Industrial Safety and Health for Goods and Materials Services - Chapter 9 ppt

9 Chemical Hazards 9.1 CHEMICALS Chemical haz ards have been addres sed in Cha pter 8 with regard to their impact upon the workplace and its wor kforce . Chap ter 8 speaks in some detai l of the health effects of hazardo us or toxic (poisonous ) chemi cals. Chapter 9 provi des infor mation on the means by which chemicals enter the body, the exposur e guidelines , and the form s in which chemi cals presen t themselv es to the b ody as contam inants. Also, the chap ter lists the catego ries of chemicals that most often are seen in the wor kplace a nd also describes why based upon their composit ion they may pose a hazard. 9.2 ROUTES OF ENTRY AND MODES OF ACTION Chemicals enter the human body via many routes. The nature of the chemi cal often determines how the chemical enters the body. Once into the body the chemical tends to target certain systems and organs of the body. The entry may be through the eyes, skin, lungs, or ingestion and at times by injection (penetration). 9.2.1 EYES The importance of the human visual system is evident. Good eyesight is a must for performing tasks where man and machine interact. Of all the major body organs prone to worksite injuries, the eye is probably the most vulnerable. Consequently, protection against eyes and face injuries is of major concern and importance for workers. The eye The handling, storage, and sale of chemical is part of the goods and materials service sectors. ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. is an organ of sight and is not designed for the demands of prolonged viewing at close distances as is commonplace in today’s workplace. Although the eye does have some natural defenses, it has none to compare with the healing ability of the skin, the automatic cleansing abilities of the lungs, or the recuperative powers of the ear. This is why an eye injury is the most traumatic loss to the human body. The eyeball is housed in a case of cushioning fatty tissue that insulates it from the skull’s bony eye socket. The skull, brow, and cheek ridges serve to help protect the eyeball, which is comprised of several highly specialized tissues. The front of the eyeball is protected by a smooth, transparent layer of tissue called the conjunctiva. A similar membrane covers the inner surface of the eyelids. The eyelids also contain dozens of tiny glands that secrete oil to lubricate the surfaces of the eyelids and the eyeball. Another gland located at the outer edge of the eye socket secretes tears to clean the protective membrane and keep it moist. The most common injury to the eye is when foreign particles enter into it. Its effects are as follows: . Pain, because the cornea is heavily covered with nerves and an object sitting on the surface of the cornea will hurt constantly and that may obscure vision and stimulate or damage the nerves . Infection, because a foreign particle may carry bacteria or fungi, or may be carried by fingers used to rub the eye . Scarring, from tissue that has healed and may obscure the vision . Damage, depending on the angle and point of entry and speed of the particle Heat can destroy eye and eyelid tissues just as it does other body tissues. High- intensity light may have sufficient energy to damage the eye tissue. Exposure to ultraviolet light from welding operations (known as welder’s flash) may severely damage the eye. Also, the effects of accidental exposure of the eye to chemicals can vary from mild irritation to complete loss of vision. In some cases, a chemical that does not actually damage the eye may be absorbed through the eye tissue in sufficient quantities so as to cause systemic poisoning. Splash goggles shown in Figure 9.1 help protect the eyes from chemicals. Vents FIGURE 9.1 Example of splash goggles. (Courtesy of the Department of Energy.) ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. Exposure to caustic chemicals is much more injurious to the eyes than acids. An eye that has been exposed to a caustic may not look too bad on the first day after exposure. It may, however, deteriorate markedly on succeeding days. This is in contrast to acid burns where the initial appearance is a good indication of the ultimate damage. 9.2.2 LUNGS AND INHALATION The respirato ry system consists of all the organs of the body that contribute to normal breathing. This includes the nose, mouth, upper throat, larynx, trachea, and bronchi, all airways that lead to the lungs. It is in these airways that the first defense against contaminants exists. The adult h uman lung has an enorm ous area (75 sq yd total surface area) where the body exchange s waste carbon dioxide for needed oxygen. This large surface, together with the blood vessel network (117 sq yd total surface area) and continuous blood flow, makes it possible for an extremely rapid rate of absorption of oxygen from the air in the lungs to the bloodstream. Some highly soluble substances such as gases may pass through the lungs and into the blood- stream so fast that it is not detected by the worker until ill effects set in. On the other hand, there