Engineering Tools for Environmental Risk Management – Tai Lieu Chat Luong Engineering Tools for Environmental Risk Management – Environmental Toxicology Editors Katalin Gruiz Department of Applied Biotechnology and Food Science, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary Tamás Meggyes Berlin, Germany Éva Fenyvesi Cyclolab, Budapest, Hungary CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India Printed in India by Replika Press Pvt Ltd, Sonepat, Haryana All rights reserved No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior permission from the publisher Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the author for any damage to the property or persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein British Library Cataloging in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Environmental toxicology (CRC Press) Environmental toxicology / editors Katalin Gruiz, Department of Applied Biotechnology and Food Science, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary,Tamás Meggyes, Berlin, Germany, Éva Fenyvesi, Cyclolab, Budapest, Hungary pages cm – (Engineering tools for environmental risk management ; 2) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-138-00155-8 (hardback : alk paper) – ISBN 978-1-315-77877-8 (ebook) Environmental toxicology Pollutants–Toxicity testing I Gruiz, Katalin II Meggyes,T (Tamás) III Fenyvesi, Éva IV Title RA1226.E56855 2015 615.9’02–dc23 2014048002 Published by: CRC Press/Balkema P.O Box 11320, 2301 EH Leiden,The Netherlands e-mail: Pub.NL@taylorandfrancis.com www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.com ISBN: 978-1-138-00155-8 (Hardback) ISBN: 978-1-315-77877-8 (eBook PDF) Table of contents Preface List of abbreviations About the editors Environmental toxicology – A general overview xvii xix xxix K GRUIZ Introduction, basic definitions 1.1 Toxicology and its role 1.2 Regulatory toxicology for chemical substances and contaminated land 1.3 Future of environmental toxicology 1.3.1 Molecular technologies 1.3.2 Cell-based technologies 1.3.3 Computational toxicology 1.4 What environment means in the context of toxicology 1.5 Environmental toxicology versus human toxicology 1.6 Animal studies 1.7 In vitro contra in vivo: alternative test methods 1.8 Evidence-based toxicology Adverse effects to be measured by environmental toxicology 2.1 Hazardous effects of chemical substances 2.2 Toxic effects of chemical substances 2.3 Carcinogenic effects 2.4 Mutagenic effects 2.5 Reprotoxicity 2.6 Persistent and very persistent substances 2.7 Bioaccumulative and very bioaccumulative substances 2.8 Emerging pollutants Interaction of a chemical substance with living organisms 3.1 Dose–response relationship 3.2 Test end points: the results of the environmental toxicity test 3.3 Classification of environmental toxicological tests 3.3.1 Test type according to the aim of the test 3.3.2 Test organisms 12 13 15 15 16 17 18 20 23 23 24 25 31 32 32 33 33 34 36 39 42 44 44 45 vi Table of contents 3.3.3 Test design 3.3.4 Most commonly measured end points 3.3.5 Environmental compartments and phases to test 3.3.6 Aims of environmental toxicity tests 3.4 Environmental toxicology in relation to hazard and risk assessment 3.4.1 Testing hazard or risk? 3.4.2 Standardized or customized test methods? 3.4.3 Testing or modeling? – QSAR and environmental toxicology 3.5 Statistical evaluation of ecotoxicological tests 3.5.1 Evaluation of acute toxicity tests 3.5.2 Data analysis for chronic toxicity tests 3.5.3 Data analysis of multispecies toxicity tests 3.6 Standardization and international acceptance of newly developed toxicity tests Fate and behavior of chemical substances in the environment 48 49 50 51 51 51 53 55 60 60 62 62 63 71 K GRUIZ, M MOLNÁR, ZS M NAGY & CS HAJDU Introduction Interaction of the contaminants with environmental phases 2.1 Transport and partitioning 2.1.1 Partitioning between air and water 2.1.2 Partitioning between solid and water 2.1.3 Transport models 2.2 Chemical interactions between chemical substances and the environment 2.2.1 Photolysis 2.2.2 Hydrolysis 2.2.3 Chemical oxidation and reduction Interactions of chemical substances – with the biota 3.1 Biodegradation and biotransformation 3.1.1 Classification of environmental fate of chemicals for regulatory purposes 3.1.2 Biodegradation – definitions 3.1.3 Biodegradation – the process 3.1.4 QSAR for biodegradation 3.1.5 Aims of testing biodegradation 3.1.6 Measurement end points for characterizing biodegradation 3.1.7 Standardized biodegradability test methods for chemical substances 3.1.8 Measuring biodegradation in soil 3.1.9 Soil respiration, biodegradative activity of the soil – problem-specific applications 71 74 75 75 76 77 81 81 82 83 84 84 84 86 87 88 90 91 93 94 95 Table of contents 3.2 Bioaccumulation 3.2.1 Definitions 3.2.2 Bioaccumulative potential of chemicals 3.2.3 QSAR for bioaccumulation 3.2.4 Testing bioaccumulation 3.2.5 Standardized tests for measuring bioaccumulation 3.2.6 Field determination of bioaccumulation 3.3 Bioleaching Availability of contaminants for environmental actors Utilizing fate properties of chemicals to reduce their risk in the environment 5.1 Environmental transport and fate processes change contaminant risk Human toxicology vii 102 102 104 106 107 109 112 113 114 117 117 125 K GRUIZ Introduction 1.1 Adverse effects of chemicals on humans 1.2 Testing the adverse effects of chemicals on humans Test organisms for human toxicology purposes 2.1 Microorganisms used in human toxicity testing 2.2 Isolated cells, tissue cultures in human toxicology 2.3 Lower animals in human toxicology 2.4 Birds 2.5 Mammals 2.6 3R in animal testing Toxicity end points and methods 3.1 Acute toxicity 3.1.1 Animal tests for acute systemic toxicity 3.1.2 Non-animal, in vitro tests for acute systemic toxicity 3.2 Repeated-dose and organ toxicity testing 3.2.1 Animal test methods for repeated-dose and organ toxicity 3.2.2 Alternative methods for repeated-dose and organ toxicity testing 3.3 Genotoxicity 3.3.1 In vivo animal tests for assessing potential heritable genotoxicity 3.3.2 OECD test guidelines for in vitro genotoxicity and mutagenicity testing 3.3.3 New in vivo genotoxicity tests 3.3.4 QSAR for genotoxicity and genotoxic carcinogenicity 3.4 Chronic toxicity 3.4.1 Chronic toxicity testing methods on animals 3.5 Carcinogenicity 3.5.1 Animal methods for carcinogenicity testing 3.5.2 Non-animal testing of carcinogenicity 125 127 130 132 132 132 133 133 134 135 136 136 137 137 138 139 140 141 141 142 142 145 145 146 146 147 147 viii Table of contents 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 Reproductive and developmental toxicity 3.6.1 Animal tests for reproductive and developmental toxicity 3.6.2 In vitro methods for reproductive and developmental toxicity Dermal penetration 3.7.1 Animal testing of dermal penetration 3.7.2 In vitro testing of dermal penetration Skin irritation and corrosion 3.8.1 Animal testing of skin irritation and corrosion 3.8.2 Alternative, non-animal test methods for skin irritation and corrosion Skin sensitization 3.9.1 Skin sensitization: animal tests for regulatory requirements 3.9.2 Non-animal alternative