Guidelines for drinking‑water quality fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

Guidelines for drinking-water quality H P U Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda H H P H U Guidelines for drinking‑water quality Fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda H P H U Guidelines for drinking-water quality: fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda ISBN 978-92-4-004506-4 (electronic version) ISBN 978-92-4-004507-1 (print version) © World Health Organization 2022 Some rights reserved This work is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercialShareAlike 3.0 IGO licence (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/igo) H P Under the terms of this licence, you may copy, redistribute and adapt the work for non-commercial purposes, provided the work is appropriately cited, as indicated below In any use of this work, there should be no suggestion that WHO endorses any specific organization, products or services The use of the WHO logo is not permitted If you adapt the work, then you must license your work under the same or equivalent Creative Commons licence If you create a translation of this work, you should add the following disclaimer along with the suggested citation: “This translation was not created by the World Health Organization (WHO) WHO is not responsible for the content or accuracy of this translation The original English edition shall be the binding and authentic edition” Any mediation relating to disputes arising under the licence shall be conducted in accordance with the mediation rules of the World Intellectual Property Organization (http://www.wipo.int/amc/en/mediation/ rules/) U Suggested citation Guidelines for drinking-water quality: fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda Geneva: World Health Organization; 2022 Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO Cataloguing-in-Publication (CIP) data CIP data are available at http://apps.who.int/iris Sales, rights and licensing To purchase WHO publications, see http://apps.who.int/bookorders To submit requests for commercial use and queries on rights and licensing, see https://www.who.int/copyright H Third-party materials If you wish to reuse material from this work that is attributed to a third party, such as tables, figures or images, it is your responsibility to determine whether permission is needed for that reuse and to obtain permission from the copyright holder The risk of claims resulting from infringement of any third-party-owned component in the work rests solely with the user General disclaimers The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of WHO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries Dotted and dashed lines on maps represent approximate border lines for which there may not yet be full agreement The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers’ products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by WHO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters All reasonable precautions have been taken by WHO to verify the information contained in this publication However, the published material is being distributed without warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied The responsibility for the interpretation and use of the material lies with the reader In no event shall WHO be liable for damages arising from its use Cover design by WHO Graphics, Switzerland Typeset by Interligar, Brazil Contents H P Preface xv Acknowledgements xix Abbreviations used in text xxii Introduction 1.1 General considerations and principles 1.1.1 Framework for safe drinking-water 1.1.2 Microbial aspects 1.1.3 Disinfection 1.1.4 Chemical aspects 1.1.5 Radiological aspects 1.1.6 Acceptability aspects: taste, odour and appearance 1.2 Roles and responsibilities in drinking-water safety management 1.2.1 Surveillance and quality control 1.2.2 Public health authorities 1.2.3 Local authorities 1.2.4 Water resource management 1.2.5 Drinking-water supply agencies 1.2.6 Community management 1.2.7 Water vendors 1.2.8 Individual consumers 1.2.9 Certification agencies 1.2.10 Plumbing 1.3 Supporting resources to the Guidelines 1.3.1 Published documents U 1 7 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 15 16 17 18 18 A conceptual framework for implementing the Guidelines 2.1 Health-based targets 2.2 Water safety plans 2.2.1 System assessment and design 2.2.2 Operational monitoring 2.2.3 Management plans, documentation and communication 2.3 Surveillance 19 20 22 22 23 24 25 H iii GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY: FOURTH EDITION INCORPORATING THE FIRST AND SECOND ADDENDA 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Verification of drinking-water quality 2.4.1 Microbial water quality 2.4.2 Chemical water quality Identifying priority concerns 2.5.1 Undertaking a drinking-water quality assessment 2.5.2 Assessing microbial priorities 2.5.3 Assessing chemical priorities Developing drinking-water quality standards 2.6.1 Adapting guideline values to locally relevant standards 2.6.2 Periodic review and revision of standards Drinking-water regulations and supporting policies and programmes 2.7.1 Regulations 2.7.2 