9781589016408 pdf Tai Lieu Chat Luong Power and the Past This page intentionally left blank Eric Langenbacher and Yossi Shain, Editors Power and the Past Collective Memory and International Relations[.]
Tai Lieu Chat Luong Power and the Past This page intentionally left blank Eric Langenbacher and Yossi Shain, Editors Power and the Past Collective Memory and International Relations Georgetown University Press Washington, D.C Georgetown University Press, Washington, D.C www.press.georgetown.edu 䉷 by 2010 Georgetown University Press All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Power and the past : collective memory and international relations / edited by Eric Langenbacher and Yossi Shain p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-58901-640-8 (pbk : alk paper) Collective memory International relations—Psychological aspects World politics—20th century World politics—21st century I Langenbacher, Eric II Shain, Yossi, 1956– JZ1253.P69 2010 306.2—dc22 2009024106 䡬 ⬁ This book is printed on acid-free paper meeting the requirements of the American National Standard for Permanence in Paper for Printed Library Materials 15 14 13 12 11 10 First printing Printed in the United States of America Contents Introduction: Twenty-first-Century Memories Eric Langenbacher and Yossi Shain 1 Collective Memory as a Factor in Political Culture and International Relations Eric Langenbacher 13 Germany’s National Identity, Collective Memory, and Role Abroad Bettina Warburg 51 Collective Memory and German–Polish Relations Eric Langenbacher 71 Building Up a Memory: Austria, Switzerland, and Europe Face the Holocaust Avi Beker 97 Memory, Tradition, and Revival: Who, Then, Speaks for the Jews? Ori Z Soltes 121 September 11 in the Rearview Mirror: Contemporary Policies and Perceptions of the Past Omer Bartov 147 The Eventful Dates 12/12 and 9/11: Tales of Power and Tales of Experience in Contemporary History Michael Kazin 161 v vi Contents The Use and Abuse of History in Berlin and Washington since 9/11: A Plea for a New Era of Candor Jeffrey Herf 173 Of Shrines and Hooligans: The Structure of the History Problem in East Asia after 9/11 Thomas U Berger 189 10 Popular Culture and Collective Memory: Remembering and Forgetting in Chinese–U.S Relations after 9/11 Gerrit W Gong 203 Conclusion: Collective Memory and the Logic of Appropriate Behavior Yossi Shain 213 Contributors 225 Index 229 Introduction: Twenty-first-Century Memories Eric Langenbacher and Yossi Shain Collective memories have long influenced domestic politics and especially international affairs—a fact most recently exemplified by the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001 The events and the memories resulting from them became powerful motivating forces for Americans almost overnight At home, an infrastructure of commemoration quickly arose—in films like United 93 (2006); memorials including one unveiled at the Pentagon in September 2008 and the Tribute World Trade Center Visitor Center opened in 2006; and even in political campaign discourse, as at the 2008 Republican National Convention.1 Yet, as with other collective memories worldwide, there is no consensus as to the overall meaning and lessons of September 11 over time Instead, the continued vehemence of discussions about 9/11 reveals still-unresolved struggles over the construction, content, and power of the memory What degree of prominence should this memory have in American political culture? What historical narratives are offered as explanations? Most importantly, what values and policy implications—both domestically and abroad—ought to follow? Understanding the construction and impact of 9/11 is one of the themes that the authors of this collection address.2 Yet as important as 9/11 has become in the United States and abroad, it is only one of many collective memories influencing countries and their international interactions today Indeed, the last three decades have witnessed a vast and global increase in attention devoted to such concerns by world leaders, international institutions, scholars, and practitioners These actors have engaged in debates and have initiated policies that reveal the profound influence of collective memory The international policy impact of collective memory, however, has not received the systematic attention in either the academy or the policy arena that it deserves—despite the fact that it is difficult to find a country or region where memory and related concerns such as working through a traumatic past and bringing perpetrators of human rights abuses to justice have not come to the fore Examples include post-Soviet republics and their fears of renewed Russian oppression, Russia itself and its efforts to regain past glory, much of the Islamic world and its memory of Western subjugation, South Eric Langenbacher and Yossi Shain Africa and its difficult apartheid legacy—along with Algeria, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Guatemala, South Korea, and many more Bilateral relations between countries as disparate as Germany and Israel, Turkey and Armenia, Britain and Ireland, and China and Japan all have been greatly influenced by such issues Clearly, collective memory is empirically important and deserves sustained and in-depth theoretical study Although the recent proliferation of studies has advanced concepts and theory, the field of collective