Obstacles To Democratization In Southeast Asia _ A Study Of The Nation State, Regional And Global Order.pdf

Obstacles to Democratization in Southeast Asia Tai Lieu Chat Luong Obstacles to Democratization in Southeast Asia 9780230 241817 01 previii indd i9780230 241817 01 previii indd i 12/1/2009 11 46 03 AM[.]

Tai Lieu Chat Luong Obstacles to Democratization in Southeast Asia Critical Studies of the Asia Pacific Series Series Editor: Mark Beeson, Professor in the Department in Political Science and International Studies at the University of Birmingham, UK Critical Studies of the Asia Pacific showcases new research and scholarship on what is arguably the most important region in the world in the twenty-first century The rise of China and the continuing strategic importance of this dynamic economic area to the United States mean that the Asia-Pacific will remain crucially important to policymakers and scholars alike The unifying theme of the series is a desire to publish the best theoretically-informed, original research on the region Titles in the series cover the politics, economics and security of the region, as well as focussing on its institutional processes, individual countries, issues and leaders Titles include: Hiro Katsumata ASEAN’S COOPERATIVE SECURITY ENTERPRISE Norms and Interests in the ASEAN Regional Forum Erik Paul OBSTACLES TO DEMOCRATIZATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA A Study of the Nation State, Regional and Global Order Barry Wain MALAYSIAN MAVERICK Mahathir Mohamad in Turbulent Times Robert G Wirsing and Ehsan Ahrari (editors) FIXING FRACTURED NATIONS The Challenge of Ethnic Separatism in the Asia-Pacific Critical Studies of the Asia Pacific Series Series Standing Order ISBN 978-0-230-22896-2 (Hardback) 978-0-230-22897-9 (Paperback) (outside North America only) You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order Please contact your bookseller or, in case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and the ISBN quoted above Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, England Obstacles to Democratization in Southeast Asia A Study of the Nation State, Regional and Global Order Erik Paul Vice-President, Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies, University of Sydney, Australia © Erik Paul 2010 All rights reserved No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 First published 2010 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010 Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries ISBN 978-0-230-24181-7 hardback This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress 10 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham and Eastbourne Contents List of Tables vii Acknowledgements viii Surrendering Sovereignty The nation state, regionalization and global integration Sustainability of the system The future of the global state 1 Struggle for Democracy Class struggle Race struggle Globalization Pathways to political change Conclusions 12 14 18 19 23 28 Obstacles to Democratization Southeast Asia’s nation states Brunei Cambodia Indonesia Laos Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Timor-Leste Vietnam 30 30 33 36 46 58 65 75 82 91 100 110 119 Regional Integration The construction of Southeast Asia ASEAN’s expansion ASEAN’s integration Capturing ASEAN The United States in Southeast Asia China in Southeast Asia 127 127 130 132 137 143 152 v vi Contents Ecological Scarcity Ecological scarcity Political implications 159 164 166 Global Hegemony Old imperialism A new world order Global apartheid Perpetual war for perpetual peace Blowback 171 171 173 177 181 185 ASEAN’s Future 188 References 200 Index 220 List of Tables 3.1 Southeast Asia 31 4.1 Southeast Asia human development vii 134 Acknowledgements I would like to thank Alexandra Webster and the publishing team at Palgrave Macmillan for their support in the production of this book Although I take full responsibility for this book, it benefited greatly from the stimulating research and teaching culture and friendly environment at the Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies (CPACS), University of Sydney viii Surrendering Sovereignty The nation state, regionalization and