are substances, such as asbestos that are insoluble in body fluids, that remain in our lungs for extended periods of time. Bodily attempts to destroy or remove these substances may result in irritation, inflammation, edema, emphysema, fibrosis, cancer, or allergic reactions and sensitization. Impairment of the lungs will not be noticed in the day-to-day activities of a worker. It does, however, reduce a worker’s ability to withstand future exposures. Air enters through the nostrils and passes through a web of nasal hairs. Air is warmed and moistened as some particles are removed by compacting on the nasal hairs and at the bends in the air path. Interior walls of the nose are covered with membranes that secrete fluid called mucus. The mucus drains slowly into the throat and serves as a trap for bacteria and dust in the air. It also helps dilute toxic substances that enter the airway. Cilia, another important air cleaner, are hair-like filaments that vibrate 12 times per second. Millions of cilia lining the nose and nasal airway help the mucus clean, moisten, and heat the air before it reaches the lungs. As the air moves into the bronchi it is divided and subdivided into smaller, finer, and more numerous tubes, much like those of the branches of a tree. There are two main branches, each getting smaller until they reach the lungs located on each side of the chest cavity. The respiratory tract branches from the trachea to some 25–100 million branches. These branches termin- ate in about 300 million air sacs called alveol i, which have access to the blood. The lungs are suspended within the chest by the trachea, arteries, veins running to and from the heart, and by the pulmonary ligaments. The ability of the lungs to function properly can be adversely affected in many ways. There may be blocked or restricted passageways, reduced elasticity, and=or damaged membranes. The first line of defense is the nose. It filters the air and prevents many contaminants from reaching lower portions. However, we often bypass this filtering defense system by breathing through our mouth. Coughing is another mechanism that expels foreign particles from the trachea and bronchi. Hair cells (called cilia) serve as a continuous ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. cleaning mechanism for the nose, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. These hair-like extensions move like an escalator to sweep foreign particles back to the trachea where it is swallowed or spat out. Macrophages also help reduce particle levels by engulfing or digesting bacteria and viruses. 9.2.2.1 Respiration The process by which the body combines oxygen with food nutrients to produce energy is called metabolism. To produce energy the body must exchange oxygen for carbon dioxide via respiration. Often, gases are not blocked or restricted by the filtering defense system. One of the most common types of inhalation hazard found in the workplace is carbon monoxide, which is present in exhaust from fossil fuel equipment, generators, or compressors. It is also produced as a by-product of welding and soldering operations. Carbon monoxide’s main effect is to rob the body of its oxygen supply. After inhalation, carbon monox ide mixes more readily with the blood’s oxygen carrier, hemoglobin, than oxygen. So exposures to high levels of carbon monoxide can prevent the body from getting enough oxygen, severely affecting the heart and brain. First symptoms may be headache, dizziness, and nausea. Higher exposures can result in fainting, coma, or even death. Persons with existing heart conditions are more likely to worsen their condition if exposed to carbon monoxide. And smokers already have higher than normal levels in their bloodstream as a burning cigarette produces fairly high carbon monoxide levels. The fate of substances that reach the lungs depends on their solubility and reactiv- ity. The more soluble the contaminant, the more likely it will be an upper respiratory irritant, such as sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ). Soluble reactive particles may cause acute inflammatory reactions and build-up of fluid (pulmonary edema). The less soluble gases and materials reach the lower lungs causing lung dysfunction or the particles that stick in the alveoli are engulfed by macrophages that move them back to the mouth, where they are expectorated or swallowed. Some chemicals that reach the digestive tract by this method are then absorbed and may still cause adverse health effects. The size of the particle greatly influences where it will be deposited in the air passage. An atmosphere containing toxic contaminants, even at very low concentrations, could be a hazard to the lungs and the body. A concentration large enough to decrease the percentage of oxygen in the air can lead to asphyxiation or suffocation, even if the contaminant is an inert gas. Inhaled contaminants that adversely affect the lungs or body fall into three categories: 1. Aerosols and dusts that, when deposited in the lungs, may produce tissue damage, tissue reaction, disease, or physical plugging. 