memory, though related, is still not in the mainstream of political science—especially in comparison with the concept’s prominence in cultural studies, history, and even sociology Scholars have been slow to recognize the importance of memory in international affairs and have not yet advanced major theoretical works in the area Increased rigor in theorizing memory’s impact, in developing a conceptual framework, and in selecting appropriate methods are all needed Nevertheless, the present is an opportune moment to bring the concerns of memory into the field of international relations, in the face of elective affinities with the burgeoning constructivist paradigm in the field, which emphasizes the role of ideas and identities Moreover, constructivist scholars and others have argued that the traditional, simplified view of international actors (states, elites, governments) has to add other networks of influence that may not map perfectly onto the old models—transnational ethnic groups, diasporas, refugees, and other migrants The contributions to this volume also take up this task of furthering the study of collective memory in international affairs both empirically and theoretically by looking at the interactions of states, diasporas, and transnational ethnic groups, and especially at the impact of collective memory on these actor’s identities, values, policy preferences, and behaviors Thus, this volume has four main aims First, it is intended as a serious effort to study the impact of post-9/11 collective memories on international affairs and foreign policies Second, the book aims for a breadth of empirical coverage by analyzing a variety of cases, including Austria, China, Israel, Japan, Poland, and Switzerland Along with the United States, the contributions emphasize especially the cases of Germany and the Jewish communities—which is appropriate, given the prominence of collective memories in these cases and the importance of these cases for the broader, conceptual study of memory Third, the volume intends to make a conceptual and theoretical contribution to the study of collective memory and its impact on international affairs Like many other scholars, we aim to move beyond a sole focus on Westphalian state actors to look explicitly at the panoply of agents involved in influencing international affairs—international organizations, nonstate actors, and diasporic groups Fourth and finally, the book seeks to take an interdisciplinary approach We have included scholars from Introduction: Twenty-first-Century Memories a variety of backgrounds in the humanities and social sciences, believing that only such diversity can generate the most fruitful insights into this important topic of the study of collective memory in international affairs Eric Langenbacher begins with a review of the burgeoning global interest in collective memory and the more specific academic literature on the topic In chapter he argues that similar to the study of political culture more generally, there have been numerous shortcomings in the concepts and theories underlying the study of memory He then identifies the most serious of these challenges and offers some partial solutions These include the necessity of conceiving collective memory as a shared attitude and thus both a constitutive element of individuals’ belief systems and of a more general political culture and collective identity Moreover, given the influence over values and hence outcomes that control over memory can confer, there is also a need to foreground dynamics of competition and cultural hegemony He argues further that the field of international relations with a (growing) number of exceptions has neglected the concerns of memory, but, with the rise of the constructivist paradigm, the field is ready to integrate the concerns of memory He ends with a brief case study, highlighting the pronounced role of Holocaust iconography in the Israeli withdrawal from the Gaza Strip in 2005 and the ongoing salience of this memory in Israeli foreign policy, for example, during the wars against Hezbollah in 2006 and against Hamas in 2009, and during the controversy about former Knesset speaker Avraham Burg’s book The Holocaust Is Over: We Must Rise from Its Ashes in 2007 and 2008 In chapter Bettina Warburg begins a more in-depth examination of the paradigmatic German case Using numerous interviews with high-level policymakers and cultural leaders, she focuses especially on the continued evolution of memory of the Holocaust First, she chronicles the rise of Holocaust memory in the postwar Federal Republic, devoting particular attention to the all-important period of the early and mid-1980s when the big battles over interpreting the Nazi period and the relationship of the Holocaust to German national identity took place She then brings this narrative into the present in numerous ways For example, she examines the high-profile Jewish Museum in Berlin in conjunction with the ongoing discussions that have been taking place in the country for several decades about immigration, multiculturalism, and a postnational German collective identity She argues that Holocaust memory is a constant in many of these policy and cultural debates, but that its impact has shifted over the years Now it is being used to enable and empower a more capacious sense of ‘‘Germanness’’ rather than remaining a ‘‘negative’’ lesson