methods Eye irritation and corrosion 3.10.1 Animal testing of eye irritation and corrosion on rabbits 3.10.2 Non-animal alternative methods for evaluating eye irritation and corrosion Toxicokinetics, pharmacokinetics and metabolism 3.11.1 Testing of toxicokinetics, pharmacokinetics and metabolism on animals 3.11.2 In vitro dermal testing Neurotoxicity 3.12.1 Animal testing of neurotoxicity 3.12.2 In vitro models for neurotoxicology studies and testing Endocrine toxicity and disruption 3.13.1 Animal tests for screening endocrine disruption 3.13.2 Validated non-animal alternatives for endocrine disruptor activity 3.13.3 The US EPA endocrine disruptor screening program Phototoxicity Aquatic toxicology 148 149 149 151 151 151 152 152 152 154 154 154 155 155 156 156 158 159 159 160 160 161 161 161 162 164 171 K GRUIZ & M MOLNÁR Introduction to aquatic toxicology Human and ecosystem exposure to aquatic hazards Some commonly used aquatic test organisms for testing adverse effects 3.1 Microorganisms: bacteria, algae and protozoa 3.2 Fresh-water macroplants 3.3 Fresh-water invertebrates 3.4 Aquatic vertebrates 3.5 Sediment-dwelling organisms 171 174 180 180 184 185 190 192 Table of contents ix Measuring adverse effects of chemical substances on the aquatic ecosystem Some commonly used aquatic test methods 5.1 OECD guidelines for testing chemicals in aquatic environment: water, sediment, wastewater 5.2 Water-testing methods standardized by the International Organization for Standardization 5.2.1 Standardized bacterial tests for toxicity testing of water and waste-water 5.2.2 Standardized algal and plant tests for waters 5.2.3 Invertebrates using standard methods for testing water 5.2.4 Standardized fish tests for water and waste-water 5.2.5 Ecological assessment of surface waters Non-animal testing of aquatic toxicity Testing sediment Sewage and sewage sludge tests Testing waste using an ‘Ecotox’ test battery 10 Non-standardized bioassays and other innovative test methods 11 Multispecies and microcosm test methods for aquatic toxicity 12 Description of Tetrahymena pyriformis bioassay 12.1 Experimental 12.2 Evaluation and interpretation of the results 199 199 201 201 201 203 203 208 209 212 217 220 221 222 Terrestrial toxicology 229 194 196 196 198 K GRUIZ, M MOLNÁR, V FEIGL, CS HAJDU, ZS M NAGY, O KLEBERCZ, I FEKETE-KERTÉSZ, É UJACZKI & M TOLNER Introduction Terrestrial test organisms 2.1 Soil-living bacteria and fungi as test organisms 2.2 Terrestrial plants for soil toxicity testing 2.3 Soil fauna members as test organisms Measuring terrestrial toxicity: end points and methods 3.1 Soil biodiversity 3.2 Evolutionary convergence phenomenon 3.3 Terrestrial bioassays for testing chemical substances and contaminated soil Standardized and non-standardized test methods 4.1 OECD standards for testing chemical substances in soil and dung with terrestrial organisms 4.2 ISO and other standards for testing soil and sediment 4.3 Testing waste: a terrestrial test battery for solid waste Non-standard terrestrial toxicity test methods 5.1 Some aspects of problem-oriented and site-specific soil testing 5.1.1 Soil community response 5.1.2 Concepts for characterizing soil functioning and health 5.1.3 Aims of testing whole soil response 229 237 238 242 246 254 255 258 259 260 260 260 263 263 264 265 266 266 x Table of contents 5.1.4 Consequences of the effect of soil matrix on the test methodology 5.1.5 Field assessment or laboratory testing? 5.2 Ecological assessment: field testing of habitat quality, diversity of species and abundance of indicator organisms 5.2.1 Abundance and diversity of soil microbiota 5.2.2 The use of carbon substrate utilization patterns for ecotoxicity testing 5.2.3 Dung-dwelling organisms, a not yet standardized field study 5.2.4 Effects of pollutants on earthworms in field situations: avoidance 5.3 Non-standardized contact bioassays: description of some tests 5.3.1 Single species bacterial contact tests 5.3.2 Single species animal contact tests 5.3.3 Plant tests 5.3.4 Soil as a test organism Multispecies terrestrial tests 6.1 Classification of multispecies soil tests 6.1.1 Terrestrial microcosm system for measuring respiration 6.1.2 Terrestrial microcosm for substrate-induced respiration technique (SIR) 6.1.3 Terrestrial model ecosystems (TME) 6.1.4 The cotton strip assay 6.1.5 Soil litter bag 6.1.6 Pitfall traps 6.1.7 Bait lamina 6.1.8 Soil in jar 6.1.9 Soil lysimeters 6.2 Characteristics of multispecies toxicity tests 6.3 Evaluation and monitoring of microcosms Microcalorimetry – a sensitive method for soil toxicity testing 7.1 Background of microcalorimetric heat production by living organisms 7.2 Experimental setup 7.3 Heat response of Folsomia candida to the effect of diesel oil 7.4 Heat response of Panagrellus redivivus on contaminated soil 7.5 Heat response of Sinapis alba to the effect of toxicants in soil 7.6 Heat production response of Azomonas agilis to toxicants 7.7 Evaluation and interpretation of the microcalorimetric heat production results 7.8 Summary of microcalorimetric toxicity testing: experiences and outlook 7.9 Acknowledgement to microcalorimetry research 267 271 272 272 273 273 274 275 275 278 279 280 282 282 283 283 284 285 285 286 286 287 288 290 290 291 291 292 293 294 296 296 299 299 301 Table of contents Advanced methods for chemical characterization of soil pollutants xi 311 GY ZÁRAY & I VARGA Introduction Analytical methods for the determination of inorganic compounds 2.1 ICP-based analytical methods 2.1.1 Sample preparation 2.1.2 Inductively coupled plasma as photon and ion source 2.1.3 Analytical figures of merit 2.2 X-ray fluorescence spectrometry 2.2.1 Sample preparation 2.2.2 Basic equipment and set-up for XRF analysis 2.2.3 X-ray sources 2.2.4 Detectors 2.2.5 Quantification 2.2.6 Analytical figures of merit 2.2.7 Comparison of XRF and ICP-based analytical techniques Analytical methods for analysis of organic pollutants 3.1 Sample pretreatment 3.2 Extraction of analytes from soil samples 3.2.1 Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) 3.2.2 Microwave assisted extraction (MAE) 3.2.3 Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) 3.2.4 Ultrasonic assisted extraction (UAE) 3.3 Cleanup process 3.4 Preconcentration/enrichment of analytes 3.5 Separation and detection techniques 3.6 Applications 3.6.1 Pesticide analysis 3.6.2 Veterinary pharmaceuticals 3.6.3 Petroleum hydrocarbons 3.7 Recent developments and future trends Bioaccessibility and bioavailability in risk assessment 311 313 313 313 313 316 318 318 319 319 320 322 322 323 323 324 324 324 325 326 327 328 328 328 329 329 330 330 331 337 CS HAJDU & K GRUIZ Introduction Managing bioaccessibility and bioavailability of contaminants in the environment 2.1 Mobility, bioaccessibility, bioavailability and risk assessment 2.2 Risk reduction in view of mobility and bioavailability Bioavailability and bioaccessibility – definitions 3.1 Definitions and mechanisms 3.2 Contaminants’ location and form in soil and the related accessibility and availability 337 341 343 344 345 346 348 Subject index dermal contact 7, 17, 25, 43, 48, 103, 125–127, 136, 147, 158, 293, 515 dermal irritation/corrosion 