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This page intentionally left blank PRINCIPLES OF NANO-OPTICS Nano-optics is the study of optical phenomena and techniques on the nanometer scale, that is, near or beyond the diffraction limit of light. It is an emerging field of study, motivated by the rapid advance of nanoscience and nanotechnology which require adequate tools and strategies for fabrication, manipulation and characteri- zation at this scale. In Principles of Nano-Optics the authors provide a comprehensive overview of the theoretical and experimental concepts necessary to understand and work in nano-optics. With a very broad perspective, they cover optical phenomena relevant to the nanoscale across diverse areas ranging from quantum optics to biophysics, introducing and extensively describing all of the significant methods. This is the first textbook specifically on nano-optics. Written for graduate stu- dents who want to enter the field, it includes problem sets to reinforce and extend the discussion. It is also a valuable reference for researchers and course teachers. L UKAS N OVOTNY is Professor of Optics and Physics at the University of Rochester. He heads the Nano-Optics Research Group at the Institute of Optics, University of Rochester. He received his Ph.D. from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Switzerland. He later joined the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, WA, USA, where he worked in the Chemical Structure and Dynamics Group. In 1999 he joined the faculty of the Institute of Optics at the University of Rochester. He developed a course on nano-optics which was taught several times at the graduate level and which forms the basis of this textbook. His general inter- est is in nanoscale light–matter interactions ranging from questions in solid-state physics to biophysical applications. B ERT HECHTis Head of the Nano-Optics Group and a member of the Swiss Na- tional Center of Competence in Research in Nanoscale Science at the Institute of Physics at the University of Basel. After studying Physics at the University of Kon- stanz, he joined the IBM Zurich Research Laboratory in R ¨ uschlikon and worked in near-field optical microscopy and plasmonics. In 1996 he received his Ph.D. from the University of Basel. He then joined the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) where he worked in the Physical Chemistry Laboratory on single-molecule spectroscopy in combination with scanning probe techniques. He received the ve- nia legendi in Physical Chemistry from ETH in 2002. In 2001, he was awarded a Swiss National Science Foundation research professorship and took up his present position. In 2004 he received the venia docendi in Experimental Physics/Optics from the University of Basel. He has authored or co-authored more than 50 articles in the field of nano-optics. PRINCIPLES OF NANO-OPTICS LUKAS NOVOTNY University of Rochester BERT HECHT University of Basel    Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  ,UK First published in print format - ---- - ---- - ---- © L. Novotny and B. Hecht 2006 2006 Information on this title: www.cambrid g e.or g /9780521832243 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. - --- - --- - --- Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of s for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org hardback eBook (EBL) eBook (EBL) hardback To our families (Jessica, Leonore, Jakob, David, Nadja, Jan) And our parents (Annemarie, Werner, Miloslav, Vera) it was almost worth the climb (B. B. Goldberg) Contents Preface page xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Nano-optics in a nutshell 3 1.2 Historical survey 5 1.3 Scope of the book 7 References 11 2 Theoretical foundations 13 2.1 Macroscopic electrodynamics 14 2.2 Wave equations 15 2.3 Constitutive relations 15 2.4 Spectral representation of time-dependent fields 17 2.5 Time-harmonic fields 17 2.6 Complex dielectric constant 18 2.7 Piecewise homogeneous media 19 2.8 Boundary conditions 19 2.8.1 Fresnel reflection and transmission coefficients 21 2.9 Conservation of energy 23 2.10 Dyadic Green’s functions 25 2.10.1 Mathematical basis of Green’s functions 25 2.10.2 Derivation of the Green’s function for the electric field 26 2.10.3 Time-dependent Green’s functions 30 2.11 Evanescent fields 31 2.11.1 Energy transport by evanescent waves 35 2.11.2 Frustrated total internal reflection 36 2.12 Angular spectrum representation of optical fields 38 2.12.1 Angular spectrum representation of the dipole field 42 vii viii Contents Problems 43 References 43 3 Propagation and focusing of optical fields 45 3.1 Field propagators 45 3.2 Paraxial approximation of optical fields 47 3.2.1 Gaussian laser beams 47 3.2.2 Higher-order laser modes 50 3.2.3 Longitudinal fields in the focal region 50 3.3 Polarized electric and polarized magnetic fields 53 3.4 Far-fields in the angular spectrum representation 54 3.5 Focusing of fields 56 3.6 Focal fields 61 3.7 Focusing of higher-order laser modes 66 3.8 Limit of weak focusing 71 3.9 Focusing near planar interfaces 73 3.10 Reflected image of a strongly focused spot 78 Problems 86 References 87 4 Spatial resolution and position accuracy 89 4.1 The point-spread function 89 4.2 The resolution limit(s) 95 4.2.1 Increasing resolution through selective excitation 98 4.2.2 Axial resolution 100 4.2.3 Resolution enhancement through saturation 102 4.3 Principles of confocal microscopy 105 4.4 Axial resolution in multiphoton microscopy 110 4.5 Position accuracy 111 4.5.1 Theoretical background 112 4.5.2 Estimating the uncertainties of fit parameters 115 4.6 Principles of near-field optical microscopy 121 4.6.1 Information transfer from near-field to far-field 125 Problems 131 References 132 5 Nanoscale optical microscopy 134 5.1 Far-field illumination and detection 134 5.1.1 Confocal microscopy 134 5.2 Near-field illumination and far-field detection 147 5.2.1 Aperture scanning near-field optical microscopy 148 5.2.2 Field-enhanced scanning near-field optical microscopy 149 [...]