Social capital and health – compromising behaviors among youth in vietnam m a

School of Political and Social Inquiry Monash University Social Capital and Health-compromising Behaviors among Youth in Vietnam Diep Quy Vy Nguyen 22841733 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Applied Social Research Supervisor: Assoc Pr Dr Dharmalingam Arunachalam November, 2011 i Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at any university or equivalent institution and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, this thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis Sign: Date: ii Table of Contents Declaration ii List of Acronym v List of Tables and Figures vi Abstract vii Acknowledgement viii Chapter One: Introduction Chapter Two: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework 2.1 Health-compromising Behaviors and Related Research 2.1.1 Youth Health–compromising Behaviors in the Context of Vietnam 2.1.2 Socio-economic Characteristics and Health-compromising Behaviors among Youth 2.2 Social Capital 10 2.2.1 Definition of Social Capital 10 2.2.2 Forms of Social Capital 11 2.2.3 Summary 12 2.3 Associations between Social Capital and Health-compromising Behaviors among Youth14 2.3.1 Family Social Capital 15 2.3.2 Peer Social Capital 16 2.3.3 School Social Capital 18 2.3.4 Neighborhood Social Capital 19 Chapter Three: Methodology 23 3.1 Data and Sample 23 3.2 Questionnaire 23 iii 3.3 Measures 24 3.4 Data Analysis 28 Chapter Four: Sample Characteristics 29 4.1 Socio-economic Characteristics 29 4.2 Social Capital 30 4.3 Health-compromising Behaviors 32 Chapter Five: Correlates of Health-compromising Behaviors 34 5.1 Smoking among Vietnamese Youth and Its Correlates 34 5.1.1 Current Smoking 35 5.1.2 Severity of Smoking 38 5.2 Drinking among Vietnamese Youth and Its Correlates 40 5.2.1 Current Drinking 40 5.2.2 Severity of Drinking 44 5.3 Drug Use, Violence, and Unsafe sex 45 Chapter Six: Discussion and Conclusion 50 References 63 iv List of Acronym AHD Adolescent Health and Development FCTC Framework Convention on Tobacco Control GSO General Statistics Office GYTS Global Youth Tobacco Survey MDGs Millennium Development Goals MoH Ministry of Health SAVY1 Survey Assessment of Vietnamese Youth SAVY2 Survey Assessment of Vietnamese Youth UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund v List of Tables Table 4.1 Definition and classification of socio-economic variables included in the analysis, SAVY2 2009 Table 4.2 Definition and classification of social capital variables included in the analysis, SAVY2 2009 Table 4.3 Definition and classification of health-compromising behavior variables included in the analysis, SAVY2 2009 Table 5.1 Estimated odds ratios for current smoking among Vietnamese youth, SAVY2 SAVY2 2009 Table 5.2 Estimated odds ratios for current drinking among Vietnamese youth, SAVY SAVY2 2009 Table 5.3 Estimated odds ratios for involvement in drug use, violence, and unsafe sex among Vietnamese youth, SAVY2 2009 Figure Figure Theoretical Link between Socio-economic Factors, Social Capital and Healthcompromising Behaviors vi Abstract WHO ranks smoking, having unsafe sex, and using illicit drugs among the top risk behaviors that lead to young people’s premature deaths This is very pertinent to Vietnam, where young people aged 14 to 25 represent about one quarter of the population (24.5%) This research is designed to explore the associations between youth’s social capital as well as socio-economic factors and their involvement in such health-compromising behaviors It utilizes data from the Survey Assessment of Vietnamese Youth in 2009 and focuses on young males aged 14 to 25 Three main forms of social capital are examined including family, school, and peer social capital Findings of the study emphasize the role of family and school as important sources of social capital to protect young males against involvement in smoking, drinking, drug use, violence, and unsafe sex However, when young males have a weak family connection, stronger attachment to peers seems to be a risk factor With respect to socio-economic factors, age is likely the most consistent contributor to youth engagement in health-compromising behaviours These findings suggest effective family communication and discussions with youth should be regularly encouraged to help increase their self-efficacy in avoiding health-risk behaviors It also indicates the necessity of co-operating between family and school in supervising young people, and creating positive school environment for students to fully develop their potential, knowledge and skills to become healthy and productive individuals In addition, the involvement of a proportion of young males in several types of health-risk behaviors accentuates the importance of policies and programs that tackle these behaviors as a syndrome of risk behaviors among youth rather than separate problems vii Acknowledgement I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my course supervisor Assoc Prof Dr Dharmalingam Arunachalam for all his encouragement, support, and suggestions that substantially helped me in the completion of this thesis Assoc Prof Dr Dharmalingam, it has been my great honour to apply research skills and knowledge to such an interesting project under your supervision I also would like to thank my course coordinator Dr Kirsten McLean who provided me with very useful information and advice regarding the course and progression of this thesis I am deeply indebted to AusAID for their financial support during my time in Australia Also, my appreciation goes to the School of Political & Social Inquiry for providing me with the opportunity to pursue my study area of interest I thank my friends Duc Hanh Nguyen and Andrew Dark who assisted me in proofreading the thesis The most special thanks go to my mother Bao Loan and my younger sister Thien Huong whose unconditional love gave me strength and determination to overcome all difficulties during this long process Chapter One: Introduction Adolescence is a complex life stage