2. Toxic gases that produce adverse reaction in the tissue of the lungs them- selves. For example, hydrogen fluoride is a gas that causes chemical burns. 3. Toxic aerosols or gases that do not affect the lung tissue, but are passed from the lungs into the bloodstream. From there they are carried to other organs, or have adverse affects on the oxygen-carrying capacity of the bloodstream itself. ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. Four things must be known about inhaled contaminants before the toxic effects can be determined. There are as follows: . Identification of the contaminant (What chemical o r material?) . Concentration inhaled (How much?) . Duration of exposure (How long?) . Frequency of exposure (How often?) 9.2.3 SKIN ABSORPTION The skin is the largest organ of the body, covering about 19 sq ft of surface area. It is often the first barrier to come in contact with hazardous contaminants. The skin must protect the worker from heat, cold, moisture, radiation, bacteria, fungus, and pene- trating objects. The skin is the organ that senses touch or hurt for the central nervous system. One square inch of skin contains about 72 ft of nerves. Contact with a substance may initiate the following actions: . The skin and its associated layer of fat (lipid) cells can act as an effective barrier against penetration, injury, or other forms of irritation. . The substance can react with the skin surface and cause a primary irritation (dermatitis). . The substance can penetrate the skin and accumulate in the tissue, resulting in allergic reactions (skin sensitization). . The substance can penetrate the skin, enter the bloodstream, and act as a poison to other body organs (syst emic action). . The substance can penetrate the skin, dissolve the fatty tissues, and allow other substances to penetrate skin layers. Most job-related skin conditions are caused by repeat ed contact with irritants such as solvents, soap detergents, particulate dusts, oils, grease, and metal working fluids. This is called contact dermatitis, and the symptoms are red, itchy skin, swelling ulcers, and blisters. The length of exposure and the strength of the irritant will affect the severity of the reaction as well as abrasions, sores, and cuts, which open a pathway through the skin and into the body. The skin performs a number of important functions: . Against invasion by bacteria . Against injury to other organs that are more sensitive . Against radiation such as from the sun . Against loss of moisture . Providing a media for the nervous system Serious and even fatal poisoning has occurred from brief skin exposures to highly toxic substances such as parathion or other related organic phosphates (weed and insect killers), phenol, and hydrocyanic acid. Compounds that are good ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. solvents for grease or oil, such as toluene and xylene, may cause problems by being readily absorbed through the skin. Abrasions, lacerations, and cuts may greatly increase the absorp tion, thus increasing the exposure to toxic chemicals. 9.2.4 INGESTION Workers on the jobsite may unknowingly eat or drink harmful toxic chemicals. These toxic chemicals, in turn, are then capable of being absorbed from the gastro- intestinal tract into the blood. Lea d oxide, found in red paint on steel surfaces, can cause serious problems if workers eat or smoke on the jobsite. Good personal hygiene habits, such as thoroughly washing face and hands before eating or smoking, are essential to prevent exposure. Inhaled toxic dusts can also be swallowed and ingested in amounts large enough to c ause poisoning. Toxic materials that are easily dissolved in digestive fluids may speed absorption into the bloodstream. Ingestion toxicity is normally lower than inhalation toxicity for the same material, because of relatively poor absorption of many chemicals from the intestines into the bloodstream. After absorption from the intestinal tract into the bloodstream, the toxic material generally targets the liver, which may alter or break down the material. This detoxification process is an important body defense mechanism. It involves a sequence of reactions such as the following: . Deposition in the liver . Conversion to a nontoxic substance . Transportation to the kidney via the bloodstream . Excretion through the kidney and urinary tract Sometimes, this process will have a reverse effect by breaking down a chemical into components that are much more toxic than the original compound. These components may stay in the liver causing advers e effects, or they may be transported to other body organs damaging them. 9.2.5 PERSONAL EXPOSURE GUIDES A variety of hazard guidelines exist to evaluate worker exposure to chemical or other hazardous conditions at worksites. Most of these guidelines can be used to evaluate the dangers present at sites and determin e the appropriate level of protection to be worn or other action necessary to protect workers’ health. Personal exposure guides are indications that hazardous conditions may exist. Workers should watch for the following personal signs of exposure to toxic