or mere admonition The bulk of Warburg’s chapter is devoted to how the evolution of Holocaust memory has changed Germany’s self-conception of its role abroad 230 Index Austria (continued) expulsion, 101–2, 145n12; legislation on Holocaust denial, 102; school curricula and collective memory, 107; and uniqueness of the Holocaust, 100–101, 104–5; Waldheim affair, 20, 1027, 11415 Austrian Holocaust Memorial Service ă sterreichischer Gedenkdienst), (O 106 Ayers, Bill, 176 Azerbaijan, 220–21 Balfour Declaration (1917), 127 Balkan wars of the 1990s, 148–49 Banchoff, Thomas, 23, 24 Bartoszewski, Wladyslaw, 86 Bartov, Omer, 6–7, 55, 147, 214, 225 Bassi, Yonatan, 40 Bauer, Yehuda, 137 Baxter, Cathy, 163, 167 Beker, Avi, 4–5, 17, 97, 225 Bell, Duncan, 22 Benjamin, Walter, 150 Berger, Thomas U., 9–10, 24, 189, 214, 225–26 Bergier, Jean-Franc¸ois, 97 Bergson, Henri, 53 ‘‘Berlinka’’ archive, 86–87 Berman, Paul, 165, 176–77 ‘‘Between Memory and History: Les Lieux de Me´moire’’ (Nora), 27 Bitburg cemetery affair, 73, 114–15 Blair, Tony, 18, 181, 215 Bloomfield, Sarah, 140 Blumenthal, Michael, 60 B’nai B’rith, 20, 122–23, 133–34, 135, 142, 144n4 The Boat Is Full (film), 109 Bodnar, John, 29 Das Boot (film), 56 Das Boot ist voll (film), 109 Boston Globe, 40 Brandt, Willy, 24, 57, 72, 76, 187 Bronfman, Edgar M., 103, 108–9, 142 Brooks, David, 163 Brumberg, Abraham, 80 Buchanan, Patrick, 121–22, 138, 144n2 Buergenthal, Thomas, 100, 112 Bund der Vertriebene (League of German Expellees) (BdV), 77, 85, 89 Burg, Avraham, 41–42 Bush, George W./Bush administration: and China policy before 9/11, 174; and ‘‘clash of civilizations,’’ 152, 159n10; conservative political interpretations by, 165, 168; European demonization of, 215; foreign policy blunders, 8–9, 168–69, 173, 178–86, 213; and gap between world of policy and historical scholarship, 174–76, 185–86; ‘‘good war’’ rhetoric, 18, 151; and Islamic terrorist wave against Israel, 176, 178; misunderstandings of totalitarianism, 173–74; political discourse at 2008 Republican National Convention, 11n1; preemption doctrine, 177–82; and Supreme Court’s decision of 12/12/2000, 7–8, 161–63, 214; ‘‘with us or with the terrorists’’ declaration, 161–62 Canada, 17 candor and U.S foreign policy, 186–87 Carter, Jimmy, 114, 132 Caspit, Ben, 41 Center for History and New Media, 162 Index 231 Central Council of Jews in Germany, 89 Chanes, Jerome, 124–25 Cheney, Dick, 178–79 China: anti-Japanese sentiments, 17, 189, 191–92, 204–5, 213; changes in China-U.S relations, 174, 207–9; and East Asia’s history problem, 189, 196, 197, 199, 203–4; and global war on terrorism, 207–8; JapanChina relations, 189, 196, 197, 199, 204–5; national identity and ‘‘China’’ concept, 209–10; national unity and stability, 211; nonsynchronization of the principles and practices of nationalism and globalization, 210–11; popular culture and collective memory after 9/11, 10–11, 203–12; and South Korea, 189 China, People’s Republic of, 37–38; and anti-Japanese sentiment, 17, 205, 213; and East Asia’s history problem, 193, 194–95, 205; intellectuals and the May Fourth Movement, 191; and post-Mao nationalism, 17, 194–95, 205 Chmiel, Mark, 130 Christian Democrats (Germany), 57, 85 Christian Social Union (Bavaria), 85 Churchill, Winston, 175, 180 Clarke, Richard, 174–75 Cleland, Max, 175 Clinton, Bill, 97, 108, 137, 138, 166, 174 Cohen, Roger, 52, 67 Cohen, Stephen P., 137 Cold War: and German reconciliation with Eastern European states, 75–76; and Holocaust memory, 132; as long war, 165; nostalgia and the end of, 219–20; and origins of the history problem in East Asia, 193–95, 197–98; Polish People’s Republic, 75–76, 80; South Korean government, 193 collective memory, 3, 13–49, 213–24; and ‘‘collected memories,’’ 29; competition over the dominant narrative, 218; the current prominence of, 13–18; definitions and terminology, 27–30, 53–54; democracy and memory, 36–38, 65; and elite actors, 31, 37, 57, 213; and historical analogies, 23–24, 219; and ‘‘historical consciousness,’’ 27–29; and identities/values, 22; and international affairs, 1–2, 18–25, 214–23; and legal/judicial system, 19–20; and the logic of appropriate behavior, 11, 213–24; as ‘‘mediated narratives,’’ 26; ‘‘memory regime’’ framework, 30, 36–39, 53–54; methodological problems of studying, 27–30, 216–17; and morality, 214–15, 219; personal and collective memories, 26; and pluralism, 31–32; and political culture, 25–27, 31–33, 46n41; and the pool of memories (memory banks) of each international actor, 11, 220–23; and ‘‘public memory,’’ 29; revisionism and intellectual debates, 223; and sociology/social scientists, 25, 45n34; strong memory and distributed memory, 29; struggles for self-determination and the ‘‘territorialization of memory,’’ 217–18; typology of historical phenomena, 28, 216–17; typology of 232 Index collective memory (continued) shared memories, 29–30, 32; unintended consequences and effects, 213 ‘‘Collective Memory: What Is It?’’ (Gedi and Elam), 27 collective memory studies, 18–19, 25–39, 46n41, 216–17; and collective memory concept, 27–30; the dynamics of memory, 30–33; four interacting variables that facilitate the emergence of traumatic memory, 33–36; memory and regime type, 36–38, 53–54; recognizing the relevance of memory, 25–27; and studies of mass belief systems and political culture, 31–33 Commentary (magazine), 124, 137 Commission on Civil Rights, 162 Conference of Presidents of Major Jewish Organizations, 125, 136, 144n8 Confino, Alon, 216 Connerton, Paul, 33 constructivism, 2, 21–23 contrition, 24, 73 Cooperman, Alan, 121–22, 126, 144n2 ‘‘cosmopolitan memory,’’ 20, 222 Cotti, Flavio, 108 Council of Jewish Federations, 125 Crawford, Beverly, 74 Cuba, 142 cultural hegemony, 32 culture, the social scientific study of, 25 Czech Republic, 190, 201n6 Davidowicz, Lucy, 137, 139 Davies, Norman, 78 Day (Wiesel), 127 Delamuraz, Jean-Pascal, 111 Deng Xiaoping, 205 Deutsches Historisches Museum (German Historical Museum), 96n96 The Diary of Anne Frank, 72 diasporic identities and issues of memory, 14, 20–21, 134, 220–21 DioGuardi, Joseph J., 104–5 Dresden, destruction of, 85, 222 Dreyfus Affair, 129 The Drowned and the Saved (Levi), 126–27 Durban conference on human rights (2001), 219 Durkheim, Emile, 26 East Asia’s history problem, 9–10, 189–202; and anti-American sentiments, 197–98; and ‘‘apology fatigue,’’ 190, 196; and Chinese-U.S relations, 207–9; Cold War era, 193–94; end of Cold War and new urgency of, 194–95, 197–98; the future of, 198–99; and international law/universal moral principles, 191, 192–93, 203; Japanese-Chinese relations, 189, 196, 197, 199, 204–5; Japanese imperialism and anti-Japanese sentiments, 17, 189, 191–92, 204–5, 213; Japanese-Korean reconciliation, 196–97, 198–99; Japan in early 1990s, 190, 195–98, 201n14; Koizumi’s visits to Yasukuni Shrine, 15–16, 189, 190, 196–97, 200n5; and modern digital technology, 203; the modern nation-state and constructions of national identity, 191–92; the origins of, 191–95; popular culture and collective memory, 204; as Index 233 the problem that will not go away, 195–98; ‘‘remembering and forgetting’’ issues, 203–4; strategic alignments hinging on historical terms, definitions, and symbols, 203; and U.S foreign policy, 197–98, 199–200; and war crimes tribunals, 192–93 Eckstein, Harry, 31–32 The Economist, 67 Edelmann, Marek, 86 Edkins, Jenny, 22 Eichmann, Adolf, 99, 103, 114 Eizenstat, Stuart E., 72, 119n66; report on wartime Switzerland, 109–10, 111; as spokesman for Jews, 138, 141 Elam, Yigal, 27 Elie Wiesel and the Politics of Moral Leadership (Chmiel), 130 Emmanuelle, Julio, 164–65 Erzwungene Wege (Forced Paths), 89 d’Estaing, Vale´ry, 57 European Central Bank, 29 European Monetary Union, 58, 73 European Remembrance Center, 201n6 European Union (EU), 211; and Germany, 58, 64, 73–74; and Poland, 84–85 Fear: Antisemitism in Poland after Auschwitz (Gross), 81 Feith, Douglas J., 122 First Zionist Congress (1897), 127, 129 Fischer, Joschka, 58, 63–64, 73–74, 88, 181 Five Germanys I Have Known (Stern), 62 Forward (journal), 144n8 Fotyga, Anna, 87 France: anti-Jewishness and anti-Semitism, 129, 132–33; collective memories, 15, 18 Franco, Francisco, 16 Friedman, Thomas, 137, 141 Friedrich, Joărg, 85 Fromm, Erich, 157 Gaddis, John, 177 Garcia Lorca, Federico, 16 Garzon, Balthasar, 16–17 Gdansk Declaration, 87–88 Gedi, Noa, 27 Genocide Convention (1948), 19, 187 Georgi, Viola, 61 German Bundesbank, 29 German Council on Foreign Relations, 62 German-Polish relations, 4, 71–96; German cultural treasures in Poland (the ‘‘Berlinka’’ archive), 86–87; German expellees and their descendants, 76–77, 85, 93nn34–35; and the memory of German suffering, 14, 73, 77, 81–84, 85–89, 95n76, 213; and ‘‘normalization,’’ 90–91; the Oder-Neisse line, 76, 77, 85; Polish victimization and German guilt, 83; responses to 9/11 and Iraq War, 71; and Warsaw Uprising Museum, 76, 80, 81; and World War II-era Poland, 78–80, 93n41; Zentrum initiative and commemoration of the expulsion, 14, 85–89, 95n80, 96n94 Germany, Nazi See Nazi Germany Germany, postwar, 3–4, 8–9, 14, 24, 51–70, 71–96; anti-Nazi legislation, 234 Index Germany, postwar (continued) 54–55, 74–75; Bitburg cemetery affair, 73, 114–15; Brandt’s Ostpolitik, 24, 57, 72, 76; Cold War-era reconciliation policies, 55, 75–76, 92– 93n32; culture of remembrance, 59–62; economic revitalization, 57, 58, 73–74; and European Union, 58, 64, 73–74; first postwar decade, 54–55; and Gulf War, 62; historical memory and foreign policymaking, 23, 24, 187; the Historikerstreit, 53, 57–58, 73, 223; Holocaust-centered memory regime, 14, 72–76, 95n76, 114–15, 222; human rights commitments, 63–65, 66–67; immigrants, 60–62; and Iraq War, 63, 180–81; Kohl administration, 58, 73–74, 85, 114–15; and ‘‘Kulturnation,’’ 59, 60; and ‘‘marginalization of Holocaust memory,’’ 114–15; medical ethics debates, 58; memory of German suffering, 14, 73, 77, 81–84, 85–89, 95n76, 201n6, 213; misunderstandings of totalitarianism, 173–74; national anthem, 52; national flag and politics of memory, 57, 66, 69n27; national political culture/ national identity, 51–57, 66–68, 72–77; and NBC miniseries Holocaust, 55–56, 73, 114; ‘‘normalization,’’ 52–53, 90–91, 222; and pacifism, 74–75; peacekeeping and peace-building roles, 62–63, 75; the politics of memory (1986–2004), 57–59; the population of expellees and their descendants, 76–77, 85, 93nn34–35; post-9/11 foreign policy and Nazi past, 173–74, 180–81, 187; reparations to Israel, 55, 75; reunication, 62; Schroăder administration, 89, 5859, 63, 87, 17374, 18081; since 1990, 73–74; the ’68ers and national political culture, 53, 55, 72; soccer tournaments, 51, 52, 67–68; standing army/defensive military operations, 62; television/ films and the Nazi past, 51, 55–57, 69n26, 7273; and