Supporting policies and programmes H P 25 26 26 27 28 29 29 30 31 31 32 32 33 Health-based targets 3.1 Setting health-based targets 3.2 Disability-adjusted life years, tolerable disease burden and reference level of risk 3.3 Types of health-based targets 3.3.1 Health outcome targets 3.3.2 Water quality targets 3.3.3 Performance targets 3.3.4 Specified technology targets 35 36 Water safety plans 4.1 System assessment and design 4.1.1 New systems 4.1.2 Collecting and evaluating available data 4.1.3 Resource and source protection 4.1.4 Treatment 4.1.5 Piped distribution systems 4.1.6 Non-piped, community and household systems 4.1.7 Validation 4.1.8 Upgrade and improvement 4.2 Operational monitoring and maintaining control 4.2.1 Determining system control measures 4.2.2 Selecting operational monitoring parameters 4.2.3 Establishing operational and critical limits 4.2.4 Non-piped, community and household systems 4.3 Verification 4.3.1 Microbial water quality 4.3.2 Chemical water quality 4.3.3 Source waters 4.3.4 Piped distribution systems 4.3.5 Community-managed supplies 4.3.6 Quality assurance and quality control 45 49 50 51 53 55 56 58 60 61 61 62 62 63 63 65 66 66 67 68 68 69 H U iv 37 38 41 42 43 44 CONTENTS 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.3.7 Water safety plans Management procedures for piped distribution systems 4.4.1 Predictable incidents (“deviations”) 4.4.2 Unplanned events 4.4.3 Emergencies 4.4.4 Preparing a monitoring plan 4.4.5 Supporting programmes Management of community and household water supplies Documentation and communication Planned review 4.7.1 Periodic review 4.7.2 Post-incident review 69 69 72 72 72 73 73 75 76 77 77 77 Surveillance 5.1 Types of approaches 5.1.1 Audit 5.1.2 Direct assessment 5.2 Adapting approaches to specific circumstances 5.2.1 Urban areas in developing countries 5.2.2 Community drinking-water supplies 5.2.3 Household treatment and storage systems 5.3 Adequacy of supply 5.3.1 Accessibility 5.3.2 Quantity 5.3.3 Continuity 5.3.4 Affordability 5.4 Planning and implementation 5.5 Reporting and communicating 5.5.1 Interaction with community and consumers 5.5.2 Regional use of data 79 81 81 82 83 83 83 84 85 85 86 88 89 90 92 92 93 97 H P H U Application of the Guidelines in specific circumstances 6.1 Climate change: increasing threats from water scarcity, heavy rainfall and extreme events 6.2 Rainwater harvesting 6.3 Vended water 6.4 Bulk water supply 6.5 Desalination systems 6.6 Potable reuse systems 6.7 Dual piped water supply systems 6.8 Emergencies and disasters 6.9 Temporary water supplies 6.10 Buildings 6.11 Health-care facilities 6.12 Safe drinking-water for travellers 6.13 Aircraft and airports v 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 108 110 113 114 118 GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY: FOURTH EDITION INCORPORATING THE FIRST AND SECOND ADDENDA 6.14 Ships 6.15 Packaged drinking-water 6.16 Food production and processing 119 121 122 Microbial aspects 125 7.1 Microbial hazards associated with drinking-water 126 7.1.1 Waterborne infections 126 7.1.2 Emerging issues 130 7.1.3 Persistence and growth in water 133 7.1.4 Public health aspects 134 7.2 Health-based target setting 135 7.2.1 Health-based targets applied to microbial hazards 135 7.2.2 Reference pathogens 136 7.2.3 Quantitative microbial risk assessment 138 7.2.4 Risk-based performance target setting 143 7.2.5 Presenting the outcome of performance target development 144 7.2.6 Adapting risk-based performance target setting to local circumstances 144 7.2.7 Health outcome targets 145 7.3 Occurrence and treatment of pathogens 147 7.3.1 Occurrence 147 7.3.2 Treatment 149 7.4 Microbial monitoring 159 7.5 Methods of detection of faecal indicator organisms 162 7.6 Identifying local actions in response to microbial water quality problems and emergencies 163 7.6.1 Boil water advisories 164 7.6.2 Actions following an incident 166 H P H U Chemical aspects 8.1 Chemical hazards in drinking-water 8.2 Derivation of chemical guideline values and health-based values 8.2.1 Approaches taken 8.2.2 Threshold chemicals 8.2.3 Non-threshold chemicals 8.2.4 Data quality 8.2.5 Provisional guideline values 8.2.6 Chemicals with effects on acceptability 8.2.7 Chemicals not included in the Guidelines 8.2.8 Mixtures 8.2.9 Adapting guideline values to local circumstances 8.3 Analytical achievability 8.4 Treatment 8.4.1 Treatment performance 8.4.2 Process control measures for disinfection by-products 8.4.3 Treatment for corrosion control vi 167 168 170 171 173 178 178 179 179 180 180 181 182 184 184 186 188 CONTENTS 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.4.4 Household treatment Guideline values for individual chemicals, by source category 8.5.1 Naturally occurring chemicals 8.5.2 Chemicals from industrial sources and human dwellings 8.5.3 Chemicals from agricultural activities 8.5.4 Chemicals used in water treatment or from materials in contact with drinking-water 8.5.5 Chemicals of emerging concern Pesticides used in water for public health purposes Identifying local actions in response to chemical water quality problems and emergencies 8.7.1 Trigger for action 8.7.2 Investigating the situation 8.7.3 