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audio power amplifier design handbook [electronic resource]

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  • Audio power amplifier design handbook

  • Copyright page

  • Contents

  • Acknowledgements

  • Preface to fifth edition

  • Abbreviations

  • Chapter 1 Introduction and general survey

    • The economic importance of power amplifiers

      • Assumptions

      • Origins and aims

    • The study of amplifier design

    • Misinformation in audio

    • Science and subjectivism

      • The subjectivist position

      • A short history of subjectivism

      • The limits of hearing

      • Articles of faith: the tenets of subjectivism

      • The length of the audio chain

      • The implications

      • The reasons why

      • The outlook

      • Technical errors

    • The performance requirements for amplifiers

      • Safety

      • Reliability

      • Power output

      • Frequency response

      • Noise

      • Distortion

      • Damping factor

      • Absolute phase

    • Amplifier formats

  • Chapter 2 Power amplifier architecture and negative feedback

    • Amplifier architectures

      • The three-stage amplifier architecture

      • The two-stage amplifier architecture

      • The four-stage amplifier architecture

    • Power amplifier classes

      • Class-A

      • Class-AB

      • Class-B

      • Class-C

      • Class-D

      • Class-E

      • Class-F

      • Class-G

      • Class-H

      • Class-S

      • Variations on Class-B

      • Error-correcting amplifiers

      • Non-switching amplifiers

      • Current-drive amplifiers

      • The Blomley principle

      • Geometric mean Class-AB

      • Nested differentiating feedback loops

    • Amplifier bridging

    • Fractional bridging

    • AC- and DC-coupled amplifiers

      • The advantages of AC-coupling

      • The advantages of DC-coupling

    • Negative feedback in power amplifiers

      • Some common misconceptions about negative feedback

      • Amplifier stability and NFB

      • Maximizing the NFB

      • Overall feedback versus local feedback

      • Maximizing linearity before feedback

  • Chapter 3 The general principles of power amplifiers

    • How a generic amplifier works

    • The advantages of the conventional

    • The distortion mechanisms

      • Distortion 1: Input stage distortion

      • Distortion 2: VAS distortion

      • Distortion 3: Output stage distortion

      • Distortion 4: VAS-loading distortion

      • Distortion 5: Rail-decoupling distortion

      • Distortion 6: Induction distortion

      • Distortion 7: NFB take-off distortion

      • Distortion 8: Capacitor distortion

      • Distortion 9: Magnetic distortion

      • Distortion 10: Input current distortion

      • Distortion 11: Premature overload protection

    • Nonexistent or negligible distortions

    • The performance of a standard amplifier

    • Open-loop linearity and how to determine it

    • Direct open-loop gain measurement

    • Using model amplifiers

    • The concept of the Blameless amplifier

  • Chapter 4 The input stage

    • The role of the input stage

    • Distortion from the input stage

    • BJTs versus FETs for the input stage

      • Advantages of the FET input stage

      • Disadvantages of FET input stage

    • Singleton input stage versus differential pair

    • The input stage distortion in isolation

    • Input stage balance

    • The joy of current-mirrors

    • Better current-mirrors

    • Improving input stage linearity

    • Further improving input linearity

    • Increasing the output capability

    • Input stage cascode configurations

    • Double input stages

    • Input stage common-mode distortion

    • Input current distortion

    • Input stage noise and how to reduce it

    • Noise sources in power amplifiers

    • Noise in bipolar transistors

    • Reducing input transistor noise

    • Offset and match: the DC precision issue

    • The input stage and the slew rate

    • Input stage conclusions

  • Chapter 5 The voltage-amplifier stage

    • Measuring VAS distortion in isolation

    • VAS operation

    • VAS distortion

    • Linearizing the VAS: active-load techniques

    • VAS enhancements

    • Some more VAS variations

    • VAS operating conditions

    • The importance of voltage drive

    • The push–pull VAS

    • The high-current capability VAS

    • Single input stages

    • Double input stages

    • Manipulating open-loop bandwidth

    • Conclusions

  • Chapter 6 The output stage

    • Classes and devices

    • The distortions of the output

      • Harmonic generation by crossover distortion

      • Comparing output stages

    • The emitter-follower (EF) output

    • The complementary feedback pair (CFP) output

    • Output stages with gain

    • Quasi-complementary outputs

    • Triple-based output configurations

      • Triple-EF output stages

    • Quadruple output stages

    • Output stage distortions and their mechanisms

    • Large-signal distortion (Distortion 3a)

      • The Load-Invariant concept

      • The LSN mechanism

      • Doubled output devices

      • Better output devices

      • Feedforward diodes

      • Trouble with triples

      • Loads below 4 Ω

      • Better 8 Ω performance

      • A practical Load-Invariant design

      • More on multiple output devices

      • Load invariance: summary

    • Crossover distortion (Distortion 3b)