Waldheim affair, 104; Weizsaăcker administration, 58, 65; and word ‘‘holocaust,’’ 56 See also German-Polish relations Gilbert, Martin, 137 Giuliani, Rudolph, 170 Glotz, Peter, 85 Gong, Gerrit W., 10–11, 203, 214, 226 Gore, Al, 138, 165–66 Gramsci, Antonio, 32 Grass, Guănter, 72, 85, 87 Great Britain: heroic memories of empire, 18; institutionalization of Holocaust memory, 20; and Iraq war, 181; and Jews in Palestine (1917–47), 129; responses to the Holocaust, 99–100; and Swiss trade negotiations with Nazis, 111 Gross, Jan, 81 Gruninger, Paul, 109 Gulf War (1990–91), 62, 179 Haacke, Hans, 66 Ha’Am, Ahad, 132 The Hague, 63, 100 Halbwachs, Maurice, 26, 116 Hamas, 41, 158, 178 Harper, Stephen, 17 Hashimoto Ryutaro, 200n5 Haăsler, Alfred A., 109 Index 235 Hebrew University in Jerusalem, 107–8 Herf, Jeffrey, 8–9, 72, 114, 173, 214, 226 Hermann, Eva, 14 Hero (film), 204, 205–7 Herzberg, Arthur, 137, 141 Herzl, Theodore, 132 Heuss, Theodor, 187 Heuwagen, Marianne, 64 Hezbollah, 41 Hilberg, Raul, 137 Himmelfarb, Gertrude, 167 Hirohito, Emperor, 192–93 historical analogies, 23–24, 219 ‘‘historical consciousness,’’ 27–29 Historical Memory Law (Ley de Memoria Histo´rica) (Spain), 16 Historikerstreit (Historians’ Debate) (Germany), 53, 57–58, 73, 223 history scholarship, 185–87; collective memory studies, 2, 18–19, 214; gap between world of policy and, 174–76, 185–86; ‘‘new history’’ approach/traditional historical approach, 166–67; and 9/11 terrorist attacks, 166–71; and the tenured professoriate, 185–86 See also political science and international relations Hitchens, Christopher, 165 Hitler’s Gold (Smith), 111 Hobsbawm, Eric, 147–49, 166 Hobson, John, 22, 26 Hoenlein, Malcolm, 136, 144n8 Hoffmann, Eva, 34, 37 Hoffmann von Fallersleben, August Heinrich, 52 Holocaust memory: the ‘‘Americanization’’ of the Holocaust, 17–18; and anti-Semitism, 103–4, 111, 129; Austria’s struggles with its Nazi past, 20, 100, 101–8, 134; and contemporary ethnic cleansings and genocides, 133, 134; and contemporary Israel, 39–42, 132–33, 223; and ‘‘cosmopolitan memory,’’ 20, 222; and Europe, 97–119; gradual universalization of, 100, 113–16; and Holocaust denial, 101–2, 145n12; institutionalization of, 20, 59–60, 133, 222; and international human rights law, 112; national myths and postwar collective self-deception, 100–101, 103, 107, 115–16; as ‘‘new’’ memory, 132; and non-Jewish world, 123, 133, 134, 135–37; postwar Germany, 14, 72–76, 95n76, 114–15, 222; and school curricula/pedagogical materials, 76, 107, 113; and Stockholm Forum (2000), 20, 59–60, 97–99; suppressed memories and neglect, 99–100; Sweden and Persson’s educational campaigns, 98–99; and Switzerland’s false neutrality, 98, 100, 108–13; and uniqueness of the Holocaust, 99–101, 104–5; victims/perpetrators and the strength and fallacy of memory, 126–27, 132; and Waldheim affair, 20, 102–7, 114–15; WJC’s campaigns, 98, 108–9 Holocaust (NBC television miniseries), 55–56, 73, 114 Holocaust Remembrance Day (Switzerland), 113 Hovannisian, Richard G., 221 Howard, Michael, 175 Hu Jintao, 205, 211 Human Rights Watch, 64 Huntington, Samuel, 152 236 Index Ichiro Ozawa, 201n14 Institute for National Memory (Poland), 81 Institute of International Relations (The Hague), 63 ‘‘institutional memory,’’ 110–11 International Court of Justice (The Hague), 100 International Criminal Court, 19 International Herald Tribune, 52 international human rights law, 112; and East Asia’s history problem, 191, 192–93, 203; and Germany’s human rights commitments, 63–65, 66–67; and ‘‘humanitarian intervention,’’ 112; and neutrality, 111–13 Iran, 156, 185 Iraq war: and American Jewish community, 121–22; and appeasement, 180–81; Bush administration ‘‘neoconservatives’’ and anti-Semitic backlash, 121–22, 126, 142, 144n2; and Bush administration’s foreign policy blunders, 168–69, 173, 178–86; ‘‘cherry picking’’ of German history and Nazi era, 182–84; and Germany, 63, 180–81; the insurgency, 183–84; and Poland, 71, 84; and preemption policy, 177–82; Saddam and nuclear weapons, 179, 180–82; Shinseki’s recommendations, 182, 183 Irving, David, 101–2, 145n12 Islam: ambiguity of attitudes vis-a`-vis the West, 155; attitudes toward death, 177–78; fundamentalism, 151, 153–55, 156–57, 173, 176–78, 217; language and the rewriting of the Arab past, 217; Muslim immigrants and transformation of European society, 60–62, 156; and totalitarianism, 151, 173, 176–78; and the West’s perceptions of the war on terrorism, 156, 165 Israel: and the American Jewish community, 132–33, 135–36, 141–43, 145n17; debate on links between United States and, 158–59; and Diaspora Jews, 14, 130, 132–34; founding of state of, 127; German reparations, 55, 75; and Holocaust memory, 39–42, 132–33, 223; and Jewish collective memory, 13–14, 129, 130–31, 136; and leadership of the Jewish community, 132–33, 135–36, 141–42; and Palestinian terror attacks, 143, 176, 178, 215; relationships with Palestinians and Israeli Arabs, 132–33; security fence, 143; and Waldheim affair, 103; withdrawal of Jewish settlers from Gaza Strip (2005), 39–42 See also Jewish collective memory Israel Policy Forum, 122 Japan: addressing the history issue, 15–16, 190, 195–98, 201n14; antiAmerican sentiments, 197; ‘‘apology fatigue,’’ 190, 196; China-Japan relations, 189, 196, 197, 199, 204–5; constructions of national history/ national identity, 191–92; contrition and memory in, 24; domestic politics