Talking to the right people 8.7.4 Informing the public 8.7.5 Evaluating the significance to public health and individuals 8.7.6 Determining appropriate action 8.7.7 Consumer acceptability 8.7.8 Ensuring remedial action, preventing recurrence and updating the water safety plan 8.7.9 Mixtures 8.7.10 Water avoidance advisories H P U 189 189 189 190 195 195 204 205 207 210 210 210 210 211 214 215 215 215 215 Radiological aspects 219 9.1 Sources and health effects of radiation exposure 220 9.1.1 Radiation exposure through ingestion of drinking-water 221 9.1.2 Radiation-induced health effects through drinking-water 222 9.2 Rationale for screening levels and guidance levels 223 9.3 Monitoring and assessment for dissolved radionuclides 224 9.3.1 Screening of drinking-water supplies 224 9.3.2 Strategy for assessing drinking-water if screening levels are exceeded 227 9.3.3 Strategy for assessing drinking-water if guidance levels are exceeded 227 9.3.4 Sampling frequency 229 9.4 Guidance levels for radionuclides commonly found in drinking‑water 230 9.5 Analytical methods 231 9.5.1 Measuring gross alpha and gross beta activity concentrations 231 9.5.2 Measuring specific radionuclides 231 9.6 Remedial measures 231 9.7 Radon 232 9.7.1 Radon in air and water 232 9.7.2 Health risks from radon 234 9.7.3 Guidance on radon in drinking-water supplies 234 H vii GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY: FOURTH EDITION INCORPORATING THE FIRST AND SECOND ADDENDA 9.8 9.7.4 Measuring radon in drinking-water 9.7.5 Decreasing radon concentrations in drinking-water Risk communication 9.8.1 Reporting results 9.8.2 Communicating risks 10 Acceptability aspects: Taste, odour and appearance 10.1 Biologically derived contaminants Actinomycetes and fungi Cyanobacteria and algae Invertebrate animal life Iron bacteria 10.2 Chemically derived contaminants Aluminium Ammonia Chloramines Chloride Chlorine Chlorobenzenes Chlorophenols Colour Copper Dissolved oxygen Ethylbenzene Hardness Hydrogen sulfide Iron Manganese Petroleum oils pH and corrosion Sodium Styrene Sulfate Synthetic detergents Toluene Total dissolved solids Turbidity Xylenes Zinc 10.3 Treatment of taste, odour and appearance problems 10.4 Temperature H P H U 234 235 235 235 236 237 239 239 239 239 240 240 240 241 241 241 241 242 242 242 242 243 243 243 244 244 244 244 245 245 245 245 246 246 246 246 247 247 247 248 11 Microbial fact sheets 249 11.1 Bacterial pathogens 250 Acinetobacter 250 Aeromonas 252 viii GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY: FOURTH EDITION INCORPORATING THE FIRST AND SECOND ADDENDA R Johnston, WHO, Switzerland G Jones, University of Canberra, Australia H Jones, Loughborough University, United Kingdom K Jones, Public Health England, United Kingdom T.T Jorge, formerly WHO, Switzerland C Jørgensen, DHI, Denmark P.S Joshi, National Environment Agency, Singapore D Jovanovic, Institute of Public Health, Serbia R Junek, Federal Environment Agency, Germany T Jung, German Federal Office for Radiation Protection, Germany A Kabir, WHO, Bangladesh A Kabirizi, Ministry of Water and Environment, Uganda Mihály Kádár, formerly National Institute of Environmental Health, Hungary S Kalandarov, WHO, Tajikistan N Kalebaila, Water Research Commission, South Africa T Kaloudis, EYDAP - Athens Water Supply and Sewerage Company, Greece A Kämpfe, Federal Environment Agency, Germany M Kanazawa, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan B.P Kandel, Amarapuri Water Utility, Nepal C Kanyesigye, National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC), Uganda P Karani, African Development Bank, Tunisia E Kardinaal, KWR Watercycle Research Institute, the Netherlands G.Y.-H Karina, National University of Singapore, Singapore H Kasan, Rand Water, South Africa A Kasuya, Ministry of Health Labour and Welfare, Japan H Katayama, University of Tokyo, Japan D Kay, Aberystwyth University, United Kingdom K Kelleher, formerly International Atomic Energy Agency, Austria S Khan, The University of New South Wales, Australia K Khatri, WHO, Fiji N.R Khatri, formerly WHO, Nepal R Khush, Aquaya, USA S Kilani, Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Jordan P Kirch, Enwor-Energie & Wasser Vor Ort GmbH, Germany N Kishida, National Institute of Public Health, Japan T Kistemann, University of Bonn, Germany S Klitzke, Federal Environment Agency, Germany W Kloas, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Germany W.R Knocke, Virginia Tech, USA N Kobayashi, National Institute of Health Sciences, Japan B.J Kobelski, Environmental Protection Agency, USA M Kochubovski, Institute of Public Health, Republic of North Macedonia K Komatsu, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan K Kosaka, National Institute of Public Health, Japan N.O Kotei, Public Utilities Regulatory Commission, Ghana H P H U 572 ANNEX CONTRIBUTORS TO FOURTH EDITION INCORPORATING FIRST AND SECOND ADDENDA A Kovacs, International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River, Austria J Lalung, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia P Kozarsky, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA F Kozisek, National Institute of Public Health, Czechia R Kryschi, Germany