global integration In an increasingly interdependent world, the issue of democratization of the nation state has become a critical problem because global economic and security interests threaten the viability of the nation state The nation state continues to be the primary focus for the identity and wellbeing of the majority of people, and it is largely within the nation state that the struggle for social justice takes place There is no world state, or world nation state, to provide individuals with civil, political and economic rights While there exist a global state, it is essentially a grouping of a few powerful states and its institutions of global governance It is a power paradigm which does not grant the individual with civil and political rights of a world citizen In that sense, there is no political identity of a world citizen but only that provided by the nation state Democracy, like the good society, should be considered as an ideal The American philosopher John Dewey considered democracy as a moral ideal and a matter of faith in humanity, a work in progress, and that democracy could not be achieved without ‘a significant redistribution of power and for the economy to be publicly controlled so that the divisions of labor may be free where they are now coercive’ (Westbrook 1991:442) Political scientist Robert Dahl held the same view and argued that political equality was a defining aspect of democracy, and that modern corporate capitalism tends ‘to produce inequalities in social and economic resources so great as to bring about severe violations of political equality and hence of the democratic process’ (Dahl 1985:60) Democratization is the struggle towards that ideal, for more equality in power, income and wealth among citizens of nation states and for all people in the world at large Democratization is the advancement 216 References Somboon, J and Thiramongkol, N (1993) ‘Effect of Sea-Level Rise on the North Coast of the Bight of Bangkok’ Journal of Tropical Geography, 24 Song, Yimin (1996) ‘A Discussion of the Division and Grouping of Forces in the World After the End of the Cold War’ International Studies, 6–8, China Institute of International Studies, Beijing Song, Yimin (2002) Report on the 12th Meeting of CSCAP Working Group on Transnational Crime Bangkok, 17 November Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific, Strategic Defence Studies Centre, Australian National University, Canberra Spiller, P (2007) ‘Laos’ Controversial Exile’ BBC News, 11 June http://news bbc.co.uk Stern 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Growth and Governance in Asia Honolulu, Hawaii: Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies, (APCSS) Zeng, Qinghong (2004) Speech at the welcoming banquet for the Third International Conference of Asian Political Parties Beijing, September Zhang, J (2006) ‘From Silence to Struggle’ US-China Foreign Language, 4(9) Zhu, Banzao (2000) Spokesman on China’s Diplomacy in 2000 People’s Daily Online, May Index Page numbers in bold refer to tables Abad, MC 195 Abuza, Zachary 28, 80 Aceh 51–2, 54 Afghanistan 23, 77, 125, 130, 146–7, 150, 155, 173, 175, 177, 186 Africa 177 Algeria 182 Ali, Tariq 176, 182 Alkatiri, Mari 112, 113–4, 114–6 al-Qa’ida 146, 147, 181, 182 Alston, Philip 89 Amnesty International 43 An Inconvenient Truth (film) 159 Aquino, Benigno 84 Aquino, Corazon 84, 86 Arbour, Louise 198 arms race 190–1 Arroyo, Jose Miguel 85 Arroyo, Macapagal 16, 84–5, 85–6, 88–9, 147, 195 ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) 196 ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) 3, 64, 131–2, 133, 142, 192–3, 198 ASEAN Regional Forum 151 ASEAN Security Community (ASC) 196 ASEAN Socio-cultural Community (ASCC) 196 ASEAN-China Free Trade Area (ACFTA) 132, 138 ASEAN–EU FTA 132, 142 Asian Broadcasting and Communications Network (ABCN) 63 Asian Development Bank (ADB) 87, 166 Asian financial crisis (1997) 21, 71, 103, 142, 167, 192, 193 Asian Summit (EAS) 137 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN): American strategy 151–2; Charter 136–7, 196; and China 137–41, 156–7; democratization 28–9, 189, 199; development model 134–5; economic integration 131–2, 192–3; expansion of 