and history problem, 196–97; East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, 18; imperialism and lingering anti-Japanese sentiments, 17, 189, 191–92, 204–5, 213; Korean-Japanese dialogue and reconciliation, 196–97, Index 237 198–99; new global role and military/national security, 190; postwar foreign policymaking, 24; public opinion and awareness of wartime aggression, 195–96; revival of emperor cult, 191; school textbooks, 195; and war crime tribunals, 193 See also East Asia’s history problem Jepke, Ulla, 89 Jet Li, 204, 206 Jewish Claims Conference, 75 Jewish collective memory, 13–14; and B’nai B’rith, 122–23, 133–34, 135, 142, 144n4; and British policy in Palestine, 129; and contemporary antiSemitism, 121–22, 129, 132–33, 142–43; different pasts that define the Jewish experience, 125–30, 131; different perspectives on what it means to be a Jew, 134–35; holidays and festival celebrations, 13–14, 131–32; and importance of Israel, 129, 130–31, 136; and the injunction zakhor (remember), 13, 113; and Jewish historiography, 113; and Jewish organizations, 121–25, 133–34; and the Law of Return, 136; and leadership of Jewish community, 5–6, 121–31, 135–43; and the nature and function of memory, 125–31; Orthodox Jews and world of the Hebrew Bible, 128, 131; and Passover Seder, 113; and security and survival, 131–40; and the strength and fallacy of human memory, 126–27, 132; and Wiesel, 127, 130–31, 135, 137, 139; and Zionism, 132 See also Holocaust memory; Israel Jewish community, American, 121–25; and anti-Semitism, 121–22, 142–43; and B’nai B’rith, 122–23, 133–34, 135, 142, 144n4; Holocaust memory and Jewish youth, 132; and the Iraq War, 121–22, 126, 142, 144n2; and Israel, 132–33, 135–36, 141–43, 145n17; leadership, 121–31, 135–43, 144n3; and 9/11 terrorist attacks, 121; and nonJews, 123, 135, 136–37; organizations, 121–25, 135–37, 142–43; Reform congregations, 122, 124; size and wealth of, 123 Jewish community, leadership of, 5–6, 121–31, 135–43; academics and public intellectuals, 137–38, 141; and American Jewish organizations, 121–25, 135–43, 144n3; and Eastern European or South American communities, 140; and the Israeli prime minister, 135–36, 141–42; Lubavitch leadership, 136–37; and non-Jews, 135, 136–37; politicians, 138–39, 141, 145n14; Wiesel, 130–31, 135, 137, 139 Jewish Museum (Berlin), 60 John Paul II, Pope, 76 Judaism (journal), 125 Judt, Tony, 169 Junichiro Koizumi, 15–16, 189, 190, 196–97, 200n5 Kaase, Max, 25 Kaczynski, Jaroslaw, 84–85, 89 Kaczynski, Lech, 84, 86 Kaifu Toshiki, 195 Kaiser, Karl, 54, 62 Kansteiner, Wulf, 56–57, 69n26 Kantor, Roman, 100 Karski, Jan, 80 Katzenstein, Peter, 23, 73 Kazin, Michael, 7–8, 161, 214, 226–27 238 Index Kennedy, John F., 162–63 Kerry, John, 176 Khong, Yuen Foong, 23–24 Kim Dae Jung, 196 Kimmelman, Harry, 137 Kirchner, Nestor, 14 Kirkpatrick, Jeane, 183, 185 Kirsch, Jan Holger, 33 Kittel, Manfred, 73 Klestil, Thomas, 108 Kohl, Helmut, 58, 73, 85, 11415 Koăhler, Horst, 52 Korea See North Korea; South Korea Kovarnik, Willfried, 101 Kowalski, Wojciech, 87 Krzeminski, Adam, 86 Kuăbler-Ross, Elisabeth, 34 Kuăntzel, Mathias, 177 Kwasniewski, Aleksander, 81, 87 Lagodinsky, Sergey, 61–62 Langenbacher, Eric, 3, 4, 13, 71, 214, 227 Lanzmann, Claude, 80 Lauder, Ron, 142 League of Nations, 19 Leicht, Lotte, 64 Lerner, Michael, 121–22 ‘‘Lessons’’ of the Past: The Use and Misuse of History in American Foreign Policy (May), 23–24 Levi, Primo, 109, 114, 126–27, 132 Levy, Daniel, 20, 55, 59, 222 Lewis, Bernard, 217 Lewis, Flora, 102 Lieberman, Joseph, 138–39, 141, 145n14 Lind, Jenny, 24, 35, 74 Lipstadt, Deborah, 137, 139, 145n12 Lubavitch leadership, 13637 Luăbbe, Hermann, 73 Lueger, Karl, 129 Luxembourg Agreement (1952), 72, 75 Lynch, Jessica, 170 Maier, Charles, 68 Maislinger, Dr., 106 al-Maliki, Nouri, 183 Mao Zedong, 194 Markovits, Andrei, 32 Marr, Wilhelm, 129 Marx, Karl, 140, 177 Massad, Joseph, 145n16 Matar, Nadia, 40 May, Ernest, 23–24 McCain, John, 11n1, 145n14, 159n4 Mearsheimer, John J., 142–43 Meckel, Markus, 87 ‘‘memory regime’’ framework, 30, 36–39, 53–54 Merkel, Angela, 64, 89, 173–74 Mikaya, Kanan, 179, 180, 182 Miller, Leszek, 87 Mims, Nan K., 168 Mock, Alois, 104 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (1939), 78 Moran, Rep James P., Jr., 121, 138, 144n2 Morey, Anne, 56 Morgenthau, Hans, 175 Murray, Williamson, 179 Museum of African American History (Washington, D.C.), 17 Museum of Broadcast Communications, 56 Museum of the History of Polish Jews, 81 Musil, Robert, 26 Muslim Brotherhood, 176, 217 Muslim world See Islam Index 239 Nakasone Yasuhiro, 200n5 nationalism: and Chinese popular culture, 204–7, 209–12; German, 53–54; Japanese, 190; post-Mao China, 194–95, 205 Naumann, Michael, 59–60, 63 Nazi Germany: attitudes toward death, 177; Austria’s struggles with Nazi past, 20, 100, 101–8, 134; and German foreign policy after 9/11, 173–74, 180–81, 187; and Iraq war rationales, 182–84; Polish suffering under, 78–79, 93n41; and postwar German legislation, 54–55, 74–75; and preemptive war, 179–80; Switzerland’s false neutrality and financial dealings with, 5, 17, 98, 100, 108–13; and totalitarianism, 173, 178, 182–83 Neighbors: The Destruction of the Jewish Community in Jedwabne, Poland (Gross), 81 Netanyahu, Benjamin, 39 Netherlands, 152–53 The New Republic, 176, 184 Newsweek, 104 New York Times, 63, 102, 137 9/11 terrorist attacks, 1, 6–8, 