      • Output stage quiescent conditions

      • An experiment on crossover distortion

      • V[sub(q)] as the critical quiescent parameter

    • Switching distortion (Distortion 3c)

    • Thermal distortion

    • Thermal distortion in a power amp IC

    • Selecting an output stage

    • Closing the loop: distortion in complete amplifiers

    • Conclusions

  • Chapter 7 More distortion mechanisms

    • Distortion 4: VAS-loading distortion

    • Distortion 5: Rail-decoupling distortion

    • Distortion 6: Induction distortion

    • Distortion 7: NFB take-off point distortion

    • Distortion 8: Capacitor distortion

    • Distortion 9: Magnetic distortion

    • Distortion 10: Input current distortion

    • Distortion 11: Premature overload protection

    • Design example – a 50 W Class-B amplifier

  • Chapter 8 Compensation, slew rate, and stability

    • Frequency compensation in general

    • Dominant-pole compensation

    • Lag compensation

    • Including the output stage: output-inclusive Miller compensation

    • Other forms of inclusive compensation

    • Two-pole compensation

    • Stability and VAS-collector-to-ground capacitance

    • Nested feedback loops

    • Output networks

      • Amplifier output impedance

      • Minimizing amplifier output impedance

      • Zobel networks

      • Output inductors

      • The output inductor value

      • Cable effects

    • Crosstalk in amplifier output inductors

      • Coil crosstalk conclusions

    • Reactive loads and speaker simulation

      • Resistive loads

      • Modeling real loudspeaker loading

    • Loudspeaker loads and output stages

      • Single-speaker load

      • Two-way speaker loads

    • Enhanced loudspeaker currents

    • Amplifier instability

      • HF instability

      • LF instability

    • Speed and slew rate in audio amplifiers

      • The basics of amplifier slew-limiting

      • Slew-rate measurement techniques

      • Improving the slew rate

      • Simulating slew-limiting

      • Slewing limitations in real life

      • Some additional complications

      • Further improvements and other configurations

  • Chapter 9 Power supplies and PSRR

    • Power-supply technologies

      • Simple unregulated power supplies

        • Advantages

        • Disadvantages

      • Linear regulated power supplies

        • Advantages

        • Disadvantages

      • Switch-mode power supplies

        • Advantages

        • Disadvantages

    • A devious alternative to regulated power supplies

    • Design considerations for power supplies

      • Mains transformers

        • Transformer mounting

        • Transformer specifications

        • Electrical specifications

        • Mechanical matters

        • Transformer evaluation

        • Transformers and hum

      • External power supplies

        • Advantages

        • Disadvantages

      • Inrush currents

        • Inrush suppression by thermistor

        • Inrush suppression by relay

      • Fusing and rectification

      • RF emissions from bridge rectifiers

      • Relay supplies

    • Power-supply rail rejection in amplifiers

      • A design philosophy for supply-rail rejection

      • Positive supply-rail rejection

      • Negative supply-rail rejection

      • Negative sub-rails

  • Chapter 10 Class-A power amplifiers

    • An introduction to Class-A

    • Class-A configurations and efficiency

    • Output stages in Class-A

    • Quiescent current control systems

    • A novel quiescent current controller

    • A Class-A design

    • The Trimodal amplifier

    • Load impedance and operating mode

    • Efficiency

    • On Trimodal biasing

    • Class-A/AB mode

    • Class-B mode

    • The mode-switching system

    • Thermal design

    • A complete Trimodal amplifier circuit

    • The power supply

    • The performance

    • Further possibilities

  • Chapter 11 Class-XD™: crossover displacement technology

    • The crossover displacement principle

    • Crossover displacement realization

    • Circuit techniques for crossover displacement

    • A complete crossover displacement power amplifier circuit

    • The measured performance

    • The effect of loading changes

    • The efficiency of crossover displacement

    • Other methods of push–pull displacement control

    • Summary

      • Advantages

      • Disadvantages

  • Chapter 12 Class-G power amplifiers

    • The principles of Class-G

    • Introducing series Class-G

    • Efficiency of Class-G

    • Practicalities

    • The biasing requirements

    • The linearity issues of series Class-G

    • The static linearity

    • Practical Class-G design

    • Controlling small-signal distortion

    • The performance

    • Deriving a new kind of amplifier: Class-A + C

    • Adding two-pole compensation

    • Further variations on Class-G

  • Chapter 13 Class-D amplifiers

    • History

    • Basic principles

    • Technology

    • Protection

    • Output filters

    • Efficiency

  • Chapter 14 FET output stages

    • The characteristics of power FETs

    • FET versus BJT output stages

      • Advantages of FETs

      • Disadvantages of FETs

    • IGBTs

    • Power FET output stages

    • Power FETs and bipolars: the linearity competition

    • FETs in Class-A stages