130–2, 192; first use of democracy 3, 196; foreign debt 134; foreign investments 135; formation 32–3, 129–30, 191–2; future 188–99; and geopolitcs 137–42; in the global state 7–8; and globalization 189–90; integration 132–7, 188, 195–7; lack of cooperation 193; militarization 190–1; Myanmar membership 80–1, 152, 194–5; peacekeeping 193–4; and regionalization 2–5, 10–1; security agenda 198; social contract 188; surrender of sovereignty to 12, 192, 199; and Timor-Leste 118; Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (TACSEA 1976) 151, 193–4; weakness of democratic culture 189, 197 Assuncao, Alfredo 115–6 Aung San 11, 75, 129, 191 Aung San Suu Kyi 78–9, 82, 195 Australia 50, 54, 57, 58, 104, 110, 111–2, 112–3, 114–6, 117, 144–5, 148, 149, 152–3 Australia–Japan Treaty 144–5 Australian Security Intelligence Organization (ASIO) 49 authoritarianism 194; Cambodia 41–4; ideology 4; Malaysia 66–9; and regionalization 4; Singapore 98–9 220 Index 221 Bacevich, Andrew 173, 178 Bacharuddin Habibie 110–1 Badawi, Ahmad 142 Baker, Raymond 180 Bali Concord II (2003) 3, 131, 196 Balkanization 49–53 Ball, Desmond 145, 190 Bangkok 17, 101, 104, 163 Bangkok Declaration (1967) 130 Bauman, Zygmunt 173–4, 182–3 Beijing consensus, the 140–1 Bello, Waldo 87, 87–8, 89, 91, 104, 135, 136 Bhagwati, Jagdish 133, 174 Bhumibol Adulyadej, King 108–10 bin Laden, Osama 182 biofuels 167 biopolitics 99 bird flu 160 blowback 185–7 Bobbio, Norbeto Booker, Salih 177 Borneo 194 Brown, Lester 163 Brunei 31, 33–6, 130; Chinese population 35; corruption 35; elections 34; Human Development Index 134; Malay Islamic Monarchy 34; oil and gas revenues 34–5, 165; population 34; religious freedom 34; Royal Brunei Armed Forces (RBAF) 35–6; royal family 35; status of women 34; welfare provisions 35; Western influence 23 Brzezinski, Zbigniew 186 Buddhism 27, 60–1, 75, 79, 127 Bull, Hedley 8, 10 Bunma, Theng 42 Burma 18, 23, 129 Burma Independence Army (BIA) 75 Buruma, Ian 109 Bush, George W 7, 22, 147, 186 Calleo, David 185 Cambodia 31, 36–46, 119, 129, 131, 144, 194; authoritarianism 41–4; Buddhism in 27; Cambodian People’s Party (CPP) takes control 40–1; Chinese influence 23, 152; civil society 45; corruption 30, 41, 42–4; ecological damage 37–8, 42; elections, 1993 39–40; environmental degradation 160; foreign debt 134; foreign development aid 75; foreign investments 43–4, 46; FUNCINPEC 40, 41, 45; Gini inequality coefficient 44; Human Development Index 134; human rights 39; judiciary 43; Khmer Rouge 27, 28, 37–8, 39, 40, 130; land dispossessions 44–5; liberation struggle 36–8; opposition 45; patronage 41; population 37–8, 46; poverty 30, 44–5; prospects 45–6; repression 43; Sam Rainsy Party (SRP) 41; UNTAC mission 39–40, 149; US bombing of 38 Cambodia Development Resource Institute (CDRI) 44 Cambodian Freedom Fighters (CFF) 45 Camilleri, Joseph capital export 167 capitalism 6, 173–4, 181, 185 Capitalism, Socialism and the Environment (Stretton) 168 Capitalism’s Achilles Heel (Baker) 180 capitalist global economy 20–1, 22 car manufacturing 131, 139 Carter, Jimmy 186 Case, William 71 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 64, 108, 146–7 Chakkaphak, Pin 103 Chanet, Christine 105–6 Chang, Ha-Joon 180 Charlie Wilson’s War (film) 186 Chávez, Hugo 183 Chavez, Jenina 136–7 Chee Son Juan 95 Chiang Ching-kuo 14, 25, 100 children, exploitation of 17 China 22, 33, 127, 129, 131–2, 135– 6, 143, 151–2; and ASEAN 137–41, 156–7; capitalism 158; Communist Party of China (CCP) 157–8; East Asia strategy 137–8; ecological 222 Index China—(Continued) damage 163–4; and ecological scarcity 169; economic growth 21, 136, 138–9, 152–3; elections 157; food demands 139; influence 7, 23; military alliances 155; military capability 154–5; nationalism 183; power 138–9; reforms 130, 152–3; relations with Myanmar 81, 82, 138, 155–6; rise of 7, 11, 180, 184–5, 197–8; and Russia 156–7; South China Sea policy 148, 156; and Southeast Asia 152–8; trade 132; and US hegemony 153–5; and Vietnam 119, 138, 152 Chomsky, Noam Chua, Amy 18–9, 21, 181 civil society 136; Cambodian 45; expansion of 23–5; Indonesia 57; Laos 59; and regionalization 3–4; Singapore 92–5; transnationalization of class and the class struggle 14–8; conflict 