Y Kubo, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan P Kubon, Federal Environment Agency, Germany Y Kudo, Japan Water Works Association, Japan S Kumar, University of Malaya, Malaysia S Kunikane, University of Shizuoka, Japan S Kurebayashi, Ministry of the Environment, Japan R Kurmayer, University of Innsbruck, Austria W Kutane, WHO, Ethiopia P Labhasetwar, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, India S Labib, Health Canada, Canada J Lafontaine, Health Canada, Canada H Lahav, Makhshim Chemical Works Ltd, USA J Lahnsteiner, VA TECH WABAG, Austria K.C Lai, PUB, the national water agency, Singapore B Lampe, NSF International, USA D Lantagne, Tufts University, USA L Laraki, Office National de l’eau Potable, Morocco I Law, IBL Solutions, Australia L.A Lawton, Robert Gordon University, United Kingdom M.W LeChevallier, American Water, USA D Lee, PUB, the national water agency, Singapore H Lee, PUB, the national water agency, Singapore H.K Lee, National University of Singapore, Singapore J Lee, Health Protection Agency, United Kingdom L Lejon, Flemish Agency for Care and Health, Belgium R Lemen, retired (formerly with United States Public Health Service, USA) F Lemieux, Health Canada, Canada P Lennon, PATH, USA G Leslie, University of New South Wales, Australia F Leusch, Griffith University, Australia K Levy, Rollins School of Public Health, USA R Lieberman, Environmental Protection Agency, USA M.H Lim, PUB, the national water agency, Singapore K Linden, University of Colorado Boulder, USA O Loebel, EurEau, Belgium J.-F Loret, Centre International de Recherche Sur l’eau et l’Environnement – Suez Environnement, France P Lotz, MINTEK, South Africa A Lovell, Water Services Association of Australia, Australia S Luby, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh H P H U 573 GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY: FOURTH EDITION INCORPORATING THE FIRST AND SECOND ADDENDA L Lucentini, National Institute of Health, Italy C Lucks, Federal Office for Radiation Protection, Germany J Luh, formerly University of North Carolina, USA J MacAulay, Health Canada, Canada D MacChesney, Environmental Protection Agency, USA L Macpherson, New Water ReSources, USA S.N Madjunarova, International Atomic Energy Agency, Austria Y Magara, Hokkaido University, Japan B Magtibay, WHO, Philippines S.G Mahmud, WHO, Bangladesh D Maison, WHO, Switzerland B Majuru, WHO, Switzerland H.-J Mälzer, IWW Water Centre, Germany J Mankiewicz-Boczek, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Poland E Mantzouki, Université de Genève, Switzerland D Mara, University of Leeds, United Kingdom K.J Marienau, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA M Markus, Orange County Water District, USA B Maršálek, Masarykova Univerzita, Czechia P Marsden, Drinking Water Inspectorate, United Kingdom M.G Martí, Sociedad General de Aguas de Barcelona (AGBAR), Spain C Martinho, Acquawise, Portugal T Matsuda, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan Y Matsui, Hokkaido University, Japan K Matsumoto, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan A Mavridou, Technological Educational Institute of Athens, Greece A May, Drinking Water Inspectorate, United Kingdom N McColl, Public Health England, United Kingdom A McCoy, Health Canada, Canada A McDonald, Population Services International (PSI), USA S McFadyen, Health Canada, Canada M.J McGuire, Michael J McGuire, Inc., USA K McHugh, Population Services International (PSI), USA R.M McKeown, WHO, Switzerland D Medeiros, Health Canada, Canada G Medema, KWR Watercycle Research Institute and Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands K Medlicott, WHO, Switzerland E Medlin, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA M.E Meek, University of Ottawa, Canada R Meierhofer, Eawag, Switzerland K Meme, Lifewater International, USA R Mendes, Acquawise, Portugal J Menge, formerly City of Windhoek, Namibia H P H U 574 ANNEX CONTRIBUTORS TO FOURTH EDITION INCORPORATING FIRST AND SECOND ADDENDA D.L Menucci, WHO, France J Mercer, Health Canada, Canada J Meriluoto, Åbo Akademi University, Finland B.J Merkel, Freiberg University of Mining and Technology, Germany W Merkel, IWW, Germany J.S Metcalfe, Institute of Ethnomedicine, USA R Meyerhoff, Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company, USA C Michelena, Ministerio de Vivienda, Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente, Uruguay G Miller, Environmental Protection Agency, USA H Michel, Carollo Engineers, USA M Millan, Data Instincts, USA R Miller, Water Corporation, Australia F Miranda da Rocha, National Sanitary Control Agency, Brazil R Mitchell, WRc, United Kingdom I Moffat, Health Canada, Canada Z.A Mohamed, Sohag University, Egypt H.G.H Mohammad, Ministry of Health, Kuwait N Mohlala, National Nuclear Regulator, South Africa D Moir, Health Canada, Canada D Mokadam, Association of Flight Attendants-CWA, USA A Molinari, Ente Regulador de Agua y Sanemiento (ERAS), Argentina M Mons, Kiwa Water Research, the Netherlands T Monteiro, formerly WHO Pan-American Health Organization, Peru M Montgomery, WHO, Switzerland A Mooijman, Independent Consultant, the Netherlands C Morais, Águas Cávado, Portugal