20, 25, 128–130, 152–154 dermal penetration 151, 154 dermal toxicity 20, 26, 130, 137–139, 146, 152, 153, 159–160 dermatitis 154 Desmodesmus subspicatus (former name Scenedesmus subspicatus) 182–183, 210 desorption 74, 75, 81, 83, 119, 207, 264, 268, 338, 347, 349, 350, 355, 385, 426 detergents 10 detritus 190, 246 developmental disabilities/disorder/failures 38, 129, 489 developmental toxicity 32, 38, 128, 133, 139, 148–150, 160, 252, 526 diaminopimelic acid 265 dibenzofurans 331 dibutylphthalate 35, 475 dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDE) 109 dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) 357 dichloromethane 95, 329, 331, 357 diclofenac 35, 36, 475 dicotyledonous 184, 185, 242 di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate 35 diesel 98–99, 259–260, 293–295, 416 digestion 17, 25, 95, 112, 312, 323, 337, 348–350, 354, 382, 384–387, 391 digestion model/test 384–391 dilution 28, 42, 75, 77, 96, 100, 117–118, 129, 221–222, 280, 293, 299, 390, 445, 447, 448, 451, 454, 464, 469, 471, 474, 475 dilution factor 317 dilution rate 43, 219, 222, 447, 448, 454, 464–466, 472–473, 534 dilution series 40, 100, 101, 196, 212, 221, 269–271, 276, 279–282, 294, 299, 447, 452, 453, 468, 470, 477 dioxins 331, 390, 467 Diplopoda (millipedes) 252, 254 Diptera (flies) 133, 188–189, 252 direct toxicity assessment/testing (DTA) 3, 64, 222, 235, 300, 374, 378, 445–449, 467, 477, 482, 534–535 diversity 7, 23, 29, 38, 45, 47, 94, 172, 174, 176, 180, 188, 192, 196, 201, 205, 217–219, 230–232, 236–238, 241–242, 246, 255–262, 265, 272–273, 282, 285, 549 287, 288, 339, 343, 366–367, 401–405, 412, 419, 427, 440, 447, 512, 520, 528 diversity assessment 30, 237, 257, 259 diversity index 38, 45, 178, 192 DNA 6, 8, 12–14, 17, 29–31, 37–38, 44, 47, 102, 128, 132–133, 141–148, 176–177, 217–218, 237–238, 246, 256–257, 260–262, 265, 291, 530 DNA damage and repair 132, 142–144, 148, 176, 530 DNA markers 17 DNA-SIP method 30 dogs 22, 135, 145 dose–response relationship/curve 2, 28, 32, 34, 47, 60, 129, 146, 222, 267, 269, 281, 445, 447, 449, 451, 453–456, 463–467, 470–473, 475, 477, 484, 494–501, 503–504, 508–510, 530 drinking water 7, 8, 48, 81, 126, 349 Drosophila 45, 133, 142 Drosophila melanogaster (common fruit fly) 45, 133, 142 drugs 7–10, 13–15, 28, 33, 35, 131, 135, 143, 157, 160, 174, 345, 383, 387, 475 DSD (EU Dangerous Substance Directive) 209, 260 DTA (direct toxicity assessment/testing) 3, 64, 222, 235, 300, 374, 378, 445–449, 467, 477, 482, 534–535 duck 133, 140, 254 duckweed 184–185, 200, 211, 507 dung beetles 252, 261 dung flies 261 dung-dwelling organisms 274 Duncan post hoc test 437 dye 143, 148, 164, 262, 273 dynamic testing 177, 344, 363–366, 378–380, 418, 420 early warning 29, 46, 51, 177, 212, 213, 217, 237 earthworms 59, 105–106, 210–211, 250–252, 254, 260–261, 263–264, 269, 274–275, 354, 356–357, 363, 391, 466, 517 Echinodermata 194, 208, 521 E coli 30, 45, 132, 142, 182, 257, 277 ecological assessment 149–150, 176–178, 192, 194, 201–203, 231, 245, 253, 254–256, 272–274, 286, 291, 353, 366, 385, 528, 533 550 Subject index ecological functions 245 ecological indicator 176 ecological levels 29 ecological methods/technologies/tools 84, 174, 179–180, 220, 234, 261, 343, 402, 404 ecological model 179, 229 ecological relevance 63, 215, 247, 250, 274, 286 ecological risk 36, 215, 254, 286, 370, 385, 526, 528, 533 ecological survey 55 ecological status 176–177, 192, 195 ecological system 3, 5, 9, 62, 118 ecosystem services 5, 174, 230, 236 ecotechnologies 119, 404, 407 ecotoxicity 9, 17, 25, 36, 39, 41, 55, 58, 74, 119, 136, 173, 178, 183, 186, 192, 195, 206, 209–211, 221, 232, 234, 237, 250–251, 273–274, 280, 282, 292, 300, 343, 353, 366, 425, 463–465, 503, 518 ecotoxicogenomics 29 ecotoxicology 9, 17–18, 28, 29, 173, 183, 187, 212, 229, 238, 245, 257, 274, 347, 348, 408, 437, 493, 515 EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) 358, 379, 386, 426, 432, 436 Eisenia foetida 210–211, 251, 261, 263–264, 356 electron acceptors 90–92, 100, 116, 182, 241, 276, 349, 350, 418, 421 electron capture detection 328–329 electron donors 291, 365 electron source 319 electron transport 49, 83, 90–92, 182 Elodea canadensis 185–186 embryotoxicity 149 emerging pollutants 17, 34–35 endocrine disruption 8, 25, 35, 125, 128–130, 139, 161–164, 176, 235, 363, 530 endocrine disruptor 34–35, 128, 161–164, 177, 180, 201, endocrine disruptor screening program 162–164 endocrine screen 162 endocrine system 5, 17, 29, 128, 164, 235, 477 endocrine toxicity 161–164 enhanced biodegradation 375, 416–418, 421 environmental assessment 3, 171 environmental compartments 3–15, 33, 50, 54, 62, 71, 74, 77–78, 112, 114, 118, 129, 173, 217, 233, 274, 329, 330, 401, 449, 515 environmental concentration 27, 34, 57, 58, 77, 80, 88, 105, 108, 311, 445, 448, 521, 522, 525, 529, 534 environmental effects 12, 18–19, 58, 190, 191, 214 environmental fate 19, 35, 51, 55, 57, 59, 71–73, 75, 83, 84–120, 236, 312, 341, 391, 447, 467, 514, 516, 529 environmental impacts 514, 531 environmental interventions 412 environmental (risk) management 1–64, 71–120, 125, 171, 173, 178, 194, 260, 311–312, 337, 341, 362, 392, 402, 448–450, 466, 516, 525, 526, 531, 534, 535 environmental monitoring 51, 171, 198, 342, 367, 449, 526, 527, 534 environmental pollution 7, 133, 345 environmental phases 74–81, 108, 337, 355, 401 environmental quality criteria 4, 40, 51, 446, 448, 467, 469, 473, 516, 518, 520, 521, 531, 532 environmental reality 53, 55, 56, 113, 179, 236, 255, 272, 343, 466 environmental relevance 3, 30, 54, 89, 195, 215, 272, 275, 391, 445 environmental risk 3–64, 71, 84, 108, 117, 119, 173, 198, 232, 337, 345, 355, 358, 367, 378, 428–429, 434, 446, 525, 531–533 environmental risk assessment 3, 4, 36, 71–73, 90, 93, 274, 285, 341, 354, 367, 383, 445, 521, 513–535 environmental technology 411, 418 environmental stress/stressors 245–246, 254 environmental toxicity/toxicology 1–64, 71–120, 171–222, 229–301, 311, 354, 367, 386, 401, 445–535 environmental transport 75, 77–78, 117–120 enzyme 12, 17, 28, 31, 37, 38, 42, 49, 80, 82, 87, 90–92, 95, 102, 104, 116, 140, 148, 158, 162, 176, 181, 182, 195, 217, 233, 235, 236, 238, 240, 242, 245, 256, 262, 265, 266, 280, 282, 341, 348, 349, 351, 352, 354, 375, 384, 391, 404, 419, 456, 482, 483, 486, 501, 502, 530 Subject index enzymatic (bio)degradation 36, 91, 338 enzymatic hydrolysis 82 Ephemeroptera (mayflies) 188 epidemiology 8, 508, 511 equivalent toxicity 28, 449, 468, 472, 473–483, 535 ergosterol 265 erosion 16, 77, 231, 270, 285, 368, 369, 413 erythema 154 Escherichia coli 30, 45, 132, 142, 182, 257, 277 esterase 38, 176, 190, 266 estrogen 132, 161–164, 197 ethidium bromide 144 ethylene 246 ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) 358, 379, 386, 426, 432, 436 eukaryotes 183, 216 eukaryotic cells 183 eudicot 243 eutrophication 39, 118, 176, 179, 182, 219, 405 EU Dangerous Substance Directive (DSD) 209, 260 EU waste directive 527 evapotranspiration 174–175, 235, 429 evidence-based toxicology 23, 131, 136 evolutionary convergence phenomenon 258–259 excitation 313–315, 318–322 exoenzyme 82, 88, 240, 270, 348, 353 expert systems 22 explosives 10–11, 81 