, 315, 316, 361, 363, 422, 425, 455–464 Overwash fans, 11, 22 Oxidation reduction potential (ORP), 69, 72–75, 78 P Palaeotsunamis, 9, 13, 22 Paleoseismic history, 295 Pattern recognition, Pelagics, 112, 114, 115, 134, 136, 223 pH, 69, 72–75, 77, 78, 125, 183, 184, 206–208, 353, 393 Physicochemical parameter, 67, 70, 72–75 Plankton, 433 Plasma emission detection (PED), 444 Pleistocene, 146–148, 162, 164, 166 Pollution, 40, 53, 66, 67, 71, 135, 357, 370, 371, 375, 412, 424–426, 430, 431, 433, 435–437, 445–448 Pollution impacts, 431 Pollution load index (PLI), 436 Portuguese WindFloat, 461 Potholes, 292 Pre-contact cultural site, 166 Principal component analysis (PCA), 445–447 Proteomics, 435 Protozoa, 433 Proxy, 16, 17, 19, 155, 158, 258 Pseudokarst, 148, 155, 158, 159, 163–165, 169 Pseudokarst cave, 148, 158, 159 Puerto Rico, 8, 55–57, 154–162 Q Quality Coast award, 40, 43 R Radiocarbon dating, 301, 303 RAG See Regulatory Advisory Group (RAG) Recurrence intervals, Regional environmental assessment, 253–271 471 Regulatory Advisory Group (RAG), 255, 257, 262, 263, 265, 266, 270 Renewable Energy Plan, 456 Republic of Haiti, 144–154 Ridge-and-swale topography, Rocky headlands, 162 S Salinity, 69, 72–74, 122, 125, 126, 176, 179, 181, 183–185, 189, 211, 212, 214–216, 219, 220, 224, 259, 354, 412, 414, 415, 419–426 Salinity intrusion, 176 Sand, 6, 34, 164, 253, 278, 293, 315, 325, 341 Sea caves, 147, 148, 155, 157, 159, 164, 166, 167 Seagrass, 37, 38 Sea-level, 5–7, 99, 147, 155, 158, 166, 176, 200, 292, 324, 326, 334, 335, 350, 353, 367, 371, 376, 378, 379, 396 Sea-level indicators, 291–309 Sea stacks, 162 Seawater, 72, 75–87, 126, 285, 296, 414, 419, 421, 422, 431 Sediment flux, 21, 258, 262 Sedimentology, 14, 202, 351–352 Sediment transport models, 262, 270, 317 Self-purification, 424 Semisubmersible platform, 457, 458, 461 Sensitivity, 224, 265, 266, 270, 271, 419, 437, 443, 444 Shorebirds, 276–280, 283, 288 Shore-parallel ridges, Sidescan sonar, 258 Soft solutions, 37 Solid phase microextraction (SPME), 443 Spar platform, 457 Speleothem formations, 300 Standard reference materials (SRM), 437 Statistical, 70, 341, 445–447 Statistical methods, 445 Storm deposits, 5–7, 12, 20 Storms, 3–7, 20, 209, 307, 335, 343, 368 Stratigraphic sequences, 292 Stratigraphy, 3, 14, 20, 351 Sub-bottom seismic, 258 Sundarbans, 176 Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), 443 Supralittoral zones, 301 Sustainability, 36, 39, 54, 85–87, 89, 90, 92–94, 96, 100–105, 114, 226, 244, 412, 447 472 Index T Tafoni, 148, 293, 294 Talus caves, 148, 155, 159 Tectonic regimes, 147 Tectonic uplift, 155, 158, 300 TEEB See The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) Temperature, 34, 35, 68, 69, 72, 73, 75, 78, 125, 130, 180, 181, 183, 184, 204–209, 259, 282, 284, 422, 425, 444 Tensioned Leg Platform (TLP), 457, 458 Thames Estuary, 254, 255, 259 Tidal fluctuation, 176 TLP See Tensioned Leg Platform (TLP) Tolerance categories, 265 Total coliforms, 39, 66, 67, 69–72, 74, 75, 77, 78 Toxicity, 125, 225, 431, 435, 436, 443, 445 Trend analysis, 155 Tsunami deposits, 3–22 Tsunamigenic sediment transport, Tsunamis, 3–22, 149, 371, 378, 379 Tufa caves, 148 Tuna, 114, 116, 127–136 Turbidites, Turbid water, United Nations Convention of Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 94, 98, 100 Upwelling, 425 U UK Continental Shelf (UKCS), 254 Z Zoomorphic, 167 V Vegetated slopes, 162 Vegetation succession, 300, 335 Vertical biological zonation, 304 Volcanics, 162–164, 166, 167, 335, 361 Vulnerabilities, 149–151, 224, 353 W Water quality, 39–41, 48, 50, 52, 53, 56, 65–78, 113, 122–125, 149, 179, 183–185, 196, 200–205, 207–210, 227, 228, 239–241, 248, 259, 431 sampling, 69, 78, 204 Wave-cut benches, 162 Wealth Accounting and the Valuation of Ecosystem Services (WAVES) project, 104 Wind farm, 455–464 WindFloat semisubmersible platform, 458 Wind turbines (Dwt), 456, 457, 459, 461–463