14–8; and gender 17–8; Indonesia 57; interests 14–5; middle 16–7, 29, 70–1, 169; Myanmar 78–9; working 17 Cleary, Paul 113, 115 climate change 29, 31, 126, 159–60, 161–4, 167, 185, 197 Cohn, Norman 38, 150 Cojuangco, Eduardo 85 Cold War 8, 33, 57, 107, 129, 131, 143, 152, 172–3, 185–6, 191–2, 194 Colinvaux, Paul colonialism 21, 127–8 Common Effective Preferential Tariff (CEPT) 133 communication and information technology 174 conflict 13–4 Confucianism 127, 140 Cooper, Robert 176–7 Cooperative Security Locations (CSLs) 148 corruption 4, 6, 18, 30, 180, 195, 197; Brunei 35; Cambodia 41, 42–4; and debt 55–6; Indonesia 53–6; Malaysia 68, 73; Philippines, the 85–6, 180–1; Singapore 97–8; Thailand 102–3, 104–5; Vietnam 123 Corte-Real, Benjamin 111 Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) 131 crony capitalism Cuba 82 cultivation (culture) system 21 cultural relativism 70 da Conceicao, Vicente 116 Dahl, Robert 1, 13, 14 Daly, Herman 134–5, 168, 185, 198–9 Davis, Miles 160 debt 55–6, 87–8, 134, 166, 167 decolonization 65, 92, 172, 173 deforestation 42, 135, 160–1 democracy 1, 174–5; and class struggle 14–8; and gender relations 17–8; and globalization 19–23; pathways to 23–8; and race relations 18–9; struggle for 12–29 democratization 1–2, 5, 12–4, 28–9, 174–5, 189, 197, 199; Indonesia 47–9, 56; and power 2; and race relations 19; Thailand 101–3; Vietnam 123–5 Deng Xiaoping 157 Denmark 13 Dewey, John Downer, Alexander 114–5 drugs trade 77–8, 79–80, 97 Dying to Win (Pape) 182 East Timor see Timor-Leste ecological scarcity 160, 164–6, 199; political implications 166–70 economic deregulation 20 economic development 4–5 economic growth 29 economic integration 131–2, 192–3 Egypt 17, 23, 28, 182 El Saadawi, Nawal 17 elections: Brunei 34; Cambodia 39–40; China 157; Indonesia 48, 49; Index 223 Malaysia 69, 73; Thailand 102, 103–4, 106; Timor-Leste 114 elite conversion 25 Elliott, John 178 End of History (Fukuyama) 176–7 energy prices 165, 167 environmental change and degradation 29, 31, 126, 135, 159–64, 160–1, 167, 185, 189, 197 see also ecological scarcity Erikson, Erik 13 Estrada, Joseph 84, 85, 89 ethno-nationalism 72 eugenics 99 European Union (EU) 2–3, 7, 33, 132, 141–2, 173, 174, 177, 179, 188, 192 extremism 28 Falk, Richard 173 Fascism 172 Fauzi, Noer 15 Fernandes, Clinton 110–1 Focus on Global South, Philippines Programme 136–7 food security 135–6, 161–2, 166, 167 foreign investments 198–9; Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) 135; Cambodia 43–4, 46; Indonesia 193; Laos 61–3; Myanmar 76–7; Vietnam 121 Framework Agreement on Comprehensive Economic Co-operation 132 France 36–7, 119, 129 Free Aceh Movement (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka or GAM) 52, 54 Free Papua Movement 50 Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) 4, 7, 131–2, 133, 135–6, 142 French Indochina 128 Friends of the Earth Indonesia 48 Fukuyama, Francis 176–7 Gainsborough, M 24, 125 Galtung, Johan 8–9, 10 gender relations 17–8 geopolitics 21–3, 80–2, 137–42 Gershman, John 149 Gilligan, James 13 global apartheid 177–81 Global Campaign for Agrarian Reform 16 Global Governance Project global hegemony: blowback 185– 7; global apartheid 177–81; globalization 173–7; imperialism 171–3; perpetual war 181–5 Global Peace Index (GPI) 30, 31 global state 6–11, 20 global struggles, internalization of 23 global warming see climate change Global Witness 42–3 globalization 1, 2, 19–23, 20, 31, 97, 120–1, 126, 166, 173–4, 178, 181, 181–5, 189–90 GNP 31, 133 Gore, Al 159, 193 Gray, John 184 Great Britain 173; and Brunei 35–6, 130; decolonization 65, 92; and Singapore 91–2 Great Depression 172 Great Transformation (Polanyi) 183 Group of Seven (G7) 20, 21, 21–2, 131, 175 Gulf War (1991) 175 Gusmão, Xanana 111, 112, 114, 116 Haiti 175 Handley, Paul 106, 109 Haq, Obaid Ul 142 Harvey, David 180 Heilbroner, Robert 183, 185 Held, David 7, 19–20 Heng, Russell 17 Hewison, K 24 Hinduism 127 Hing, Lee Kam 73–4 Ho Ching 92 Hobsbawm, Eric 171, 172 Honasan, Gregorio 84 Howard, John 30, 57, 145 Hu Jintao 157, 158 human needs 13 human rights 4, 22, 39, 47, 80–1, 105–6, 179, 194–5, 198 224 Index Human Rights Watch 54–5, 89 Hun Sen 40–2, 45 Ibrahim, Anwar 67, 