  • Chapter 15 Thermal compensation and thermal dynamics

    • Why quiescent conditions are critical

    • Accuracy required of thermal compensation

    • Basic thermal compensation

    • Assessing the bias errors

    • Thermal simulation

    • Modeling the EF output stage

    • Modeling the CFP output stage

    • The Integrated Absolute Error Criterion

    • Improved thermal compensation for the EF stage

    • Improved compensation for the CFP output stage

    • A better sensor position

    • A junction-temperature estimator

    • A junction estimator with dynamics

    • Conclusions about the simulations

    • Power transistors with integral temperature sensors

    • Variable-tempco bias generators

      • Creating a higher tempco

      • Ambient temperature changes

      • Creating a lower tempco

      • Current compensation

    • Early effect in output stages

    • Thermal dynamics by experiment

      • Crossover distortion against time – some results

      • More measurements – conventional and ThermalTrak

  • Chapter 16 The design of DC servos

    • DC offset trimming

    • DC offset control by servo-loop

    • The advantages of DC servos

    • Basic servo configurations

    • Noise, component values, and the roll-off

    • Non-inverting integrators

      • The 2C integrator

      • The 1C integrator

    • Choice of integrator type

    • Choice of op-amps

    • Servo authority

    • Design of LF roll-off point

    • Servo overload

    • Servo testing

    • Performance issues

    • Multi-pole servos

  • Chapter 17 Amplifier and loudspeaker protection

    • Categories of amplifier protection

      • Semiconductor failure modes

    • Overload protection

      • Overload protection by fuses

      • Electronic overload protection

      • Plotting the protection locus

      • Simple current limiting

      • Single-slope VI limiting

      • Dual-slope VI limiting

      • VI limiting and temperature effects

      • Simulating overload protection systems

      • Testing the overload protection

      • Speaker short-circuit detection

    • Catching diodes

    • DC offset protection

      • DC protection by fuses

      • Relay protection and muting control

      • Filtering for DC protection

        • The single RC filter

        • The dual RC filter

        • The second-order active filter

      • Bidirectional DC detection

        • The conventional two-transistor circuit

        • The one-transistor version

        • The differential detector

        • The Self detector

      • Distortion in output relays

      • Output crowbar DC protection

      • Protection by power-supply shutdown

    • Thermal protection

    • Mains-fail detection

    • Powering auxiliary circuitry

  • Chapter 18 Grounding, cooling, and layout

    • Audio amplifier PCB design

      • Crosstalk

      • Rail induction distortion

      • Mounting output devices on the main PCB

        • Advantages

        • Disadvantages

      • Single- and double-sided PCBs

      • Power-supply PCB layout

      • Power amplifier PCB layout details

      • The audio PCB layout sequence

      • Miscellaneous points

    • Amplifier grounding

    • Ground loops: how they work and how to deal with them

      • Hum injection by mains grounding currents

      • Hum injection by transformer stray magnetic fields

      • Hum injection by transformer stray capacitance

      • Ground currents inside equipment

      • Balanced mains power

    • Class-I and Class-II

      • Warning

      • Cooling

      • Convection cooling

        • Heat-sink materials

        • Heat-sink compounds

        • Thermal washers

      • Fan cooling

        • Fan control systems

        • Fan failure safety measures

      • Heat pipes

    • Mechanical layout and design considerations

      • Wiring layout

      • Semiconductor installation

  • Chapter 19 Testing and safety

    • Testing and fault-finding

    • Powering up for the first time

    • Safety when working on equipment

    • Warning

    • Safety regulations

    • Electrical safety

      • Shocks from the mains plug

      • Touch current

      • Case openings

    • Equipment temperature and safety

    • Touching hot parts

    • Instruction manuals

  • Chapter 20 Power amplifier input systems

    • External signal levels

    • Internal signal levels

    • The choice of op-amps

    • Unbalanced inputs

    • Balanced interconnections

      • Advantages

      • Disadvantages

    • Common-mode rejection ratio

    • Balanced connectors

    • Balanced signal levels

    • Balanced inputs: electronic versus transformer

    • The basic balanced input

    • Common-mode rejection in the basic balanced input

    • The practical balanced input

    • Combined unbalanced and balanced inputs

    • Superbal input

    • Switched-gain balanced inputs

    • Variable-gain balanced inputs

    • High-impedance balanced inputs

    • The inverting two-op-amp input

    • The instrumentation amplifier

    • Transformer balanced inputs

    • Input overvoltage protection

    • Noise and the input system

    • Low-noise balanced inputs

    • …And quieter yet

    • Noise reduction in real life

    • Unbalanced and balanced outputs

    • Unbalanced outputs

    • Ground-canceling outputs

    • Balanced outputs