exposure assessment 524 eye corrosion 8, 25, 55, 125, 128, 129, 155–157 eye irritation 25, 128–130, 155–157 fertility 9, 32, 128, 148, 263, 339 fertilizers 10, 208, 218, 466 FETAX 133, 149–151 field assessment 36, 39, 41, 107, 108, 112, 174, 180, 195, 204, 229, 236, 255, 259, 261, 269–272, 286, 447, 450, 522, 529, 531 field testing/tests 36, 107, 108, 111, 112–113, 251, 264, 269, 272–275, 284, 287, 365, 411, 421, 466, 534 filtration 118, 327, 403, 404 fish 3, 8, 18, 20, 26–27, 33–34, 39, 40, 45, 47–49, 55–59, 103–105, 108, 110, 551 125–126, 141, 163, 174–176, 178, 180, 182, 186, 188, 190–194, 197, 199, 201–203, 213, 216, 219, 221, 247, 299, 348, 355, 404, 427, 446, 496, 503, 505–507, 513, 517, 519–521 flammable substances 11, 81 flotation 368–369, 374, 403 Folsomia candida 212, 250, 263, 275, 279, 293, 294–295, 381, 437, 469, 478, 480–481 food additives 10, 18, 23, 25, 529 food chain 1, 17, 23, 30, 33, 39, 47, 62, 84, 87, 103, 104, 107–109, 111, 113, 118, 125, 174, 180, 187, 195, 198, 201, 218, 231, 236, 243, 253, 254, 272, 278, 343, 349–350, 368, 370, 515, 522, 528 food crops food toxicology 7food web 23, 39, 47, 62, 108, 111, 176, 180, 198, 236, 238, 246, 247, 252, 256, 282, 285, 338, 349–350, 368, 515, 522, 527 forensic toxicology fresh-water invertebrates 185–190 fresh-water macroplants 184–185 frog 133, 149, 163 frog embryo teratogenesis assay (FETAX) 133, 149 fuels 24, 230, 243 fungicides 219, 286, 323 gammaproteobacteria 182, 238 gamma rays 81 Gammarus 188, 208 gastrointestinal microorganisms 388 gastrointestinal models 383–391 gastrointestinal tract 135, 157, 337, 354, 383–390 Gastropoda (snails and slugs) 190, 192, 254 gene arrays 256–257, 265 gene expression 14, 15, 29, 31, 176, 257 genetic bioindicators 216 genetic diversity 30 genetic methods/techniques 102, 180 gene/genetic mutation 132, 142, 145, 150, 181, 486 gene mutation assay 132, 142 genetic potential 34, 91, 119 genetics 7, 9, 13, 28, 30, 38, 42, 45, 84, 87, 128, 133, 134, 148, 229, 234, 247 genetic toxicity/toxicant/toxicology 29, 141–143, 14 552 Subject index gene transfer 87, 217, 241 genome 30, 31, 45, 84, 132, 189, 192, 217, 237, 247, 249, 250, 257, 281, 299, 300 genomics 8, 13–14, 17, 21, 29, 140, 176, 177, 180, 245, 257, 265, 299 genotoxicity 141 germ cell 2, 128, 141, 144 germ cell mutagenicity 128 germination 235, 242–245, 263, 279, 280, 296, 437 germination rate 245 global warming 6, 179 glucose 100, 141, 462–463, 506 glucoseamine 265 glutathione 8, 245 glutathione transferase 8, 28, 245 glycomics 14 gold 428 goldfish 191 greenhouse 254 groundwater 2, 50, 54, 73, 74, 77, 94, 95, 114, 117, 118, 125, 126, 174, 175, 210, 214, 230–235, 242, 269–270, 329, 341, 349–350, 354, 366, 409–410, 415–416, 428, 438–440, 465, 473 growth curves 198, 200, 222, 456–458, 464 guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) 46, 132, 134 Gyöngyösoroszi 423, 430 habitat quality 272–276 hamster 133, 134, 144, 145, 147, 148 hazard assessment 5, 7, 51–53, 71, 149, 153, 209, 253, 300, 341–343, 403, 449, 513–522, 527, 531 hazard categories/classes 34, 449 hazard criterion H14 209 hazard identification 153, 515–516 hazard quantification 516 hazardous bacteria 182 hazardous biological agents 179, 182 hazardous chemical substances 2, 3, 7–12, 23, 24, 34, 51, 53, 63, 72, 109, 125, 131, 403, 446, 477, 515, 525, 527 hazardous waste 251, 274 hazard rate 498, 505–507 heat production 12, 38, 134, 229, 292–301, 456, 458–460 heat response 292–301 heavy metals 183, 210, 313, 386, 430 Henry’s law constant 57, 75–76, 78, 211 hepg2 liver cell line (hepatoma) 132, 138 herbicides 182, 219, 243 heritable genotoxicity 141–142 Heterocypris incongruens 186–187, 201 hl-60 human acute promyelocytic leukemia cell line 132 histidine 142, 181 homeostasis 13, 34, 39, 135, 161 hormone 17, 34, 35, 38, 55, 84, 161, 183, 323, 330, 530 HPBCD (hydroxypropyl beta-cyclodextrins) 116, 345 human bioaccessibility 385–389 human carcinogens 30–31 human carcinoma cell line H295R 162 human cornea 157 human exposure 8, 32, 110, 125–126, 131, 146, 158, 174–180, 231–232, 338, 382–385, 530 human health 8, 10–12, 19, 22, 34, 35, 149, 254, 323, 381–385, 389, 430, 435, 526, 527–534 human health risk 25, 381, 382, 385, 389, 435, 530, 531 human health risk assessment 130, 385, 389, 510, 529 human hepatocytes 144 human intestine Caco-2 cells 159 human keratinocytes (NHK) 132, 137 human lymphocytes 133 human reconstructed skin 133 human skin/epidermis cell model 151, 153 human pathogen 189–190 human risk 131, 383, 526, 529 human toxicology/toxicity 7, 8–9, 17–18, 20–22, 25, 29, 47, 125–164, 171, 254, 353, 386, 505, 515, 521 humic substances 345 humic soil 381–382 humus 76, 100, 230, 233, m235, 250, 285, 291, 338–340, 381, 384 HxCDD (1,2,3,7,8,9-hexachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) 467 hybridization 102, 190, 217, 257 hydrocarbon 81, 96, 98, 115, 268, 293, 295, 311, 312, 323, 329–331, 344, 357, 375–376, 416–417, 471, 478–481 hydrogen sulfide 111, 214 hydrolysis 26, 36, 52, 57, 71, 77, 81, 82–83, 88, 104, 119 Subject index hydroxypropyl beta-cyclodextrins (HPBCD) 116, 345 hyperspectral analysis 177 hypothesis testing 492–497 ibuprofen 35, 475 immobilization 75, 117, 118, 197, 289, 342, 344, 411, 469, 474, 476, 485, 491 immune disruptors 34, 55, 180, 235 immune effects 125 immune suppression 38, 176 immune system 5, 17, 25, 29, 38, 84, 125, 128, 154, 477 immunology 134–135, 152 immunotoxicity 8, 25, 29, 130, 138, 154 infiltration 75, 77, 114, 270, 289, 413, 434–438 inhalation 8, 17, 22, 25, 26, 28, 103, 125–128, 136, 137–139, 146, 160, 231, 338, 348, 382, 383, 515 Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) 509 innovation 15, 214 inorganic compounds 2, 33, 86, 94, 119, 210, 311, 312, 313–323, 339–340, 383 inorganic contaminants 76, 115, 235, 311, 367, 381, 385, 388, 411, 445, 449, 469, 477 inorganic matter 203, 208, 338, 350 inorganic micropollutants 230 insecticides 219, 240, 323 insects 219, 240, 250, 252–253, 263, 265, 286, 293, 323, 375, 519, 521 in situ biomonitoring 44, 236 in situ chemical oxidation 415 in situ chemical stabilization 414, 423 in situ hybridization 102, 217 in situ lysimeter 430 in situ sensors 418–419 in situ toxicity assessment 214–217 Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive intermediates 92, 402 interspecies safety factor 8, invertebrate 110, 163, 175–176, 180, 185, 192, 201, 205, 212, 218–220, 231, 236, 246, 252, 262, 272, 274, 283, 287–288, 290, 358, 404, 520 in vitro chromosome aberration test 132 in vitro dermal testing 159 in vitro gene mutation test 132 553 in vitro sister chromatid exchange assay 132, 141, 142 indicator organisms 44, 179, 180, 238, 256, 272–275, 379, 534 inhibition rate 222, 447, 451–461, 529, 534 insects (Hexapoda) 2, 8, 40, 45, 47, 107, 188, 192, 201, 219, 250, 252–253, 263, 265, 286, 293, 375, 519, 521 integrated evaluation 204, 234, 355, 366, 369 integrated monitoring 51, 362, 401, 418–421, 427, 436–437 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 199–203, 263 IPPC Directive (Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control) iris 155 IRIS (Integrated Risk Information System) 509 iron-bearing solid 430 iron-oxidizing bacteria 430 irritation 8, 20, 128–130, 