69, 70, 150 imperialism 10, 171–3; new 176–7, 179, 184 inclusion India 22, 33, 127, 142, 177, 190; nationalism 183; relations with Myanmar 81–2; rise of 7, 197–8; sea-level change risk 164 Indonesia 31, 46–58, 76, 129, 139, 165, 180, 181, 190, 192, 193, 194; Aceh 51–2, 54; Act of Free Choice 49; armed forces 53–4, 54–5; Balkanization 49–53; Chinese population 18, 47, 139, 140; class struggle 57; corruption 53–6; deforestation 160–1; democratization 47–9, 56; destruction of Communist party 47; and ecological scarcity 168–9; election (1992) 48; food security 135–6, 166, 167; foreign debt 55–6; foreign investments 193; Human Development Index 134; independence 46–7; Islamic militant groups 54; living standards 53; Maluku province 52–3, 54; middle class 17; military budget 26; Muslim population 52–3; national identity 31; occupation of Timor-Leste 110; Papuan’s People Assembly (MRP) 50; population 30; poverty 53; prospects 57–8; and race relations 18; radical Islam 53; and Russia 156–7; sea-level change risk 162; Special Autonomy Law (Otonomi Khusus or Otsus) 50; Sundanese Peasants Union 15–6; Tsunami, December 2004 52; urbanization 16; voter participation 49; West Kalimantan 53; West Papua 49–51, 54, 58 Indonesia Corruption Watch 56 industrialization 29 inequality 14, 31, 104, 169, 170 infant mortality 50, 123, 133, 183 inflation 31, 164–5, 167 International Bill of Human Rights 12 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 12 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 12 International Crisis Group (ICG) 107 International force for East Timor (INTERFET) 110–1 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 5, 20, 55–6, 87, 103, 131, 166, 174, 193 Internet, the 23–4, 67, 94 Iran 165, 182 Iraq, invasion of 23, 125, 147, 150, 153, 175 Islam 127, 150; fundamentalism 176, 182; radical 27–8, 53, 150–1, 181–2; Sharia law 66 Israel 23, 182 Jakarta 16 James, Neil 114 Japan 33, 128, 130–1, 132, 138, 140, 143–5, 172, 174, 177, 179, 190 Jaspero, Christopher 54 Java 50 Jayasuriya, K 24 Jeyaretnam, J B 95 Jinakul, Apichit 102 Johnson, Chalmers 9–10, 146, 154, 180, 186 Joy, Linda 66 Judt, Tony 176 Kachornprasart, Sanan 102–3 Kant, Immanuel Katzenstein, Peter 6, 140 Kiernan, Ben 38 King, David 159, 185 King, Peter 56 King Never Smiles, The (Handley) 109 Kirby, Michael 43 Kittikachorn, Thanom 101 Kuan, Fong Po 71 Index 225 Laboto, Rogerio 114 Lane, Max 47, 57 Laos 58–65, 75, 129, 131, 138, 139; Buddhism in 60–1; Chinese influence 23; Christian minority 61; civil society 59; economic growth 63; economic reform 60; foreign debt 134; foreign investments 61–3; Human Development Index 134; hydropower potential 61–3; independence 58; infrastructure 63; Lao People’s Army (LPA) 60; Lao People’s Revolutionary Party (LPRP) 59; Lao Students Movement for Democracy 64; Nam Theun (NT2) project 62–3; one-party state 59, 59–63; the Pathet Lao 59; population 59; poverty 63–4; prospects 63–5; US bombing of 59, 160 Latin America 183 Lee Hsien Loong 92, 137–8 Lee Hsien Yang 92, 100 Lee Kuan Yew 17, 25, 70, 92, 98, 99, 100, 158 Lenton, Timothy 164 Lewis, Jeffrey 153 liberalization 16–7 Licadho 45–6 Lieven, Anatol 154 Lim, Danny 84 Lingle, Christopher 93 Lintner, Bertil 25 living standards 46, 53, 117 Lo Hsing Han 97 Lombok, Treaty of 58 Lon Nol 38 Maarif, Syaffii 53 McCartan, Brian 139 McCormack, Gavan 143 McCoy, Alfred 64, 77, 84–5, 91 Mackie, Jamie 72, 140 MacKinder, Halford 187 McNamara, Robert 120, 155 Maha Vajiralongkorn, Prince 109 Mahathir, Marina 70 Mahathir, Mohamad 67, 70, 142, 181–2, 193 Mahmud, Taib 73 Malaysia 17, 31, 65–74, 129, 130, 131, 190, 193, 194, 196; authoritarianism 66–9; Chinese population 69, 72, 140; civil rights movement 70; constitution 66; corruption 68, 73; cultural relativism 70; East Malaysia 72–3; election (1999) 73; election (2004) 69; Hindu Rights Action 69; Human Development Index 134; independence 65–6; Indian minority 69–70, 72; judiciary 67; Lawyers Committee for Human Rights (LCHR) 67; middle class 70–1; national identity 31; oil 165; Overseas Development Administration (ODA) 68; PAS 71; patronage 68; prospects 73–4; race politics 18, 19, 66–9, 71–2; racial composition 68–9; religious status 66; resistance 69–73; status of women 