H Morii, Osaka City University, Japan V Morisset, Health Canada, Canada T Morita, Japan Water Forum, Japan N Moritani, Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan R Morris, University College London, United Kingdom J Mosher, Water Environment & Reuse Foundation, USA B Mouchtouri, University of Thessal, Greece M Moussif, Mohamed V Airport, Morocco F.H Mughal, Independent Consultant, Pakistan (formerly Independent Researcher, India) H Muller, Independent Consultant, South Africa C Munoz-Trochez, formerly International Water Association, United Kingdom C.M Murray, Fairfax Water, USA M Muse, previously with Environmental Protection Agency, USA J Nadeau, Health Canada, Canada B Nancarrow, Syme and Nancarrow Water, Australia S Nappier, Environmental Protection Agency, USA N.O Nascimento, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil H P H U 575 GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY: FOURTH EDITION INCORPORATING THE FIRST AND SECOND ADDENDA K.J Nath, Institution of Public Health Engineers, India M.I.J Navarro, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México [UNAM], Mexico M Ncube, Johannesburg Water, South Africa R Neipp, Ministry of Health and Social Policy, Spain J.C Neto, Universidade Federal Ceará, Brazil T Neville, Vestergaard Frandsen, Zambia G Newcombe, formerly SA Water, Australia T Ngai, Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology (CAWST), Canada M.S Ngon, WHO, Myanmar A.V.F Ngowi, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, United Republic of Tanzania C Nicholson, Sydney Water, Australia F.H Nielsen, United States Department of Agriculture, USA J.W Nieves, Columbia University, USA Y Nijdam, Waternet, the Netherlands C Nishida, WHO, Switzerland I.K Njoya, Ministry of Water and Energy, Cameroon A Nocker, IWW Water Centre, Germany (formerly Cranfield University, United Kingdom) C Nokes, Environmental Science and Research Ltd, New Zealand V.J Novotny, Professor Emeritus, Marquette University, USA, and Northeastern University, USA N O’Connor, Ecos Environmental Consulting, Australia O Odediran, United Nations Children’s Fund, USA B Odugbemi, Consultant at Lagos State University Teaching Hospital, Nigeria O Oenema, Wageningen University and Research Center, the Netherlands G Offringa, formerly Water Research Commission, South Africa P.-Y Oger, United Nations Children’s Fund, USA M Ogoshi, National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management, Japan J.-E Oh, Pusan National University, Republic of Korea E Ohanian, Environmental Protection Agency, USA K Ohno, formerly National Institute of Public Health, Japan S Okamoto, Public Works Research Institute, Japan S Ólafsdóttir, Icelandic Food and Veterinary Authority, Iceland G Oliver, Australian Water Secure Innovations (formerly Australian Water Recycling Centre of Excellence), Australia C.N Ong, National University of Singapore, Singapore S.L Ong, National University of Singapore, Singapore L Onyon, WHO, Switzerland C Ortiz, Laguna Madre Water District, USA P Osborn, 300in6 initiative, the Netherlands N.J Osborne, University of Queensland, Australia P.S Oshida, formerly Environmental Protection Agency, USA W Oswald, Rollins School of Public Health, USA J O’Toole, Monash University, Australia H P H U 576 ANNEX CONTRIBUTORS TO FOURTH EDITION INCORPORATING FIRST AND SECOND ADDENDA S Ou, Public Health South, New Zealand A Overbo, University of Minnesota (formerly University of North Carolina), USA M Overmars, formerly Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission, Fiji J Padisák, Pannon Egyetem, Hungary S.R Panthi, WHO, Nepal A Paoli, Atkins Limited, United Kingdom J.M Parra Morte, European Food Safety Authority, Italy T Paux, Ministère de la santé, de la jeunesse et des sports, France Payden, WHO Regional Office for South East Asia, India G.L Peralta, WHO, Philippines J.P Peregalli, Ministerio de Vivienda, Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente, Uruguay S Perry, State of Washington Office of Drinking Water, USA M.D.R Perez, WHO, Switzerland S Petterson, Water & Health Pty Ltd, Australia S Phan, WHO, Cambodia C Pickl, Federal Environment Agency, Germany J Pietersen, Midvaal Water Company, South Africa B Pilon, International Air Transport Association, Switzerland G Pinotti, Ministerio de Vivienda, Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente, Uruguay O Pintos, Asociación Federal de Entes Reguladores de Agua y Saneamiento de Argentina, Argentina W Piyasena, formerly Ministry of Water Supply and Drainage, Sri Lanka M Plemp, Centre for Infectious Disease Control, the Netherlands B Plotkin, WHO, Switzerland M Podeprel, Helioz Research and Development, Austria T Pohle, Air Transport Association, USA C Pollard, Drinking Water Inspectorate, United Kingdom S Pollard, Cranfield University, United Kingdom K Pond, University of Surrey, United Kingdom D Poulin, Health Canada, Canada H.L Pound, University of Tennessee, USA J Pratt, Veolia Water Central, United Kingdom F Properzi, WHO, Switzerland (currently UN-Water, Switzerland) J Puddick, Cawthron Institute, New Zealand T Pule, WHO, Republic of Congo D Purkiss, NSF International, USA W Qu, Fudan University, China A