... the energy of light lies in the energy range of electronic and vibrational transitions in matter allows us to use light for gaining unique information about the structural and dynamical properties of matter and also to perform subtle manipulations of the quantum state of matter These unique spectroscopic capabilities associated with optical techniques are of great importance for the study of biological... reader to the general theme of nano-optics This textbook is intended to teach students at the graduate level or advanced undergraduate level about the elements of nano-optics encountered in different subfields The book evolved from lecture notes that have been the basis for courses on nano-optics taught at the Institute of Optics of the University of Rochester, and at the University of Basel We were happy... propagation of light is determined by the 2 2 dispersion relation h ω = c· h k, which connects the wavevector k = k x + k 2 + k z ¯ ¯ y of a photon with its angular frequency ω via the speed of propagation c Heisenberg’s uncertainty relation states that the product of the uncertainty in the spatial position of a microscopic particle in a certain direction and the uncertainty in the component of its momentum... subwavelength imaging with a resolution of λ/60 The invention of scanning probe microscopy [19] at the beginning of the 1980s enabled distance regulation between probe and sample with high precision, and hence set the ground for a realization of Synge’s idea at optical frequencies In 1984 Massey proposed the use of piezoelectric position control for the accurate positioning of a minute aperture illuminated... angular spectrum representation, that are particularly useful for the discussion i n l c f l l Figure 1.2 Constituents of the field of nano-optics 1.3 Scope of the book 9 of nano-optical phenomena The treatment of the angular spectrum representation leads to a thorough discussion of evanescent waves, which correspond to the new virtual photon modes just mentioned Light confinement is a key issue in... fascinating spectrum of electromagnetic radiation This is mainly due to the fact that the energy of light quanta (photons) lies in the energy range of electronic transitions in matter This gives us the beauty of color and is the reason why our eyes adapted to sense the optical spectrum Light is also fascinating because it manifests itself in the forms of waves and particles In no other range of the electromagnetic... largest satellites of Jupiter With this he opened the field of astronomy Robert Hooke and Antony van Leeuwenhoek used early optical microscopes to observe certain features of plant tissue that were called “cells”, and to observe microscopic organisms, such as bacteria and protozoans, thus marking the beginning of biology The newly developed instrumentation enabled the observation of fascinating phenomena... the range of normal vision should be accepted as reality at all Today, we have accepted that, in modern physics, scientific proofs are verified by indirect measurements, and that the underlying laws have often been established on the basis of indirect observations It seems that as modern science progresses it withholds more and more findings from our natural senses In this context, the use of optical... foundations of many fields of the contemporary sciences have been established using optical experiments To give an example, think of quantum mechanics Blackbody radiation, hydrogen lines, or the photoelectric effect were key experiments that nurtured the quantum idea Today, optical spectroscopy is a powerful means to identify the atomic and chemical structure of different materials The power of optics... propagation in specific frequency windows All of these nanophotonic structures are being created to provide unique optical properties and phenomena and it is the scope of this book to establish a basis for their understanding 1.1 Nano-optics in a nutshell Let us try to get a quick glimpse of the very basics of nano-optics just to show that optics at the scale of a few nanometers makes perfect sense and . OVOTNY is Professor of Optics and Physics at the University of Rochester. He heads the Nano-Optics Research Group at the Institute of Optics, University of Rochester. He received his Ph.D. from. dipole field 42 vii viii Contents Problems 43 References 43 3 Propagation and focusing of optical fields 45 3.1 Field propagators 45 3.2 Paraxial approximation of optical fields 47 3.2.1 Gaussian. Surface plasmon polaritons at plane interfaces 382 12.2.1 Properties of surface plasmon polaritons 386 xii Contents 12.2.2 Excitation of surface plasmon polaritons 387 12.2.3 Surface plasmon