    • Quasi-floating outputs

    • Transformer balanced outputs

    • Using a balanced power amplifier interface

  • Chapter 21 Input processing and auxiliary subsystems

    • Ground-lift switches

    • Phase reversal facility

    • Gain control

    • Subsonic filtering: high-pass

    • Ultrasonic filtering: low-pass

    • Combined filters

    • Electronic crossovers

    • Digital signal processing

    • Signal-present indication

    • Output level indication

    • Signal activation

    • Twelve-Volt trigger activation

    • Infrared remote control

    • Other amplifier facilities

  • Index

    • A

    • B

    • C

    • D

    • E

    • F

    • G

    • H

    • I

    • J

    • L

    • M

    • N

    • O

    • P

    • Q

    • R

    • S

    • T

    • U

    • V

    • W

    • X

    • Z

Nội dung

[...]... Importance of Power Amplifiers Audio power amplifiers are of considerable economic importance They are built in their hundreds of thousands every year, and have a history extending back to the 1920s It is therefore surprising there have been so few books dealing in any depth with solid-state power amplifier design The first aim of this text is to fill that need, by providing a detailed guide to the many design. .. must be taken when a power amplifier is designed The second aim is to disseminate the results of the original work done on amplifier design in the last few years The unexpected result of these investigations was to show that power amplifiers of extraordinarily low distortion could be designed as a matter of routine, without any unwelcome side-effects, so long as a relatively simple design methodology was... discrete power amplifier design is rather unenterprising, given the enormous outpouring of ingenuity in the design of analog integrated circuits Advances in op-amp design would appear to be particularly relevant I have therefore spent some considerable time studying this massive body of material and I have had to regretfully conclude that it is actually a very sparse source of inspiration for new audio power. .. Survey 5 Power amplifier design has often been treated as something of a black art, with the implication that the design process is extremely complex and its outcome not very predictable I hope to show that this need no longer be the case, and that power amplifiers are now designable – in other words it is possible to predict reasonably accurately the practical performance of a purely theoretical design. .. 266 Power- supply technologies 266 Simple unregulated power supplies 266 Advantages 266 Disadvantages 266 Linear regulated power supplies 267 Advantages 267 Disadvantages 267 Switch-mode power supplies 268 Advantages 268 Disadvantages 269 A devious alternative to regulated power. .. output relays 466 Output crowbar DC protection 469 Protection by power- supply shutdown 470 Thermal protection 471 Mains-fail detection 475 Powering auxiliary circuitry 477 Chapter 18 Grounding, cooling, and layout 479 Audio amplifier PCB design 479 Crosstalk 479 Rail induction distortion ... specified load capacitance across the high-impedance output This does not appear to be a promising approach to making audio power amplifiers ● Much of the op-amp material is concerned with the common-mode performance of the input stage This is pretty much irrelevant to power amplifier design ● Many circuit techniques rely heavily on the matching of device characteristics possible in IC fabrication, and... therefore not pursued the FET route very far Similarly, most of my practical design experience has been on amplifiers of less than 300 W power output, and so heavyduty designs for large-scale public address (PA) work are also under-represented I think this is preferable to setting down untested speculation The Study of Amplifier Design Although solid-state amplifiers have been around for some 40 years, it... amplifiers of extremely low distortion (sub-0.001% at 1 kHz) to be designed and built as a matter of routine, using only modest amounts of global negative feedback Misinformation in Audio Few fields of technical endeavor are more plagued with errors, misstatements and confusion than audio In the last 20 years, the rise of controversial and non-rational audio hypotheses, gathered under the title Subjectivism has... operation of almost any design Such problems arise because audio electronics is a more technically complex subject than it at first appears It is easy to cobble together some sort of power amplifier that works, and this can give people an altogether exaggerated view of how deeply they understand what they have created In contrast, no one is likely to take a ‘subjective’ approach to the design of an aeroplane . x0 y0 w0 h1" alt="" Audio Power Amplifi er Design Handbook This book is dedicated to Julie, without whom it would not have happened. Audio Power Amplifi er Design Handbook Fifth Edition Douglas. Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Self, Douglas. Audio power amplifi er design handbook. – 5th ed. 1. Audio amplifi ers Design. 2. Power amplifi ers Design. I. Title 621.3’81535—dc22 Library. gurations 264 Chapter 9 Power supplies and PSRR 266 Power- supply technologies 266 Simple unregulated power supplies 266 Advantages 266 Disadvantages 266 Linear regulated power supplies 267

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