Queste, University of Bonn, Germany C Quiblier, Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, France H Quiñones, Scientific and Technical Translator, Spain M Rafatullah, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia R Rainey, United States Agency for International Development (USAID), USA S Ramasamy, Environmental Protection Agency, USA H P H U 577 GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY: FOURTH EDITION INCORPORATING THE FIRST AND SECOND ADDENDA V Ramnath, National Environment Agency, Singapore A Rannou, Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety, France T Rapp, Federal Environment Agency, Germany H Raymond, Ohio State University, USA S Regli, Environmental Protection Agency, USA P Regunathan, Regunathan & Associates Inc., USA D Reid, Alberta Environment and Parks, Canada B Rickert, Federal Environment Agency, Germany A Rinehold, WHO, Switzerland U Ringelband, formerly Federal Environment Agency, Germany J Ringo, Bio-Cide International, Inc., USA S Risica, National Institute of Health, Italy M Rivett, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom W Robertson, Watermicrobe Consultancy (formerly Health Canada), Canada C Robertson-Kellie, Drinking Water Quality Regulator for Scotland, United Kingdom C Robillot, HeadStart Development Pty Ltd, Australia C Rockey, South West Water, United Kingdom G Rodier, WHO, Switzerland A.L.G Rodrigues, Sabesp, Brazil C Rodriguez, Western Australia Department of Health, Australia L Rogers, WHO, Switzerland J Rose, Michigan State University, USA J.W Rosenboom, Water and Sanitation Program of the World Bank (WSP), Cambodia (currently Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation) K Ross, ISF-UTS, Australia S Rostron, Ministry of Health, New Zealand K Rotert, Environmental Protection Agency, USA N Roth, Swiss Centre for Applied Human Toxicology, Switzerland M Rouse, University of Oxford, United Kingdom R Rowe, The Water Institute, University of North Carolina, USA P Rzymski, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poland M Sagehashi, National Institute of Public Health, Japan H.J Salas, Pan American Center for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences, Lima, Peru L.R Sally, formerly International Water Management Institute, Sri Lanka N Salmaso, Fondazione Mach-Istituto Agrario di S Michele all’Adige Hydrobiology, Italy A Salveson, Carollo Engineers, USA P Samuels, HR Wallingford, United Kingdom M Samwell, Women in Europe for a Common Future, the Netherlands R Sancho, Águas Algarve, Portugal H Sanderson, Danish National Environmental Research Institute, Denmark A Sargaonkar, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, India A Sasso, Environmental Protection Agency, USA B Schaefer, Federal Environment Agency, Germany H P H U 578 ANNEX CONTRIBUTORS TO FOURTH EDITION INCORPORATING FIRST AND SECOND ADDENDA B.A Schaeffer, Environmental Protection Agency, USA S Schaub, formerly Environmental Protection Agency, USA C Schets, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, the Netherlands J Schijven, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment and Utrecht University, the Netherlands S Schira, Liquitech, USA O Schmoll, WHO Regional Office for Europe, Germany B Schnabel, formerly Federal Environment Agency, Germany M Schubauer-Berigan, International Agency for Research on Cancer, France S Seki, Ministry of the Environment, Japan C Sevenich, Hamburg Port Health Center, Germany F Shafeeqa, Live & Learn Environmental Education, Maldives G Shaghaghi, Ministry of Health, Islamic Republic of Iran N Shah, Unilever R & D Laboratory, India F Shannoun, WHO, Switzerland R.K Sharma, Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board, Nepal N Shaw, International Shipping Federation, United Kingdom D Sheehan, Coliban Water, Australia M Sheffer, Editor, Canada E Sheward, University of Central Lancashire, United Kingdom P Shodmonov, State Sanitary Epidemiological Surveillance Service, Tajikistan K Sholtes, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA D Shrestha, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Switzerland R.R.P Shrestha, WHO, Nepal L Siegel, Safe Water International, USA S Silma, International Organization of Migration, Switzerland L Simas, ERSAR, the Water and Waste Services Regulation Authority, Portugal D Simazaki, National Institute of Public Health, Japan J Simmons, Environmental Protection Agency, USA J Sims, retired (formerly WHO, Switzerland) M Sinclair, Monash University, Australia O Sinitsyna, Ministry of Health, Russian Federation C Skak, Danish Toxicology Centre, Denmark K Skeppström, formerly Swedish Radiation Safety Authority, Sweden P Smeets, KWR Watercycle Research Institute, the Netherlands B Smith, Independent Consultant, United Kingdom D Smith, Melbourne Water, Australia J Smith, Independent Consultant, United Kingdom S Smith, Wessex Water, United Kingdom K Snead, Environmental Protection Agency, USA S Snyder, University of Arizona, USA M Sobsey, University of North Carolina, USA J Soller, Soller Environmental, LLC, USA B Sontia, University of Ottawa, Canada B Stanford, Hazen and Sawyer, USA H P H U 579 GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY: FOURTH EDITION INCORPORATING THE FIRST AND SECOND ADDENDA E Steinle-Darling, Carollo Engineers, USA P Steinmann, Federal Office of Public Health, Switzerland T.