18, 147–59, 161–71, 214; and alternative Gore administration, 165–66; and American skepticism about governmental authority, 169, 171n15; archives and oral histories, 162–65; Bush’s ‘‘with us or with the terrorists’’ declaration, 161–62; and clash of civilizations, 152–53, 159n10; and collective trauma of Pearl Harbor, 220; commemoration infrastructure, 1; and communitarian bonding, 164–65; emotional responses, 162–65; as end of the twentieth century, 149, 150, 214; and eventful date of 12/12, 7–8, 161–63, 170–71, 214; failures to deter, 174–75; and historians’ tasks, 166–71; interpreted through prism of previous century, 150–55; and Islamic fundamentalism, 151, 153–55, 173, 176–78; and liberal fears of state power, 157; and neocolonialism (American cultural imperialism), 152; and political campaign rhetoric, 1, 11n1; political reflection and commentary, 163–65; problems of focusing on popular experience and attitudes alone, 167–70; and religious fanaticism and Western secularism, 153–55; and transformations in American life, 167–68, 169 Nipperdey, Thomas, 58 Nora, Pierre, 27 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 62–63, 75, 194 North Korea, 199, 208–9 Nuremberg Tribunal, 19–20, 112, 114 Obama, Barack, 17, 145n14, 169, 176, 187, 213 Obuchi Keizo, 196 Olick, Jeffrey, 29, 55, 59 Olmert, Ehud, 41, 142 Olympic Games, 51, 203 ‘‘On the Jewish Question’’ (Marx), 140 Ottoman Empire, 148 Palin, Sarah, 159n4, 176 Park Chung Hee, 193 Partisan Review, 176 240 Index Pearl Harbor attacks (1941), 220 Perle, Richard, 122, 138 Perlman, Itzhak, 204, 207 Persson, Goăran, 9899 Petraeus, David, 170, 182, 183 Philippines, 197 Pinochet, Augusto, 20 pluralism and collective memory, 31–32 Pocher, Oliver, 14 Podhoretz, Norman, 137 Poland, 78–85; anti-Semitism, 80–81; Atlanticist and pro-American policy stances, 84; Cold War period, 75–76, 80; division between Nazi Germany and Soviet Union, 78; dominant memory regime of victimhood and resistance, 78–80; and European Union membership, 84–85; foreign policy and memory of German suffering, 83–84; and German expulsion, 81–84, 213; and German population/territories, 82–83; and Germany’s new global security role, 190; and integration into West European economy and society, 84–85; and Iraq War, 71, 84; the Jedwabne memorial service (2001), 81; loss of the kresy to Germany, 79; Oder-Neisse line, 76, 77, 85; Piast Poland, 82; Polish-Jewish relations in the postcommunist period, 81; Soviet-imposed Communist dictatorship, 79; suffering under Nazi Germany, 78–79, 93n41; World War II-era, 78–80 See also German-Polish relations Polish National Tourist Office, 82–83 political science and international relations, 2, 21–24, 46n47, 185–86; constructivist paradigm, 2, 21–23 Pollack, Kenneth, 179, 180 preemption: and appeasement policies, 180–81; arguments for a preemptive war against Hitler/Nazi Germany, 179–80; Bush administration policy and 2002 National Security Statement, 177–78; and Iraq war, 177–82; and totalitarianism, 177–78; and understanding of fascist and Nazi totalitarianism, 178 Presidential Commission on the Holocaust (U.S Holocaust Commission), 114, 132 Preussische Treuhand, 86 Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 158, 176 Putnam, Robert, 167–68 Pye, Lucien, 26 Qutb, Sayd, 176 Rabin, Yitzhak, 41 Rabinovich, Itamar, 137–38 Rau, Johannes, 58, 87 Reagan, Ronald, 73, 105, 114–15 realist tradition, 174–75 Recount (HBO film), 162 Red Sorghum (film), 204–5, 207 Reich, Simon, 32 Renan, Ernest, 27 The Republic of Fear: The Inside Story of Saddam’s Iraq (Mikaya), 179 Ribarov, Gregor, 106 Rice, Condoleezza, 174–75, 182, 184–85 Rochon, Thomas, 31 Rokeach, Milton, 27 Roosevelt, Franklin, 175 Index 241 Rosenberg, M J., 122 Rosenzweig, Roy, 162 Roshwald, Aviel, 53 Rumsfeld, Donald, 181, 182 Russia, 84, 208 See also Soviet Union Sa’adah, Anne, 35, 73 Sacks, Jonathan, 136 Scheel, Walter, 76 Schindlers List (lm), 114 Schloăgel, Karl, 8889 Schmidt, Harald, 14 Schmidt, Helmut, 57 Schmidtke, Oliver, 71 Schmitt, Carl, 223 Schoenerer, Georg von, 129 Schroăder, Gerhard, 89, 5859, 63, 87, 17374, 180–81 Schulz, Bruno, 140 Schuman, Howard, 28 Scott, Jacqueline, 28 Seifert, Jurgen, 54–55 Seixas, Peter, 27 September 11 Digital Archive, 162–65 Shain, Yossi, 11, 213, 227–28 Shalev, Avner, 40 Sharon, Ariel, 39, 132, 215 Shinseki, Eric, 182, 183 Shoah (film), 80 Sikorski, Radek, 84 Simmons, Katrina, 163 Simon Wiesenthal Center (Los Angeles), 41 Six Days’ War (1967), 127, 132 Slany, William, 109–10 Smith, Anthony, 217–18 Smith, Arthur, 110–11 Snyder, Timothy, 29 Sobieski, Jan, 78 soccer tournaments, 51, 52, 67–68, 189, 197 Social Democratic Party (SPD) (Germany), 57, 69n27, 72, 85–89, 96n94 Soltes, Ori Z., 5–6, 13, 121, 228 The Sound of Music (film), 103 South Korea: anti-American sentiments and Korean War, 197; antiJapanese sentiments, 191–92, 196; Cold War-era, 193–94; constructions of a national history/national identity, 191; and East Asia’s history problem, 191–92, 193, 196, 197, 198–99; Korean-Japanese dialogue and reconciliation, 196–97, 198–99; postwar, 23 Soviet Union: collective memory of the ‘‘Great Patriotic War,’’ 18, 37; and Poland, 78, 79; and totalitarianism, 173, 178, 182–83 See also Russia Spain, 16–17 Der Spiegel, 103–4 Spielberg, Steven, 114, 139 Stauffenberg, Claus Schenk Graf von, 56 Stearns, Peter, 167 Steinbach, Erika, 85–86, 89, 96n94, 96n96 Steinmeier, Frank-Walter, 64 