152–154, 155–157 isolated cells 132–133 isopods 187, 193, 251, 253, 519 IT tools 445, 507, 508–514 ivermectin 274 Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) 133, 254 jasmonate 246 Joint Research Centre (JRC) 12, 109 ketoprofen 35, 475 kitinase 266 Klimish tool 522–523 Kow (octanol – water partition coefficient) 20, 27, 34, 55–59, 76, 85, 87–89, 103–108, 158, 195, 203, 207, 348, 351, 355–357, 378–379, 381, 383, 384, 391, 514 leachate 50, 51, 54, 73, 113, 118, 181, 196, 199, 221, 241, 247, 269, 270, 272, 279, 343, 363, 402, 404, 413, 427, 428–438, 465, 4687 leaching 74, 77, 94, 114, 119, 261, 264, 269, 270, 273, 275, 327, 355, 359, 368–370, 386, 387, 413, 428–438 leaching microcosm 428, 431–434 lead 33, 158, 159, 254, 359–360, 383–389, 434, 482 554 Subject index legislation 1, 5, 7, 18, 51, 129, 152, 177, 179, 192, 207, 260, 274, 362, 526, 529, 530 Lemna minor 184–185, 197, 200, 211 Lepomis cyanellus (green sunfish) 191 Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill) 191 life-cycle assessment 243 lime 379, 424 limestone 119, 194 lipase 266, 387 lipidomics/lipomics 14 LLC-PK1 kidney proximal tubule cell line 132, 138 LOEC 41, 43, 44, 48, 60, 62, 195, 267, 278, 283, 300, 453, 454, 459, 464, 469, 470–483, 490–497, 518, 519, 524 luminescence 42, 49, 178, 210, 276, 368, 379, 380, 427, 437, 454–456, 469, 471–474, 476, 478–483 Lumbricidae (earthworms) 251 lysimeter 283, 289–290, 362, 363, 427–430 macaca monkeys 135 macro(zoo)benthos 176, 180, 192, 204, 219 macroinvertebrate 175, 201, 205, 219, 404 macrofauna 205, 238, 246, 250, 254, 257, 259, 265 macrophyte 47, 184, 185, 201, 203, 404, 521 macroplants 26, 184–186, 257 macrozoobenthos 176, 180, 192, 219!! magnesium 438 mammals 9, 47, 108, 134, 135, 254, 255, 259, 517 mammalian cells 132–133, 141–142, 144, 147, 163, 203 management options 404 mapping 241–215, 256, 278 mathematical models 3, 18, 55, 130, 159, 179, 272, 322, 343, 346, 351, 352, 354–355, 383–384, 446, 498, 531, 533 material balance 235, 506 maturity index 247 mazout 417 mdck dog kidney epithelial cell line 132, 138, 157 medicines, drugs 7–9, 12, 14, 15, 18, 28, 33, 35, 131, 135, 143, 157, 160, 174, 345, 383, 387, 475 meio(zoo)benthos 176, 204 membrane-based extractions 356–358 mercury 33, 39, 83, 159, 174, 315, 350, 386 mesocosm 3, 36, 44, 47, 53, 54, 62, 63, 64, 91, 112, 173, 177, 178, 180, 196, 201, 217–220, 231, 237, 259, 263, 2665, 282, 290–291, 402–405, 407–416, 420, 421–422, 428, 466, 514, 522 metabolism 5, 8, 9, 14, 20, 21, 28, 30, 39, 48, 87, 91, 98, 102, 105, 108, 113, 129, 132, 137–140, 144, 145, 156–160, 221, 235, 239, 241–242, 247, 264, 281, 287, 291, 298, 300, 351 metabolism-mediated toxicity 140 metabolites 5, 12, 17, 28, 46, 49, 50, 90, 91, 119, 144, 158, 173, 176, 195, 233, 241, 245, 257, 282, 301, 323, 365, 391, 448, 534 metabolomics 8, 14, 17, 21, 29, 177, 180, 299 metagenome/metagenomics 29–30, 88, 177, 180, 217, 237, 242, 255, 256, 257, 259, 265, 281 metals 10, 24, 28, 39, 72, 86, 102, 104, 111–117, 118–119, 154, 174, 180, 182, 183, 200, 207, 210, 240, 246, 254, 277–278, 280, 289, 293, 313, 340, 343, 346, 348, 350, 352, 353, 355, 358–362, 367, 368–374, 378–389, 390, 411, 415, 423–438, 462, 468, 470, 471, 479–483 metallothionein 38, 176, 236 metaproteomics 30 metatranscriptomics 30 methane 81, 235, 349 mice (Mus domesticus) 22, 46, 132, 134, 144, 145, 149, 154, 155, 515 monocotyledonous 184, 185, 242, 243 microarrays 14, 15, 203 microarthropod 236, 248, 250, 259, 286 micro(zoo)benthos 204 microbial activity 88, 92, 95, 99, 218, 235, 238, 242, 273, 282, 293, 344, 413, 418, 436, 446, 451 microbial biomass 262, 292, 436 microbial cells 33, 93, 100, 265 microbial community 30, 84, 99, 102, 216, 232, 241, 264, 268, 273, 283, 292, 293, 387, 403 microbial complexing agents 350 microbial (bio)degradation 349, 354 microbial diversity 238, 241, 262 microbial ecology 29, 257 microbial ecosystem 9, 387 Subject index microbial genome 30 microbial growth 80, 276, 456, 458 microbial inoculant 376 microbial oxidation 273 microbial soil respiration 262 microbiota 53, 88, 90, 91, 96, 97, 99, 208, 209, 229, 236–238, 241, 246, 256, 257, 267, 271, 273, 280, 282, 289, 290,291, 293, 301, 338, 339, 345, 349, 350, 354, 362, 363, 365, 375, 376, 378, 380, 411, 413, 416, 418, 427, 446, 447, 460, 463 microcalorimetry 229, 292–301 microcosm 3, 15, 16, 39, 44, 47, 49, 62, 63, 91, 95, 111, 114, 173, 178, 180, 196, 206, 217–220, 231, 236, 237, 259, 263–264, 266, 269, 272, 282–291, 362–366, 375, 379, 401–440, 4455, 466, 529, 534 microcosm models 401–444 microcosm set-up 406, 414, 418, 422, 424–425, 431–432, 438, 439–440 microcosm test 196, 217–220, 264, 283, 401–403, 411, 420, 439–440 microflora 7, 29, 39, 47, 53, 88–90, 92, 209, 217, 235, 238, 242, 246, 250, 253, 259, 262, 267, 363, 440 microfungi 100, 242, 265 microinvertebrate 218, 236 microlysimeter/minilysimeter 114, 289, 427 micronucleus test 133, 141, 142, 145, 148, 260, 263 micropollutants 174, 230 microprobes 216 microsomes 140, 159, 163 microwave 95 microwave assisted extraction 313, 325–326, 330, 331 microzoobenthos 204 mineralization 86–87, 91, 93, 98, 235, 237, 238, 240, 241, 242, 246, 262, 267, 287, 291, 404, 460 mineral oils 375 mine excavation 350 mine drainage 404, 434, 404, 430, 434 miner bacteria 113 mine tailing 368 mine waste 10, 112, 288, 372, 374, 380, 413, 423–424, 427–434 minilysimeter/microlysimeter 114, 289, 427 mites 26, 45, 236, 248–252, 261 mobility 7, 55, 71, 73, 74, 88, 110, 112, 117, 119, 173, 201, 203, 204, 229, 235, 555 337, 338, 342, 343–344, 348, 352, 354, 355–370, 375, 378–383, 389, 411, 413, 418, 423, 425, 426, 435, 477 mobilization 8, 49, 59, 75, 88, 105, 118, 204, 207, 208, 268, 271, 289, 344, 354, 362–364, 369, 375, 376, 378, 380, 384, 411, 415, 432, 435 molecular initiating event 145–147 molecular methods 1, 14, 17, 18, 180, 212, 217 molecular technologies 13–15, 29 molluscs 192–193, 254, 519, 521 monitoring 1, 4, 5, 6, 10, 13, 36, 44, 46, 47, 49, 51, 55, 56, 63, 107, 109, 119, 149, 171–177, 182, 194, 198, 206, 212–213, 230, 232, 234, 236, 237, 242, 247, 252, 256, 265, 266, 269, 273, 280, 288, 291, 311, 312342, 344, 353, 362, 366, 367, 372, 374, 401, 402, 411, 413, 416, 418–421, 423, 425–427, 431, 432–433, 435, 436–437, 440, 446, 449, 461, 466, 467, 526–528, 531–534 most probable number 100, 116 mudpuppy 133 multispecies tests 47, 63–64, 196, 218, 265, 282, 283, 290–291 multispecies toxicity tests 63–64, 290–291 multi-step sequential extraction 359 muramic acid 265 mussels 3, 206, 208, 212–214, 215 mussel monitor 212 Myriophyllum aquaticum 184, 263 mutagenicity 8, 25, 31, 32, 35, 44, 50, 51, 55, 125, 128, 130, 141–148, 181, 343, 363, 379, 380, 390, 391, 515 mutagenic effect/risk 31, 32, 38, 84, 87, 128, 201, 379, 391, 526 mutagens 11, 26, 32, 85, 129, 141, 142, 145, 380, 530 mutants 50, 87, 134, 142, 180 mycorrhiza 235, 263 naproxen 35, 475 natural attenuation 73, 117, 119, 410, 411, 414 natural biodegradation 416–417, 421 nebulization 313–314 Nematoda/nematodes (roundworms) 45, 188, 247, 263 neurobiology 133 neuroblastoma cells 157, 160 556 Subject index neuropharmacology 135 neurophysiology 135 neurotoxic agents/substances 159 neurotoxic effects/risk 17, 526 neurotoxicity/neurotoxicology 