-A Stenstrom, Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control, Sweden (currently Durban University of Technology, South Africa) M Stevens, Melbourne Water, Australia M Stevenson, Cascade Designs, USA I Stewart, Food and Water Toxicology Consulting, Australia N Stewart, Carnival UK, United Kingdom J Strandberg, formerly WHO, Sweden V Straškrábová, Czech Academy of Sciences, Czechia S Sturm, German Technical and Scientific Association for Gas and Water – Technologiezentrum Wasser, Germany K Sudo, Japan International Cooperation Agency, Japan M Suffet, University of California Los Angeles, USA A Sufiev, State Sanitary Epidemiological Surveillance Service, Tajikistan J Suhaimi, Ranhill Utilities, Malaysia A Sukenik, Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, Israel S Sumanaweera, National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Sri Lanka C Summerill, Cranfield University, United Kingdom S Surman-Lee, Health Protection Agency, United Kingdom D Susau, Live & Learn Environmental Education, Fiji D Sutherland, WHO Regional Office for South East Asia, India (formerly Independent Consultant, United Kingdom) A Suzuki, Ministry of the Environment, Japan K Suzuki, TMWW, Japan M Swart, Rand Water (formerly Department of Water Affairs), South Africa C Swartz, Chris Swartz Water Utilization Engineers, South Africa D Swiderski, Aquor/Global Water Council, USA L Taghizade, Ministry of Health, Azerbaijan K Takahashi, Asbestos Diseases Research Institute, Australia M Takahashi, formerly National Institute of Health Sciences, Japan A Tamas, Swiss Federal Institute of Environmental Science and Technology/ Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries, Switzerland H Tanaka, Kyoto University, Japan K Tanaka, formerly Waterworks Bureau Kawasaki City, Japan R Tanner, Independent Consultant, Belgium M Taylor, formerly Ministry of Health, New Zealand C Teaf, Florida State University, USA E Testai, National Institute of Health, Italy P Teixeira, WHO, USA M Templeton, Imperial College London, United Kingdom A Terazono, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan P Teunis, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, the Netherlands, and Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, USA C Thibeault, International Air Transport Association, Canada H P H U 580 ANNEX CONTRIBUTORS TO FOURTH EDITION INCORPORATING FIRST AND SECOND ADDENDA P Thompson, ToxStrategies, USA T Thompson, formerly WHO, Philippines B Thunholm, Geological Survey of Sweden, Sweden S.M Tibatemwa, International Water Association, Kenya D Till, Independent Consultant, New Zealand R Tinker, Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency, Australia J Tobiason, University of Massachusetts Amherst, USA J Todd, Environmental Protection Agency, USA I Toh, PUB, the national water agency, Singapore S Toh, PUB, the national water agency, Singapore R Tomisaka, Ministry of the Environment, Japan N Ton Tuan, WHO, Viet Nam A Törökné, National Accreditation Authority, Hungary A Torres, International Organization of Migration, Switzerland R Torres, WHO, Plurinational State of Bolivia R.M Touyz, University of Ottawa, Canada B Tracy, Health Canada, Canada A Trevett, WHO, Bangladesh (currently United Nations Children’s Fund, Kenya) Y Trihadiningrum, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Indonesia D.M Trindade, Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Macao Special Administrative Region, China A Tritscher, formerly WHO, Switzerland M Troussellier, Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, France R.R Trussell, Trussell Technologies, USA A Tugulea, Health Canada, Canada S Tuite, Health Canada, Canada T.M Ua-Cookson, Ministry of Health, New Zealand T Udagawa, Japan Water Works Association, Japan P Undesser, Water Quality Association, USA E Urquhart, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA S Vajpeyee, Government Medical College and New Civil Hospital, India M Valcke, Institut National de Santé Publique du Québec, Canada K van den Belt, Flander Environment Agency, Belgium J.P van der Hoek, Amsterdam Water Supply, the Netherlands B van der Merwe, Environmental Engineering Services, Namibia E van Deventer, WHO, Switzerland P Van Maanen, United Nations Children’s Fund, USA J Van Zyl, University of Cape Town, South Africa L Varadi, President of the Hungarian Aquaculture Association, Hungary G Vartanian, National Water Research Institute, USA L Veiga, formerly Institute of Radiation Protection and Dosimetry, Brazil G Velo, University of Verona, Italy F Venter, University of Pretoria, South Africa P Verger, WHO, Switzerland E Veschetti, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Italy H P H U 581 GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY: FOURTH EDITION INCORPORATING THE FIRST AND SECOND ADDENDA E.Viau, Bioenergy Frontiers, USA C Vickers, WHO, Switzerland L Vidal, Consultant, Uruguay J.M.P Vieira, University of Minho, Portugal L Vijselaar, Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees (DACAAR), Afghanistan