chemicals or wor k stress. If any of these occur, they should leave the site and report the problem immediately. They should not return until the cause of the symptoms has been checked by a qualified person. Warning signs of chemical exposure may be as follows: . Breathing difficulties—breathing faster or deeper, soreness and a lump in the throat . Dizziness, drowsiness, disorientation, difficulty in concentration ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. . Burning sensation in the eyes or on the skin, redness, or soreness . Weakness, fatigue, lack of energy . Chills, upset stomach . Odors and=or a strange taste in the mouth 9.3 CHEMICAL EXPOSURE GUIDELINES Exposure guidelines are set by reviewing previous experience with hazards from several sources, including actual experience in dealing with hazards, results of studies of human exposure to toxic chemicals, and laboratory studies on animals. Because we do not have absolute knowledge about most hazards and opinions vary about the degree of hazards posed by different chemicals, guidelines will vary, even for the same chemical. Guidelines can and do change as new information is dis- covered. The goal is to minimize any worker exposure to hazardous conditions. OSHA regulations require the employee to know about chemicals to which they are being exposed. General guidelines do not require that you know the amount of chemical present or its concentrations in the air. These are often found on labels or placards on chemicals containers. General guidelines often use short phrases, a word, numbers, or symb ols to communicate hazards such as ‘‘Avoid skin contac t’’ or ‘‘Avoid breathing vapors.’’ MSDSs and labels provide information on chemical hazards as seen in Figure 9.2. Specific OSHA regulations also require the employer to know both the identity and air concentration of the chemicals that may be present at the worksite. The results of air monitoring are compared to specific permissible levels to make decisions about worker exposure. Three different organizations have developed Listing of hazardous materials MSDS Drum FIGURE 9.2 Chemical labels and MSDSs provide needed hazard information. (Courtesy of the Department of Energy.) ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. specific chemical exposure levels that are widely used at worksites to reduce worker exposures to levels thought to be safe. They are as follows: . Permissible exposure limit (PEL) (set by the OSHA)—PELs are legal enforceable standards. PELs are meant to be minimum levels of protection. Employers may use more protective exposure levels for chemicals. In many cases, current PELs are derived from TLVs published in the 1998 ACGIH TLV list. Many PELs are not set to protect workers from chronic effects such as cancer. In addition, most PELs that apply to the construction industry were established in 1969 and are rather outdated. . Recommended exposure limit (REL) (set by the National Institute for Occu- pational Safety and Health, NIOSH)—These are advisory levels and are not legally enforceable. RELs are sometimes more protective than PELs. Long- term or chronic healt h effects are considered when setting the RELs. . Immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) (set by the NIOSH)— These values are established to recognize serious exposure levels that could cause death and serve as a blueprint for selecting specific types of respira- tory protection. . Threshold limit value (TLV) (set by the ACGIH)—TLVs are advisory and are not legally enforceable. A revised list of TLVs is published every year making them more current than PELs. However, chronic effects such as cancer are not always given consideration when setting TLVs. Ways to list chemical hazard guidelines are time-weighted average (TWA), short-term exposure limit (STEL), ceiling values, and skin absorption hazard. 9.3.1 TIME-WEIGHTED AVERAGE TWA is the average concentration of a material over a full work shift (set as 8 h=day and 40 h=week). The changes in exposure that occur during the work shift are averaged out. In addition, if the worker is exposed to more than one substance or a mixture of substances, mixture calculations must be conducted. 9.3.2 SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE LIMITS STELs are the maximum concentration level that workers can be exposed to for a short period of time (usually 15–30 min) without suffering from irritation; chronic or irreversible tissue damage; and dizziness sufficient to increase the risk of accidents, impair self-rescue, or reduce work efficiency. 9.3.3 CEILING LIMIT Workers often experience acute health effects if the level exceeds the ceiling limit listed in OSHA’s PEL. If a ceiling limit is not assigned to a substance or chemical, it is generally recommended that exposures never exceed five times their PEL. ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. 9.3.4 SKIN ABSORPTION NOTATION The notation ‘‘skin’’ listed in OSHA’s PELs indicates that the chemical can be absorbed through the skin as a route of entry into the body. Remember that PELs, RELs, and TLVs refer only to inhalation exposure. No concentration guidelines for skin exposure exist. 