8, 17, 21, 29, 25, 55, 127, 128, 130, 138, 149, 159–161, 351 nervous system 20, 29, 38, 128, 138, 159, 160 nickel 315, 386, 520, 521 nicotine 35, 474–477 nitrates 216, 241 nitrate respiration 241 nitric oxide 246 nitrification 209, 216, 235, 260, 280, 282, 463, 466 nitrogen oxide 216 nitrogen fixation 181, 218, 235, 237, 239, 243 NOAEC 43 NOAEL 43, 141, 146, 509, 529 NOEC 43, 44, 48, 57, 59, 60, 62, 85, 86, 108, 195, 247, 249, 267, 278, 281, 283, 300, 452, 453, 454, 459, 464, 468–484, 490–497, 503–504, 516–524, 529, 534 NOEL 43, 44, 48, 267, 447, 473, 528, 529 “no effect’’ dilution 28, 448 non-animal tests 12, 23, 137, 147, 152, 156, 203 non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPL) 73, 345, 350 non-human primates 145 non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) 35, 474–477 nonylphenol 40–42 noradrenalin 38 norway rat (Rattus norvegicus) 134 NSAID (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) 35, 474–477 Nuremburg Code 18 nutrient 5, 10, 15, 29, 30, 49, 62, 86, 100, 118, 120, 142, 174, 176, 184, 185, 211, 214, 218, 219, 229, 230, 231, 238, 240, 241, 246, 250, 256, 268, 270–271, 277, 280, 291, 338, 339, 343, 346, 349, 350, 365, 377, 383, 402, 404, 405, 414, 417, 418, 421, 427, 434, 451, 456, 466, 506, 531 occupational diseases 7, 126 occupational health 7, 125 occupational risk/hazard occupational toxicology octanol – water partition coefficient (Kow ) 20, 27, 34, 55–59, 76, 85, 87–89, 103–108, 158, 195, 203, 207, 348, 351, 355–357, 378–379, 381, 383, 384, 391, 514 OECD guidelines 83, 93, 110, 142, 146–151, 153–160, 196–198, 260–261, 493 Oligochaeta (worms) 110, 189–190, 208 Onchorhynchus kisutch (coho salmon) 190 Onchorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout) 190–191 Oniscus asellus (woodlouse) 253 organic carbon 27, 31, 76, 86, 111, 247, 355 organic contaminants 76, 94, 95, 98, 100, 106, 109, 115, 117, 119, 174, 180, 209, 234, 238, 278, 293, 295, 311, 312, 324– 332, 338, 340, 345, 355–358, 367, 374, 375, 381, 383, 385, 390, 391, 411, 418, 445, 449, 469, 471, 474, 475, 478, 482 organic matter 57, 76, 86, 90, 94, 111, 176, 177, 203, 208, 230, 233, 236, 238, 240, 246, 248, 250, 259, 261, 267, 274, 285, 286, 291, 293, 338–339, 349, 354, 359, 413, 416, 417, 427, 436, 464 organic micropollutants 230 organic substances 20, 25, 27, 33, 76, 83, 89, 93, 94, 105, 106, 109, 119, 158, 209, 210, 213, 240, 254, 257, 262, 282, 311, 312, 349, 383, 389, 390, 403, 460, 468, 471 organic waste 10, 466 organophosphorous substances 160 organ toxicity testing 138–141 oxidation 37, 77, 81, 83, 91, 92, 118, 119, 141, 143, 208–209, 235, 262, 273, 282, 338, 340, 353–355, 374, 385, 415–416, 430 oxidase 37, 266 oxidative conditions 374 oxidative enzymes 391 oxidative-reductive environment 207 oxidative stress 245 oxide 35, 81, 86, 94, 216, 233, 246, 312, 340, 341, 350, 356, 359, 361, 370, 381, 384 oxidizer/oxidizing agents/substances 11, 176, 415, 418 ozone 81, 246 Subject index PAH (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) 34, 95, 98, 331, 344, 356–358, 384, 390, 478, 480 Pardosa (wolf spiders) 252, 263 partition 7, 16, 27, 35, 55, 57, 60, 62, 71–74, 75–78, 83, 89, 103–105, 114, 117–118, 129, 158, 203–207, 211, 219, 229, 233, 267, 270–272, 328, 341, 345, 351, 355–357, 358, 365, 378, 451, 468, 473, 477, 514, 518 pathogens 9, 181–183, 190, 235, 239, 240, 245, 246, 249 partial extraction 358, 391, 436 particulate matter 126, 203, 204, 229, 350 partitioning 7, 35, 55, 57, 71–81, 103–105, 114, 117–118, 129, 158, 345, 351, 355, 358, 451, 518 PCBs 34, 344, 356–357, 467 PCB-free 96, 115, 478 PCP (pentachlorophenol) 293, 357, 379, 454, 459, 475, 478 PEC 448, 526, 529, 535 PNEC 41, 448, 517, 518–522, 526, 529, 531, 535 pentachlorophenol (PCP) 293, 357, 379, 454, 459, 475, 478 periphyton 174, 219 persistent substances 33, 207 pessimistic approach 90, 354 pessimistic models 207, 372, 378, 379, 380, 391 pesticides 2, 7, 10, 12, 16, 17, 23, 24, 28, 35, 53, 54, 98, 100, 159, 174, 176, 190, 192, 218, 220, 229, 231, 240, 244, 252, 253, 254, 261, 269, 273, 285, 286, 290, 293, 311, 312, 323, 328, 329, 344, 384, 403, 417, 459, 526, 527, 532 petroleum hydrocarbons 98, 311, 312, 323, 330–331, 416, 417, 478 pharmaceutical residues/pollutants 312, 323, 329 pharmaceuticals 9, 23, 34, 39, 134, 230, 274, 391 pharmacology 9, 133, 292, 345 pharmacokinetics 6, 157–159, 346, 391 pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) 133, 254 phenanthrene 295–296, 390 phenols 58, 90 phosphorus 346, 361 Photobacterium phosphoreum 240 photodegradation 26, 53, 71, 77, 264 557 photodegradability 52, 467 photoelectric effect 318 photoionization 329, 330 photoirritants 164 photolysis 36, 57, 81–82, 88, 119 photon source 313 photosynthesis 180, 235, 242, 245, 253 photosynthetic activity 245 phototoxicity 8, 25, 164 phototrophic bacteria 182 phthalate 35, 58, 89, 475 phytane 331 phytobenthos 201 phytoplankton 176–177, 180, 201, 203, 219 phytosensor 246 phytostabilisation 414, 423, 427, 428 phytotoxic pollutants 182, 183 phytotoxicity 243, 245 pill bugs 193, 253 Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow) 58, 59, 191, 202 Planaria 189 plant (bio)accumulation 112–117, 354, 356, 358, 371–372, 391 plant biomass 231, 370 plant cells 143, 247 plant germination 235 plant growth 235, 242, 243, 245, 280, 368, 413–428, 438, 440 plant pathogens 182, 249 plant protection products 34, 285, 286 plant root 338, 346, 349–350, 356, 369, 378, 452 plant tests 199–203, 245, 261–264, 279, 349–350, 363, 372, 375, 391, 495, 517 plant tissue 243 plant toxicity 116, 199–203, 242–246, 261–264, 368, 370–375, 449, 452 Plecoptera (stoneflies) 188 pleopods 193 plume 73, 119, 349 Poecilus cupreus (carabid beetle) 252, 263 pollination 230, 235 Pollution-induced Community Tolerance (PICT) 241, 273 polybrominated biphenyls 323 Polychaeta (marine worms) 192 polycyclic aromatic compounds 56, 295, 344, 357, 478 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 295, 323, 344, 357 558 Subject index polychlorinated dibenzofuranes 331 population biology population density 38, 100, 236, 238, 404 population dynamics 218, 236, 256, 291, 404 population growth 506, 507 population parameters 38, 40, 489 Porcello scaber (rough woodlouse) 253 pore water 16, 50, 74, 75, 76, 102, 104–106, 118, 190, 199, 204, 207–208, 216, 219, 220, 233, 268, 270, 272, 273, 281, 338, 350, 361, 362, 378 potassium 415, 416, 438 predators 84, 188, 247 pressurized fluid extraction (PFE) 326 pressurized hot solvent extraction (PHSE) 326 pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) 326, 330 prevention 119, 162, 172, 256, 261, 440, 511 preventive tools 64 priority risk components 77, 272 priority risk substances 532 pristane 331 probit 60–61, 491, 498, 500, 503, 504 prokaryotes 216, 240 protease 266 proteogenomics 30, 242, 257 proteomics 14, 17, 21, 29, 30, 140, 177, 180, 242, 256, 265, 299 protozoa 180, 183, 201, 219, 247, 375, 456, 469, 478 Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata (former name Selenastrum capricornutum) 182–183, 210 Pseudomonas 182, 199, 211, 238–239, 277 Pseudomonas putida 199, 211, 239 psRNA (putative small RNA) 30 pyridines 58 QSAR (quantitative structure-activity relationship) 