C Viljoen, Rand Water, South Africa E Villalobos Prats, WHO, Switzerland D Viola, International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials and World Plumbing Council, USA N Virabouth, Ministry of Public Works and Transport, Lao People’s Democratic Republic G Vivas, WHO, Barbados A von Hildebrand, formerly WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific, Philippines M von Sperling, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil T Wade, Environmental Protection Agency, USA R Wahabi, Ministry of Health, Morocco R Walker, Water Corporation, Australia C Wallace, United Nations University, Canada N Walmsley, HR Wallingford, United Kingdom T Waters, Environmental Protection Agency, USA C Weaver, Purdue University, USA S Webster, MWH, New Zealand W Weglicki, George Washington University Medical Center, USA M Wehner, Orange County Water District, USA R Weisman, Environmental Protection Agency, USA M Welker, Independent Consultant, Germany S Weragoda, National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Sri Lanka S Westacott, Southampton City Council, United Kingdom K White, representing collective view from American Chemistry Council, USA I Wienand, University of Bonn, Germany S Wijesekara, United Nations Children’s Fund, USA A Wiklund, DG Energy, European Commission, Luxembourg S.W Wilhelm, University of Tennessee, USA J Willetts, ISF-UTS, Australia A Williams, CF (formerly University of North Carolina), USA T Williams, International Water Association, the Netherlands H Willmitzer, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany D Wilusz, Department of State, USA K Winterford, ISF-UTS, Australia C Witkowski, Association of Flight Attendants-CWA, USA C Wittwer, Federal Office for Radiation Protection, Germany K.-M Wollin, Niedersächsisches Landesgesundheitsamt, Germany K.W Wong, PUB, the national water agency, Singapore C.H Woo, PUB, the national water agency, Singapore H P H U 582 ANNEX CONTRIBUTORS TO FOURTH EDITION INCORPORATING FIRST AND SECOND ADDENDA S.A Wood, Cawthron Institute, New Zealand G Woolhouse, HR Wallingford, United Kingdom P Xie, Institute of Hydrobiology - Chinese Academy of Sciences, China M Yadav, Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board, Nepal I Yamaguchi, National Institute of Public Health, Japan J Yap, National Environment Agency, Singapore G Yasvinski, Health Canada, Canada O Yiha, WHO, Ethiopia M Young, Environmental Protection Agency, USA R Yuen, International Water Association, Singapore M N M Yunus, Atomic Energy Licensing Board Member, Malaysia T Zabel, WRc, United Kingdom Y Zaki, International Organization of Migration, Switzerland A Zamyadi, University of Montreal, Canada I Zastenskaya, WHO, Germany B Žegura, National Institute of Biology, Slovenia M Zemlyanova, Federal Scientific Center for Medical and Preventive Health Risk Management Technologies, Russian Federation M Zessner, Technische Universität Wien, Austria R Zhang, National Center for Rural Water Supply Technical Guidance, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, China K Ziegler-Skylakakis, Technical University of Munich, Germany G Ziglio, University of Trento, Italy K Zoschke, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany G Zwolsman, KWR Watercycle Research Institute, the Netherlands H P H U 583 H P H U H P H U This fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda, of the World Health Organization's Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality builds on over 60 years of guidance by WHO on drinking-water quality, which has formed an authoritative basis for the setting of national regulations and standards for water safety in support of public health H P Additional risk assessments are presented for a number of new chemical and microbial hazards and applied to a suite of pesticides used for public health purposes Existing reviews on chemicals and waterborne pathogens have been revised to account for new scientific information The chapter on radiological aspects of drinking-water quality has been comprehensively updated U H lt is the product of significant revisions to clarify and elaborate on ways of implementing its recommendations of contextual hazard identification and risk management, through the establishment of healthbased targets, catchment-to-consumer water safety plans and independent surveillance lt reflects the renewed focus on primary prevention Significant additional guidance on good practice is presented, incorporating changes introduced in the third edition Emerging water management issues are comprehensively addressed for a range of circumstances, from household water treatment and safe storage and the bulk supply of water over long distances to the implications of climate change Even more than the previous edition, this new edition incorporating the first and second addenda, emphasizes achievable practices and the formulation of sound regulations, applicable to low-income, middle-income and industrialized countries alike, that aim to prevent a potential health crisis caused by the consumption of unsafe drinking-water, against the backdrop of rapid urbanization, water scarcity and climate change 9789240045064 789240 045064