Stern, Fritz, 58, 62, 65 Stockholm International Forum on the Holocaust (2000), 20, 59–60, 97–99 Stoiber, Edmund, 154 Straw, Jack, 181 Stuărmer, Michael, 5758 Sucharipa, Ernst, 107 Sudeten German Homeland Association (Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft), 77 242 Index Sweden, 97–99 Swift Boat Veterans for Truth, 175–76 Switzerland, 4–5; anti-Semitism, 111; and Eizenstat report, 109–10, 111; false neutrality, 5, 17, 98, 100, 108–13; financial dealings with Nazi Germany, 17, 98, 100, 108–13; and ‘‘institutional memory,’’ 110–11; reevaluation of role of neutrality, 5, 111–13; and resistance to a change in national memory, 109; WJC campaign against, 98, 108–9 Sznaider, Natan, 20, 222 Die Tageszeitung, 61 Takeo Miki, 200n5 Tamed Power: Germany in Europe (Katzenstein), 23 Tan Dun, 207 Task Force for International Cooperation on Holocaust Education, Remembrance, and Research, 98–99, 107 Telhami, Shibley, 145n16 Terror and Liberalism (Berman), 176 Thierse, Wolfgang, 89 The Threatening Storm: The Case for Invading Iraq (Pollack), 179 Thum, Gregor, 82 Tikkun community (San Francisco), 121–22 Tikkun (magazine), 137 Tokyo Tribunal, 19, 192–93 Topkara, Ufuk, 60 totalitarianism, 173–74; and anti-Semitism, 173, 176–77; and attitudes toward death, 177–78; and Ba’ath regime of Saddam Hussein’s Iraq, 173, 179, 182–83; and doctrine of preemption, 177–78; and Iran, 185; misunderstandings by Bush, Schroăder, and Merkel administrations, 17374; Nazism and Stalin-era Soviet Union, 173, 178, 182–83; and radical Islamic fundamentalism, 151, 173, 176–78 Transatlantic Trends Survey of the German Marshall Fund of the United States, 75 Treaties of Rome, 64 Treaty of San Francisco (1951), 193 Turkey: and Armenian genocide, 21, 65–66, 148, 220–21; Article 301 of penal code limiting free speech, 65; collective historical amnesia, 65–68, 221; EU membership, 65, 154–55, 221; and Germany, 60, 67–68; and Kurdish population, 66; Ottoman Empire and Ottoman-Turkish identity, 148–49 Tusk, Donald, 89 UN Convention against Genocide, 63 Union of American Hebrew Congregations, 124 Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations, 122 United Jewish Appeal, 125 United Jewish Communities of North America, 125 United Nations: and Holocaust commemorations, 100, 117n9; resolutions and initiatives, 19; and war on terrorism, 218–19 United States: and ‘‘Americanization’’ of the Holocaust, 17–18; and China, Index 243 207–9; collective memories, 17–18; community activity/citizen involvement, 167–68; and East Asia’s history problem, 197–200; foreign policy decisions and the misuse of World War II-era history, 89, 17388; and Germanys Schroăder government, 18081; and Israel, 14243, 145n17, 158–59; and new era of candor, 186–87; and Swiss trade negotiations with Nazis, 111 See also Bush, George W./Bush administration; Iraq war; Jewish community, American; 9/11 terrorist attacks; war on terrorism United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM), 17, 114, 140 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), 112 Der Untergang (film), 56 U.S Holocaust Commission (Presidential Commission on the Holocaust), 114, 132 van Gogh, Theo, 153 Vietnam, U.S foreign policy in, 23 Voigt, Karsten, 52, 64–65, 66, 67 Vranitzky, Franz, 107–8 Waldheim, Kurt, 20, 102–7, 114–15 Walesa, Lech, 81, 87 Walt, Stephen M., 142–43 Waltz, Kenneth, 175 Warburg, Bettina, 3–4, 51, 72, 73, 214, 228 war crimes tribunals, post-World War II, 19–20, 112, 114, 192–93 war on terrorism: and absence of closure, 220; appropriate language/terminology in, 216; and Chinese-U.S relations, 207–8; and German/ Italian methods to pursue domestic terrorist organizations, 157; and liberal fears of usurpation of power by the state, 157; and undermining of legitimacy claims of the United States and its allies, 218–19; and the United Nations, 218–19 Warsaw Treaty (1970), 76 Warsaw Uprising Museum, 76, 80, 81 Washington Post, 121, 126, 176 Wehrmachtsausstellung (exhibition), 56 Weimar Republic, 57, 69n27 Weinberg, Gerhard, 17980 Weizsaăcker, Richard von, 58, 65, 187 Wendt, Alexander, 22 Wertsch, James, 26, 29, 31–32, 34–35 Wiesel, Elie: critics and defenders of, 130–31; and Holocaust memory, 97, 114, 115, 127, 130–31, 135; as leader/ spokesman for Jews, 130–31, 135, 137, 139 Wieseltier, Leon, 137 Wiesenthal, Simon, 103, 223 Wilson, Woodrow, 192 Wolfowitz, Paul, 122, 138, 182, 184 Women in Green, 40–41 World Cup soccer, 51, 52, 67–68, 197 World Jewish Congress (WJC): and Bitburg cemetery affair, 115; campaigns for reparations and restitution of property, 98, 108–9, 115, 124; changes in presidency of, 142; goals and strategies, 20, 98, 115, 119n66, 124; and Sweden’s actions during 244 Index World Jewish Congress (continued) World War II, 98; and Switzerland’s actions during World War II, 98, 108–9; and Waldheim affair, 103–4, 115, 119n66 Wprost (Polish newsmagazine), 86 Yad Vashem (Yad VaShem), 40, 80, 140, 222 Yang Jiezhi, 203 Yasukuni Shrine (Tokyo), 195, 200n5, 203; Koizumi’s visit to, 15–16, 189, 190, 196–97, 200n5 Yasuo Fukuda, 205 Yerushalmi, Yosef Hayim, 113 Young, James, 29, 31 Zaborowski, Marcin, 71 Zapatero, Jose Luis, 16 Zentrum gegen Vertriebungen (Zentrum initiative), 14, 85–89, 95n80, 96n94 Zetnik, K (Yehiel Dinur), 99 Zhang Yimou, 204, 206–7 Zhu Rongji, 199 Ziegler, Jean, 110 Zuckerman, Mort, 136 Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (German television), 51