70; United Malay National Organization (UMNO) 66–9; and the ‘war on terror’ 72; Western influence 23; women’s organizations 17 Malaysian Airlines 68 Malaysian Federation 33 Maluku Sovereignty Front (FKM) 52–3 Manaf, Muzakkir 52 Marable, Manning 178 Marcos, Ferdinand 85, 86, 87, 89 Marcus, David 23 Marschall, Walther 38 Martinkus, John 116 Masduki, Teten 56 Mbembe, Achille 181 Melo, Jose 89 Meng, Kith 42 Mexico 178, 180 Middle East 23, 178–9, 186 migration 139–40, 184 militarism 10 militarization 23 military expenditures military interventions, US led 175 military political power 25–6 226 Index Milward, Alan Minter, William 177 Mitterrand, Francois Monk, P 25 Moore, Barrington 15 Movement for National Unity and Building Democracy’ 124 multiculturalism 19 multilateralism Myanmar 30, 31, 75–82, 118, 131, 136, 139, 189; All Burma Young Monks Union 79; ASEAN membership 80–1, 152, 194–5; Chinese population 139; class struggle 78–9; foreign development aid 75; foreign investments 76–7; and geopolitcs 80–2; Human Development Index 134; human rights 80–1, 194–5; military dictatorship 75–8, 82; monks 79; Muslim-based guerrilla movements 80; National League for Democracy (NLD) 78–9; Naypyidaw 76; opium production 77–8, 79–80; race struggle 79–80; relations with China 81, 82, 138, 155–6; relations with India 81–2; relations with Thailand 81; and Singapore 97 Nam Theun (NT2) project 62–3 narcotics trade 77–8, 79–80, 97 nation building 18 nation state, the 13; democratization 1–2; and globalization 1, 2; incorporation into transnational state (TNS) 5–6; power relations 12; and regionalization 2–6; restructuring 24; Southeast Asia 30–3, 31 national identity 13 national wealth nationalism 31, 32, 33, 182–4, 186, 191, 197 NATO 187 Naypyidaw 76 Ne Win 75, 76 Nemenzo, Francisco 19, 25, 83–4, 88 neoliberalism 18–9, 20–1, 134–5, 166, 176, 179, 182–3 Netherlands, the 184 Noor, Farish 72, 74 Norodom Ranariddh 40 North Korea 143, 155, 175 Norway 13 Nursalim, Sjamsul 56 oil 33, 46, 152, 165 Ophuls, William 160 opium production 77–8 Orientalism 178–9 Osborne, Milton 58 other, the, hatred of Pakistan 25, 28, 155, 177, 190 Palestine 23, 182 Pape, Robert 182 Papua New Guinea (PNG) 49 participation 24 patriarchy 17–8 patronage 41, 68, 98 peacekeeping 193–4 peasants 15 Philippines, the 15, 16, 31, 82–91, 129, 131, 189; anti-terrorism legislation 85, 88; Chinese population 19; CIA involvement 146–7; Communist Party of the Philippines 89–90; corruption 85–6, 180–1; emigration 87; extrajudicial killings 88–9; food security 166; foreign debt 87–8; Gini inequality coefficient 86–7; Global Peace Index (GPI), 30; Glorietta shopping mall crisis (2003) 84–5; Human Development Index 134; the Marcos years 84, 85, 86, 87, 89; middle class 17; Muslim population 90; New People Army (NPA) 89–90; oligarchy 19, 83–4, 87–8; political instability 84–6; political system 83–4; poverty 86–7; Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG) 86; prospects 91; and race relations 18, 19; reform movements 26; Reform of the Armed Forces Movement (RAM) 26, 84; resistance 89–91; and the South China Sea 148; Index 227 US alliance 147; US military presence 22, 87, 90–1, 149; US occupation of 82–3; Young Officers Union (YOU) 84–5; young turks movement 26 Phongpaichit 26–7 Pilorge, Naly 45–6 Piriyaragsan 26–7 Polanyi, Karl 172, 183 political change, pathways to 23–8 political equality 3, Politics of Heroin, The (McCoy) 77 polyarchy criteria 13 population: Brunei 34; Cambodia 37–8, 46; displacement 15; growth 14; Indonesia 30, 52–3; Laos 59; Philippines, the 90; Southeast Asia 31; Timor-Leste 116–7; Vietnam 123 Portugal 26, 91, 110, 118 Potter, David 14–5 poverty 30, 53, 63–4, 75, 86–7, 111– 2, 117, 121, 122–3, 134, 179, 181 power 2, 6, 12–4 preferential trade agreements (PTAs) Prem Tinsulanonda 109 Quinn-Judge, Sophie 120 race relations 18–9; Malaysia 18, 19, 66–9, 71–2; Myanmar 79–80; Singapore 18, 96, 98 Raffles, Stamford 91 Rahim, Lily 150–1, 190–1 Ramage, Douglas 49 Ramli, Tajudin 68 Ramos, Fidel 84 Ramos-Horta, Leste 112, 114, 117 refugees 184, 185 regionalism regionalization 2–6, 7, 10–1, 32, 188 Reid, Anthony 196 religion 27–8, 34, 150 repression 13, 43, 176 resources, and freedom Review on the Economics