13, 18, 19, 22, 51, 53, 55–60, 88–89, 106–109, 137, 140, 145, 155, 157, 159, 171, 203, 354, 446, 518, 529 quantification limit 316–317, 322, 328 quorum sensing 181 rabbit 22, 42, 46, 126, 134, 149, 153, 155–157, 389 RAMEB 116, 345, 375, 379 randomly methylated beta-cyclodextrins (RAMEB) 116, 345, 375, 379 RCR (risk characterization ratio) 36, 259, 448, 466, 525, 526, 529 REACH (EU regulation on Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals) 10, 11, 19, 24–26, 31–34, 53–54, 57, 77, 83, 85, 105, 107, 109, 130, 138, 192, 194, 260, 522, 526, 527, 529 reactive barriers 114, 411, 431–432, 465 reactive oxygen species reactive soil zone 72, 406 realistic worst case 343, 354, 355, 358, 378–381, 391 receptor 3, 4, 17, 28, 37, 38, 44, 51, 52, 54, 60, 71–75, 88, 102, 104, 117, 118, 132, 147, 150, 151, 161–164, 179, 183, 235, 254, 300, 341, 351, 352, 355, 391, 446, 502, 518, 524, 525, 528, 529, 533 recycling 24, 118, 402, 405, 464 red mud 24, 413–415, 424, 435–440 reductive dechlorination 241 reductive environment 207 redox conditions 52, 111, 208, 353 redox dye 262, 273 redox gradient 119 redox indictors 427 redox potential 29, 53, 74, 83, 88, 90, 118, 119, 120, 173, 204, 207, 214, 219, 233, 241, 291, 340, 343, 344, 346, 354, 364, 365, 386, 403–406, 418, 427, 446, 467 redox regulation 246 regression 60, 96, 384, 458, 484, 487, 488, 491, 497–503 regression analysis 488, 491, 497–503 regulatory toxicology 7, 9–12, 15, 16, 194, 467 remedial field experiment 244 remedial target values 466 remedial technologies 81, 119, 412 remediation 71, 73, 115, 119, 120, 172, 268, 280, 342, 344, 354, 362, 369, 375, 401, 404, 407, 411, 414, 416, 418, 420–422, 427, 431, 466, 528 remote sensing 176–178 repeated-dose toxicity 127, 138–139, 149 reproductive toxicity 25, 32–33, 138, 149 reprotoxicity/reprotoxic effects 25, 32, 35, 38, 44, 50, 51, 55, 84, 125, 127, 128, 130, Subject index 190, 250, 300, 343, 351, 363, 390, 391, 515 resident population 112, 113 respiration 38, 42, 47, 49, 83, 90–93, 95–101, 102, 104, 116, 182, 193, 197, 235, 241, 242, 246, 254, 262, 266, 280–285, 293, 294, 366, 382, 456, 461, 463, 478, 486 respiration index 115 respiration rate 42, 100, 241, 245, 296, 365, 419, 462–464, 466, 501 respiratory activity 220 respiratory chain 49, 92 respiratory sensitizers 128 revertants 50, 143 rhesus (Macaca mulatta) 135 rhizoplane 235 rhizosphere 5, 16, 47, 118, 220, 283 Rhizobia 243, 264 rhizofiltration 404 risk assessment 1–7, 15, 16, 28, 35–36, 46, 51–60, 71, 73, 77, 80, 89, 90, 93, 108, 109, 115, 127, 130, 178, 179, 195, 214, 221, 232, 233, 241, 254, 256, 259, 266, 267, 274, 282–286, 299, 312, 337–392, 402, 403, 428, 429, 434, 445, 446, 467, 468, 484, 508, 510, 513–535 risk characterization ratio (RCR) 36, 259, 448, 466, 525, 526, 529 risk communication 528 risk profile 117, 120, 265 risk reduction 1, 4, 28, 53, 72, 73, 81, 91, 127, 177, 206, 207, 259, 282, 311, 342–345, 354, 402, 404, 411, 413, 422, 428, 434, 448, 449, 464, 465, 521, 526, 527, 531–535 rodents 22, 47, 134, 139, 144, 160, 161, 254, 283 rodenticides 323 root accumulation 356–357 root exudates 283, 348, 353, 369, 371, 378 root length 49, 245, 300 root microcosm 283 root microflora 235 root and shoot growth 243, 245, 262, 279, 280–281, 283, 368, 370, 427, 437, 452, 469, 478, 479, 482–483 rotifers 185–186, 211, 215, 247, 519, 521 runoff 16, 50, 77, 174, 175, 218, 233, 269, 270, 272, 373, 374, 404, 413, 438 559 S9 enzyme 391 Saccharomyces 45, 132, 142, 162, 277 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 132, 142, 162, 277 safety factor 8, 40, 42, 126, 131, 232, 378, 464–4656, 515, 518, 527 safety toys directive 386 salicylic acid 246 salinization 438 Salmonella 132, 142, 143, 145, 181, 199, 211, 379, 380 sample pretreatment 311, 324 saponins 345 Scenedesmus quadricauda 182 SDD (silicon drift detector) 322 sediment 5–7, 16,27, 29, 33, 36, 43, 48, 50, 52, 53, 54, 57, 60, 71, 74–76, 81, 82, 84–95, 102–104, 108–113, 118–119, 125, 171, 173, 176, 177, 180, 181, 185, 187, 188, 190, 192–197, 201, 203–208, 213–215, 218–222, 229, 241, 260, 263–264, 267–268, 277–278, 288–289, 300, 311, 315, 322, 324, 329, 331, 337–338, 340, 341, 344–355, 357, 359–363, 372, 374, 378, 402–409, 411, 447–448, 451, 454, 460, 468, 477, 518 sediment-dwelling organisms 192–194, 205, 207, 346 sediment quality triad (SQT) 196 sedimentation 77, 11 selective sequential extraction 359 semiconductor detector 321 semimetals 39 semivolatile organics 331 semivolatile petroleum constituents 331 sensitization 8, 25, 35, 38, 125, 128, 130, 154–155 sensitizers 34, 35, 128, 154–155 sensitizing effect 55, 84 separation 30, 95, 311, 324, 328–329, 331, 362, 384, 419 sequential extraction 174, 341, 357, 359, 384, 386 sewage sludge 5–7, 47, 50, 53, 83, 197, 208–209 sewage/wastewater treatment plant 80, 195, 208, 465 sex ratio 236 sheep 135 silicates 313, 350, 370 560 Subject index silicon drift detector (SDD) 322 silver salmon 191 silverside 202 Simple Box model 79–81 SimpleTreat model 80 simulation 15, 54, 89–91, 93–94, 103, 107, 206, 209, 218, 260, 270, 282, 351, 353, 358, 378–380, 384, 387, 390, 403, 415, 432, 446, 527 Sinapis alba (white mustard) 112–113, 243–244, 279–280, 293, 296–297, 300, 368, 370–371, 427, 437, 469, 478–479, 482–483 site-specific risk 54, 73, 91, 117, 221, 233, 265, 343, 389, 403, 404, 525, 528 skin/dermal corrosion/corrosivity 8, 20, 24, 25, 55, 125, 128, 129, 152–155 skin/dermal irritation 20, 25, 128–130, 152–154 skin sensitization 154–155 sludge 5–7, 29, 47, 50, 53, 60, 80, 81, 83, 84, 93, 197, 208–209, 213, 220, 270 small RNA (sRNA) 30 snails 190, 192, 263, 265 social insects 253 sodification 231, 290, 415, 438–440 sodic soil 438 sodification 231, 290, 415, 438–440 sodium 24, 35, 293, 315, 438 soil acidification 346 soil biota 231, 237, 238, 256, 269, 285, 412 soil biodiversity 256–258 soil biodegradation 264, 417 soil bioremediation 239, 416, 418, 421, 448 soil column 54, 98, 114, 283, 418, 427, 434–438 soil correction factor 381 soil degradation 259, 340 soil deterioration 229–230, 350 soil diversity 258, 262 soil-dwelling organisms 54, 231, 233, 236, 239, 258, 263, 346, 348, 466, 478 soil ecosystem 54, 229, 230, 232, 234, 237, 241, 242, 259, 269, 367, 401, 412 soil ecotoxicity 232, 251, 273, 464 soil fauna 246, 255, 259 soil functions 231, 241, 256, 266, 284 soil invertebrates 231, 246, 262, 274, 287, 289 soil-living microorganisms 240, 256, 257, 347 soil-living microfungi 100 soil-living organisms 36, 40, 54, 232, 235, 236, 238, 241, 246, 261, 268, 323, 344, 345, 348, 362 soil-living worms 211, 212, 251 soil macrofauna 250 soil microbial ecology 29, 257 soil microcosm 95, 272, 282, 283, 364–366, 404, 407–440 soil microflora/microbiota 8, 29, 47, 96, 98, 99, 100, 119, 217, 236, 237, 238, 241, 242, 246, 257, 262, 273, 282, 287, 289, 290, 338, 339, 346, 348, 363, 365, 375, 376, 378, 380, 411, 413, 416, 417, 418, 440, 463 soil microinvertebrates 236 soil organic matter 31, 233, 250, 286 soil phases 118, 338–339, 358, 445, 468 soil pollution 73, 413 soil quality 250, 262, 269 soil quality criteria 368, 448, 473 soil respiration 93, 95–98, 262, 269, 283–285, 463 soil sorption 109, 381 soil structure 229, 338, 346, 350, 438, 440 soil testing