9.4 TYPES OF AIRBORNE CONTAMINANTS Many of the worker exposures are the result of airborne contaminants such as dusts, fumes, gases, mists, or vapors. Each of these contaminants has different actions and physical properties, which will be covered in the following sections. These contam- inants are instrumental in creating respiratory hazards such as asbestosis or silicosis. 9.4.1 DUSTS Dusts are solid particles suspended in air. They may be produced by crushing, grinding, sanding, sawing, or the impact of materials against each other. Some dusts have no effect on the body. They do not seem to harm the body or are not changed by the body’s chemistry into other harmful substances. Most harmful dusts cause damage after inhalation. Some dusts, such as cement and arsenic, can also directly affect the skin. When considering health effects from inhaled dust, we must be concerned about a solid material that is small enough to reach the air sacs in our lungs where oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange takes place. This area is called the alveoli. Only particles smaller than about 5 mmor5m (about 1=100th the size of a speck of pepper) are likely to reach this area of the lung. Particles in the range from 5 to 10 mm will be deposited in the upper respiratory tract airways (nose, throat, trachea, and major bronchial tubes) and cause bronchitis. Particles larger than 10 mm, like wood dusts, can deposit in the nasal airways with the possibility of causing nasal ulcerations and cancer. Particles smaller than about 1 mm are likely to be exhaled during normal breathing. 9.4.2 FUMES Fumes, like dust, are also solid particles in the air. They are usually formed when metals are heated to their melting points, especially during welding or soldering. Fumes are produced when metal is welded. Solder, electrode, welding rod, or metallic coating on materials may be vaporized generating additional fumes. Chro- mium and nickel exposures are possible when fumes are generated from stainless steel during arc welding. Sometimes plumbers generate lead fumes when molten lead is used for joining black pipe. Lead fumes are also generated by melting lead to make fishing sinkers or burning lead paint off surfaces. Although many fumes can irritate the skin and eyes, these fine particles primarily affect the body when they are inhaled. This type of exposure sometimes results in an ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. acute health effect, referred to as metal fume fever, especially if the fumes are from metals such as zinc, cadmium, or magnesium. Workers often generate a lot of lead and metal fumes during demolition projects when using torches to cut and burn I beams. Dangerous fumes may also be produced by heating asphalt during hot-tar roofing or road paving. An ingredient used in this process is called coal tar pitch. These hazardous fumes are regarded as a serious cancer threat. 9.4.3 GASES Gases are formless at room temperature an d always expand to fill their containers. They can be changed into liquids or solids by increasing the pressure and=or decreasing their temperature. It is in these changed forms that gases are normally stored and=or transported. Toxic gases can directly irritate the skin, throat, eyes, or lungs, or they may pass from the lungs into the bloodstream to damage other parts of the body. Some gases such as methane can also cause a worker to suffocate by displacing oxygen in the air. Many fatalities have occurred due to the improper entry of confined spaces such as underground silos containing manure. As the manure decays, it generates methane gas displacing the oxygen. The body’s defenses against some gases include smelling, tearing eyes, and coughing. Ammonia’s irritating effects and odor warn workers of exposure. How- ever, workers may be exposed to some gases unknowingly. Carbon monoxide is the most widespread gas risk. It can be found whenever heavy equipment or motors are being used. It is a colorless, odorless gas formed by burning carbon-containing materials such as coal, oil, gasoline, wood, or paper. 9.4.4 MISTS Mists and fogs are drops of liquid suspended in the air. Fogs may be created by vapors condensing to the liquid state, while mists are droplets being splashed or sprayed. Examples of mists used in industry include paint spray mists and acid mists produced by fluxes used in soldering. Many mists and fogs can damage the body if they are inhaled or if they make direct contact with skin or eyes. Like fumes, mists are small enough to bypass the respiratory system’s defenses and go deep inside the lungs from where they pass easily into the bloodstream, and eventually to other parts of the body. 9.4.5 VAPORS Vapors are gaseous forms of certain materials that are usually solid or liquid at room temperatures. Vapors may be formed when liquids or solids are heated. Some materials, such as solvents, form vapors without being heated. Solvent vapors are one of the most common exposures at a hazardous waste and=or construction site. Mercury is an example of a metal that vaporizes at room temperature and can be a serious health hazard. Many directly affect the skin causing dermatitis, while some can be absorbed through the skin. As with gases and fumes, most vapors when inhaled pass to the bloodstream and damage other parts of the body. Some of these materials can damage the liver, kidneys, blood, or cause cancer. ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. [...]... color coding, etc.) Periodic air sampling Close monitoring of employee health Safety posters in storage or handling areas Safe storage of hazardous materials is important to maintain workplace safety since storage facilities and procedures will vary with the type of hazardous material being handled and occupational safety and health standards related to the particular hazards faced by employees The following... Section 8.5.1 9. 9 HAZARD COMMUNICATIONS ( 191 0.1200) OSHA has established regulations for the general industry called the Hazard Communication (HAZCOM) ( 29 CFR 191 0.1200) standard This standard requires that manufacturers of hazardous chemicals inform employers about the hazards of those chemicals Also, it requires employers to inform employees of the identities, properties, characteristics, and hazards... conditions, and of any foreseeable emergencies An employer must provide the mechanism to inform other employers of his=her labeling system 9. 9.5 CONCLUSIONS Employers are responsible to develop a HAZCOM program and provide information to employees and other employer’s employees and provide training to employees All workers, as well as other employees on multiple employer worksites, must be provided with information... vapors and mists The lack of worker personal hygiene is one of the greatest exposure problems Hands and face should be washed thoroughly before eating, drinking, or smoking Mixing of cleaning chemicals should be avoided unless specifically instructed to do so For example, a dangerous gas, chlorine, will be created if you mix bleach and ammonia, or bleach and drain cleaner 9. 5.3 ACIDS AND BASES Acids and. .. labels, color, form [solid, liquid, or gas], and order) The physical and health hazard workers may be exposed to from the hazardous chemicals on the job Methods of protecting oneself, such as work practices, personal protective equipment, and emergency procedure Details of the hazardous communication program used by the employer Explanation of how workers can obtain and use hazard information 9. 9.4 MULTIPLE... hazards of chemicals they use, and the protective measures they can take to prevent adverse effects The standard covers both physical hazards (e.g., flammability) and health hazards (e.g., lung damage, cancer) Knowledge acquired under the HAZCOM will help employers provide safer workplaces for workers, establish proper work practices, and help prevent chemical-related illnesses and injuries Employers are... The employer must provide specific information and training to workers All employers on a multiple employer site must provide information to each other so that all employees can be protected The owner must provide information to contractors about hazardous materials on the jobsite The specific requirements for each of the four main provisions are summarized as follows 9. 9.1 WRITTEN HAZCOM PROGRAM The required... hazardous chemicals 9. 9.2 INFORMATION PROVIDED BY THE EMPLOYER According to the HAZCOM regulation, employers are to supply the following: List of hazardous chemicals used on the job How to recognize these hazardous chemicals ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC How those chemicals might affect worker safety and health How workers can protect themselves from those chemicals 9. 9.3 TRAINING PROVIDED... pressure over 1008F), they should be handled with care Gasoline is a flammable liquid and diesel fuel is an example of a combustible liquid Proper storage and transport of fuels in approved, self-closing, safety containers is extremely important, and should be strictly adhered to at all times When filling portable containers with flammable materials, proper grounding and bonding is a must to prevent ignition... Protection Agency.) 9. 7 BIOLOGICAL MONITORING Biological monitoring is covered in Chapter 8 9. 8 CANCER-CAUSING CHEMICALS Some chemical are known to be carcinogenic (cancer causing) The safety exposure to carcinogens is zero since there are no known limits that are safe for any cancer- ß 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC causing chemicals Some examples are asbestos, benzene, and vinyl chloride More . National Institute for Occu- pational Safety and Health, NIOSH)—These are advisory levels and are not legally enforceable. RELs are sometimes more protective than PELs. Long- term or chronic healt. eyes and face injuries is of major concern and importance for workers. The eye The handling, storage, and sale of chemical is part of the goods and materials service sectors. ß 2008 by Taylor. of the health effects of hazardo us or toxic (poisonous ) chemi cals. Chapter 9 provi des infor mation on the means by which chemicals enter the body, the exposur e guidelines , and the form s