of Climate Change 159 Robinson, Geoffrey 111 Robinson, William 5–6, 174, 174–5 Rodan, G 24 Rome, Treaty of (1957) Roy, Arundhati 183–4 Rueschemeyer, D 12 Rummel, Rudolph 37 rural sector domination 15–6 Russia 22, 82, 131, 156–7, 173, 176, 180, 183, 185 Rwanda 181 Saddam Hussein 186 Said, Edward 178–9 Salazar, Antonio 91 Sanderson, John 39 Sanz, Fernando Ortiz 49–50 Saudi Arabia 23, 28, 182 Saul, John 183 Saunders, Dough 178 Savang, Prince Soulivong 64 Saxena, Rakesh 103 Scandinavia 13 Schöpflin, George Seagrave, Sterling and Peggy 85 sea-level change 161–4 Severino, Rodolpho 195 sex trade 17 Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) 155 Shanghai Five, the 155 Shawcross, William 38 Sheehy, John 162 Shell Oil Company 33 Shield of Achilles, The (Bobbitt) 177 Shinawatra, Thaksin 42, 103–6, 106, 107, 109 Singapore 17, 21, 22, 30, 31, 65, 76, 91–100, 125, 126, 131, 137–8, 190, 192, 194, 196; Association of Women for Action and Research (AWARE) 93; authoritarianism 98–9; British occupation 91–2; and Cambodia 37; civil society 25, 92–5; corruption 97–8; dissent 94–5; and ecological scarcity 169; financial services 97; Gini inequality coefficient 134; and globalization 97; government 228 Index Singapore—(Continued) control 93–4; hegemony 95–8; Human Development Index 134; IT security 94; military budget 95–6; and Myanmar 97; national identity 31; National Trade Union Congress (NTUC) 93; Official Secrets Act (OSA) 93–4; patronage 98; People’s Action Party (PAP) 92, 92–3, 98; poverty 134; prospects 99–100; race relations 18, 96, 98; racial composition 99; resistance 99–100; sea-level change risk 162–3; Singapore Investment Government Corporation (SIGC) 96–7; Singapore Workers Party (SWP) 95; state-of-siege mentality 96; torture 95; US alliance 147; Western influence 23; women’s rights 93 Sison, Jose Maria 90 slum dwellers 20 Smith, Michael 112–3 social justice 2, 4, 28, 32 Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Moore) 15 Suharto, Thojib 47, 48, 50, 54, 55, 56, 76 Suharto, Tutut 55 Solidarity for Asian People’s Advocacy (SAPA) 4–5, 136 Somalia 175, 177 Somchai Neelapaichit 105 Song Yimin 153 South Africa 181 South China Sea 148, 156, 194 South Korea 14, 138 Southeast Asia 30–3, 31; and China 152–8; construction of 127–30, 191–2; economic growth 133; Human Development Index 133–4, 134; inflation 164–5; and USA 142–52; weakness of democratic culture 197; Western colonialism 127–8 Southeast Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) 129, 130, 143 sovereignty 32; and ecological scarcity 170; and globalization 2, 20; surrender to ASEAN 12, 192, 199; and the transnational state Soviet Union 120, 129, 130, 143, 147, 152, 172–3 Spain 82 state failure 180–1 Steinberg, David 81 Steinbrunner, John 153 Stern, Nicholas 159 Stiglitz, Joseph 180 Strachey, John Stretton, Hugh 168 Stuart-Fox, Michael 27, 45 Suharto, Mohammed 85, 146–7, 152 suicide bombers 182 Sukarno, Achmad 46–7, 130, 146–7, 157 Sukarnoputri, Megawati 58 supranational organizations Surayud Chulanont 106 Sutowo, Ibnu 54 Sweden 13 Taiwan 14, 25, 138, 158 Tang Liang Hong 95 Tanter, R 145 Taylor, Owen 38 Taylor, Simon 43 Teo Chee Hean 94, 96 terrorism 22, 99–100, 146–7, 175, 178, 186 Terzani, Tiziano 38 Thai–Australia FTA (TAFTA) 104 Thailand 26, 31, 100–10, 129, 131, 139, 140, 189, 192, 193, 194; Black May uprising 101; and Cambodia 37; constitution 102; corruption 102–3, 104–5; democratization 101–3; economic development 101–2; elections 102, 103–4, 106; exploitation of women 17; failure of democracy 103–6; foreign debt 134; Global Peace Index (GPI), 30; Human Development Index 134; human rights abuses 105–6; inequality 104; judiciary 102; Malay Muslims minority 105, 107; middle class 17; military coup Index 229 (2006) 26–7, 106–7; nationalism 31; opposition to a US–Thailand free agreement 135; People Power Party (PPP) 109–10; and race relations 18; relations with Myanmar 81; repression 176; resistance 136; role of the military 107–8; role of the monarchy 108–10; sea-level change risk 163; security agencies 108; security agenda 22; Thai Rak Thai (TRT) Party 103–6; US military presence 107; and USA 103, 107–8; Western influence 23 Thaugsuban, Suthep 103 Tibet 153–4 Timor-Leste 