triad 353, 366–367 soil texture 270, 291, 440 soil toxicology/toxicity 230, 232, 233, 238, 239, 240, 242, 247, 249, 251, 260, 266, 268, 273, 278, 279, 292–301, 374–375, 427, 447, 451 solid-phase extraction 330, 331 sorption 72, 74, 75, 76, 81, 109, 114, 117–119, 136, 207, 233–235, 268, 337–339, 346, 355, 370, 381, 385, 426, 429 sorption capacity 74, 76, 114, 234, 268, 337, 378, 381, 429 Soxhlet extraction 324–325 soya lecithins 345 spiders 250–252 species sensitivity distribution (SSD) 40–41, 173, 177, 179 spectral interferences 316–317 sperm (cells) 128, 215 spermatocytes 141 spermatogenesis 48 spider 250–252 springtail 212, 236, 250–251, 275, 279, 294, 348, 478 SQT (sediment quality triad) 196 Subject index squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) 135 sRNA (small RNA) 30 SSD (species sensitivity distribution) 40–41, 173, 177, 179 stabilization-based soil remediation 422 standard addition 322 standardization 1, 63–64, 90, 144, 194, 196, 198–203„ 260–261, 263, 274–275 standardized test methods 3, 10–12, 26, 45, 51, 53–54, 63–64, 72, 82, 88–91, 93–94, 95, 107, 108, 109–112, 130, 149, 151, 155, 156, 179–181, 193–196, 197–203, 204, 216, 219, 237, 240, 241, 243, 244, 249, 252, 260–264, 265, 269, 272–275, 286, 301, 312, 351, 352, 358–359, 403, 420, 446, 458, 463, 466, 469, 486, 497, 499, 500, 522 statistical evaluation 5, 60–63, 217, 258, 266, 291, 383, 402, 453, 484–513, 517, 519, 520, 524, 529, 533 statistical evaluation of toxicity data 60–63, 484–513 statistics 39, 44–49, 51, 55, 57, 60, 63, 131, 179, 238, 445, 453, 458, 484–489, 503–504, 507–515, 522 stressor 9, 41, 177, 214–215, 236, 245, 247, 455, 486, 499 stripping in metal analysis 360 stripping in groundwater treatment 403 substrate induction 283, 462–464 subsurface waters 50, 230 sulfate 241, 438 sulfate reduction 216 sulfate respiration 241 sulfamethoxazole 35 sulfide 81, 83, 111, 119, 214, 340–341, 350, 352, 359–361, 429, 430–433 sulfonamides 330 sulfonates 58, 90 sulfur 86, 291, 430 sulfuric acid 81 supercritical fluid extraction 324 surface waters 7, 16, 49, 73–74, 95, 114, 118, 125, 171, 176–177, 179, 188, 192, 196, 198, 201, 203, 206, 212, 231, 275, 340, 349–350, 362, 430 surfactant 35, 183, 314, 345 sustainable environmental management 1, 6, 52, 119, 172 sustainability 119, 256 561 Synechococcus leopoliensis (cyanobacterium) 182 syrian hamster embryo (SHE) 133, 147, 148 synthetic biological systems 14 synthetic chemicals 87, 218 synthetic pollutants synthetic soil 283 synthetic water 219 synthetic xenobiotics 25 tailings 368–370, 374 Tardigrada (slow stepper) 247–248 target effects 34 targeted receptors 3, 44, 72, 254 target hazard quotient (THQ) 529 target organ toxicity 21, 127–128, 140, 160 targeted risk assessment 527, 531, 533 TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) 467 technological experiments 401–440 technology monitoring 311, 426 TEF (toxic equivalency factor) 467, 470, 474–483 TEQ (toxic equivalency) 375–378, 467–483, 535 teratogenic effects 128, 201 teratogenicity 44, 202 termites 252–253 terrestrial bioassays 259–260 terrestrial bioaccumulation 103–114 terrestrial ecosystem 5, 7, 25, 40, 47, 74, 90, 108, 216, 229–231, 235–236, 238, 242, 263, 272, 338, 369, 517–518, 528 terrestrial ecotoxicology 29, 229, 237 terrestrial microcosm 282–295, 403 terrestrial toxicology 7, 64, 229–301 test design 48–49, 52, 54, 63, 114, 178, 196, 201, 275, 293, 463, 495, 499 test organisms 1, 3, 42–44, 45–47, 48, 54, 72, 108, 112–113, 126, 130, 132–136, 171, 179, 180–194, 195, 199, 203–207, 214–216, 222, 229, 232, 234, 236, 237–255, 259, 265–269, 278, 293, 299, 300, 351, 353, 356, 362, 363, 365–368, 375, 380, 412, 427, 447–450, 453, 465–469, 477, 478, 482, 485, 489, 491, 515, 518, 527, 534 tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin 467 562 Subject index Tetrahymena 45, 183–184, 220–222, 247, 278, 379–381, 427, 456–457, 469, 474–475, 480–481 Tetrahymena pyriformis 45, 183–184, 220–222, 247, 278–279, 379–381, 427, 456–457, 469, 474–476, 480–481 Thamnocephalus platyurus (freshwater crustacean) 186, 201 thiobacilli 113 tissue cultures 18, 132 thermo activity monitor (TAM) 229, 292–301 thermophilic bacteria 183 THQ (target hazard quotient) 529 tissue culture 18, 132–133 toluene 239, 330 topoisomerase 148 toxic equivalency 375–378, 467–483, 535 total ion chromatogram 331 toxic metals 33, 102, 117, 174, 180, 289, 293, 343, 346, 355, 358, 360, 369, 370, 373, 378, 379, 385–389, 414, 423, 427, 435, 461, 468, 470, 471, 482 toxicogenomics 15, 17, 29, 140, 203 toxicokinetics 6, 17, 28–29, 144, 157–159, 201, 505 TPH (total petroleum hydrocarbons) 95, 330 transcriptomics 14, 29–30, 180, 257, 259 transformer oil 96–98, 100–101, 115–116, 295, 375–376, 417, 420–421, 478, 480–481 transport2, 11, 12, 16, 18, 23, 28, 34, 36, 44, 49, 54, 58, 72–74, 75–81, 83, 90–91, 102, 104, 117–120, 151, 157, 161, 174, 179, 180, 182, 204, 208, 233, 235, 272, 277, 289, 290, 312, 314, 315, 320, 331, 341, 342, 349–350, 352, 354, 355, 358, 362, 369, 383, 403, 411, 413, 428, 430, 434–440, 522, 525–529 transport model 77, 81, 526, 529 Treaty of Amsterdam 18 triad 196, 353, 366–367 tributyltin 35 Trichoptera (caddisflies) 188–189 triton-X 314 trophic chain 104 trophic communities 30 trophic index 176 trophic levels 41, 104, 173, 183, 190, 195, 199, 221, 232, 253, 259, 266, 290, 401, 403, 427, 448, 465, 517 tubifex monitor 213–214 ultrafiltration 329 ultrasonic assisted extraction 327 uncertainty 13, 44, 53, 56, 60, 89, 102, 126, 130, 173, 178, 232, 236, 259, 312, 314, 378, 386, 391, 411, 412, 450, 465, 515, 517, 519, 523, 525, 527, 529, 533, 534 uncertainty factor 312, 378, 465, 515, 527, 529 unscheduled DNA synthesis 133, 142, 144 uranium 428 urbanization 174 uterotrophic 161, 163 validation 5, 12, 20–23, 57, 63–64, 131, 137, 138, 143–144, 149, 156, 162, 467, 473, 477–483, 487–488, 492, 509, 522–524, 526, 531 vapor pressure 75–77, 83, 211, 383 very bioaccumulative substances 33–34, 85 very persistent substances33, 85 vertebrates 175, 190–192, 231, 246, 254, 265, 290 veterinary pharmaceuticals 252, 311, 330 Vibrio fischeri 39, 45, 178, 180–181, 199, 208, 210–211, 215–216, 240, 241, 263, 275, 368, 375, 379–381, 437, 453–454, 466, 469–483 vibrios 240 virginia quail (Colinus virginianus) 133, 254 vitellogenin 162, 176, 202 volatile organic compounds 257, 282, 331 volatilization 74, 80, 94, 117, 233, 338 wasps 252–253 Waste Directive 527 waste disposal 231, 267, 272, 434, 527, 532 waste dump 430–431 wastewater/sewage treatment plant 80, 195, 208, 465 Water Framework Directive (WFD) 176, 527 water solubility 55, 73, 75, 78, 83, 107, 203, 337, 355 wetlands 83, 118–119, 220, 341, 404, 406, 465 WFD (Water Framework Directive) 176, 527 wild animals 254 woodlice 193, 253 worst case 204, 337, 343–344, 354–355, 358, 362, 378–381, 391, 438, 440, 529 Subject index xenobiotics 2, 5, 16, 25, 28, 33, 36, 84–87, 119, 140, 144–145, 181, 217–219, 235, 239, 245, 290, 375 Xenopus (African clawed frogs) 133, 149–151 X-ray 81, 312, 318–323, 359, 384 X-ray fluorescence spectrometry 312, 318–323, 359 YES assay 132, 162–164 563 zinc 116, 254, 297, 312, 371–372, 386, 388, 434, 482 zoobenthos 188, 204 zooplankton 176, 180, 185–187, 192, 219, 403 Zea mays 244