28,30, 31, 49, 57, 110–8, 144, 194; and ASEAN 118; Australian policy towards 114–6, 117; Catholic Church 112, 113, 116; Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) 111; coup conspiracy 114–6; crisis 111–4, 115–6; development model 117; elections 114; foreign aid 111; Human Development Index 134; independence 110, 110–1; International force for East Timor (INTERFET) 110–1; population 116–7; poverty 111–2, 117; prospects 116–8; UN failure in 112–3 Todd, Emmanuel 184 Tong, Goh Chok 137 Tønnesson, Stein 181 torture 95, 175 Towards a Grand Strategy for an Uncertain World 187 trade 3, 7, 132–3, 142 transnational state (TNS) 5–6 transnationalization 20, 31–2 Transparency International 55, 56 Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (TACSEA 1976) 151, 193–4 Turkey 26 U Nu 75 UN Convention Against Corruption 56 ungovernable chaotic entities (UCEs) 180 United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) 86, 195 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 104 United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 159 United Nations People’s Assembly (UNPA) United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) 110–1, 149 United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) 39–40, 149 United Nations (UN) 5, 28, 112–3; Conference on Trade and Development 7; Human Development Index 133–4, 134 United States of America 7, 33, 129, 129–30, 172–3, 177; aid missions 149; ASEAN strategy 151–2; blowback 186; bombing of Cambodia 38; bombing of Laos 59; and Brunei 36; and China 153–5; CIA 64, 108, 146–7; and the Communist Party of the Philippines 90; Cooperative Security Locations (CSLs) 148; the Cox report 153–4; democratization policy 2; finance capitalism 174; foreign policy 6; hegemony 6, 7, 21–2, 143, 146, 153–5, 173–4, 179, 181, 184–5, 197, 198; imperialism 10; and Indonesia 54, 57–8; and Malaysia 72; military alliances 147; military presence in the Philippines 22, 87, 90–1, 149; military interventions 175; National Intelligence Council (NIC) 163; The National Security Strategy of the United States of America 7; occupation of the Philippines 82–3; rendition 175; September 11 attacks 146, 175, 178, 186; Southeast Asia policy 22, 143–52; Southeast Asia trade 142; and Thailand 103, 107–8; trade 132; and Vietnam 119–20, 230 Index United States of America—(Continued) 120–1; and world government 9–10; worldview Universal Declaration of Human Rights 12 urbanization 16, 31, 45, 123 Van Pao 64 Vatikiotis, Michael 140, 198 Venezuela 183 Vichea, Chea 43 Vietnam 28, 31, 119–26, 129, 131, 165, 192; Buddhist Church of Vietnam (EBV) 122, 124; and China 119, 152; Chinese influence 23, 138; Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) 121–2; corruption 123; democratization 123–5; economic growth 125, 126; extension of civil society 25; food security 167; foreign debt 134; foreign development aid 75; foreign investments 121; French rule 119, 129; and globalization 120–1, 126; Human Development Index 134; and Laos 58–9; liberalization 120; nationalism 31; occupation of Cambodia 37–8, 39, 119, 130; People’s Army of Vietnam (PAVN) 122; population 123; poverty 121, 122–3; prospects 125–6; and race relations 18; restructuring 24; role of women 17–8; sea-level change risk 161, 163; strikes 124; urbanization 123; and USA 120–1 Vietnam War 87, 107, 119–20, 129, 130, 152, 155, 160, 165, 173 volcanic activity 161 voter participation 49 Wahid, Abdurrahman 58 Wallerstein, Immanuel 179–80, 186–7 war 2, 8, 28, 160, 181–5, 185–6 ‘war on terror’ 2, 22, 25, 36, 54, 57–8, 72, 88–9, 91, 95, 108, 146–7, 149–51, 175, 181–5, 190–1, 194, 198 Washington consensus, the 140–1 Wertheim, Win 47 West Papua 49–51, 54, 58 women: mortality 50; role of 17–8; in Singapore 93; status in Brunei 34; status in Malaysia 70 Woo, Meredith 198 World Bank (WB) 5, 20, 55–6, 62, 87, 131, 174, 192, 193 world government 8–10 World Trade Organization (WTO) 5, 20, 86, 87–8, 121, 126, 131, 166, 174 World War I 58, 91, 128, 171, 185 World War II 32–3, 37, 46, 59, 65, 75, 92, 98, 100, 128, 172, 191 Wu, Friedrich 96 Xie, Andy 97 Yap Arthur 139 young turks movement 26 Yudhoyono, Susilo Bambang 48, 54, 58, 156 Yugoslavia 175 Zain, Sabri 68 Zambia 180 Zhang, Jinliang 17–8