characterized by young people’s efforts to seek their identity and independence This process can also be accompanied with risk taking propensity and immaturity that may expose them to various health-compromising behaviors such as substance use and unsafe sex (Kobus, 2003; Smylie, Medaglia, & Maticka-Tyndale, 2006) However, it is often thought that young people are healthy and health problems are not a concern among this particular population In fact, according to the World Health Organization ([WHO], 2001), up to 1.7 million young people, both males and females, in the age of 10 to 19 die each year mostly due to such incidents as accidents, suicide, violence, and pregnancy Smoking, having unsafe sex, and using illicit drugs are ranked among the top risk behaviors that lead to young people’s premature death In particular, unsafe sex leads to more than 6,500 cases of HIV infection among them (10 – 24 years of age) each year, which means every five minutes there is one infected individual About 150 million smokers worldwide are adolescents, and 75 million of them are anticipated to die of smoking-related diseases in the future Violence, particularly homicide, is the main cause of young male deaths in some regions in the Americas The higher level of drinking among young people, the higher risk of alcohol-related diseases to which they are exposed in later life Illicit drug use is the root of physical and psychological damage, crime, prostitution, and HIV infection among youth Such prevalence of illnesses has been resulted from a combination of reasons including youth’s lack of information, skills, and social support to strengthen their self-efficacy in avoiding these risk behaviors and adequate access to health services and facilities (WHO, 2001) A common agenda has been set by WHO and its partners including the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) with a commitment to the development of young people’s health and well being One of the most crucial targets of this agenda is to create opportunities for young people to live in a safe and supportive environment It is because not only individual assets, for instance, high self-esteem and good social skills, but also external factors such as family relationships and peer values appear to be of critical for youth to make positive decisions regarding their health Young people who grow up in families where family members support each other and parental affection for children is high would be more likely to make responsible decisions Hence these factors have great magnitude in determining the developmental trajectories of young people’s lives and need to be taken into account when establishing programmes for youth health and well being (WHO, 2001) Such an agenda is particularly important for developing countries where the majority of young people aged 10 to 24 make up 30% or more of the population (Rosen, 2004) World Bank has clarified a number of reasons for implementing Adolescent Health and Development (AHD) programmes in these countries: Young people face serious health challenges, adolescent health and development affect economic prosperity, health is a key element of overall youth development, and young people have a right to good health (Rosen, 2004) It is also emphasized that better health among young people is an effective way to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that were established in the 1990s (Rosen, 2004) As a developing country, Vietnam also faces many challenges in terms of youth health and development Young people aged 14 to 25 in the country represent the largest proportion of the total population (24.5%) (The General Statistics Office [GSO], 2003) Although young people all over the world share some common characteristics with respect to their development process, many aspects of them are differently shaped depending on their local culture (WHO, 2001) In Vietnam, young people have grown up during a transition time in which the society has rapidly shifted from an entire subsidized economy to a multi-sector economy This change along with the ‘open door policy’ of the country since 1986, on the one hand, facilitates youth’s development by improved living standards, increased national and international exchanges, and social mobility; on the other hand, put them under such pressures as intense labor market competition, unsubsidized education, social conflicts and social problems Such a circumstance exposes young people to various challenges including 62 drinking and drug use, violence, and unsafe sex except for smoking Having close friends who smoke is the only significant predictor for smoking apart from youth involvement in drug use, violence, and unsafe sex This suggests a greater magnitude of this indicator for explaining smoking among young males Unlike socio-demographic characteristics, the relationship between social capital indicators and the likelihood of involvement in health-risk behaviors among males of the school and not at school group varies depending on each type of behaviors In terms of drinking, males who had weak family connection in the school group were more likely than their counterparts in the not at school group to be current drinkers compared to those who had strong family connection (2.32 times vs 1.80 times) A similar pattern occurred to male involvement in drug use, violence, and unsafe sex (2.68 times vs 1.99 times) The opposing patterns were found when peer factors are taken into account Compared to those who had a group of friends, males who had no group of friends in the school group were less likely to engage in drinking as well as drug use, violence, and unsafe sex than their counterparts in the not at school group (0.43** vs 0.55** for drinking, 0.40** vs 0.55** for drug use, violence, and unsafe sex) Having close friends who smoke was associated with a lower likelihood of involvement in smoking and drug use, violence, and unsafe sex among males who were at school than those who were not at school (0.04** vs 0.10** for smoking, 0.52** vs 0.62** for drug use, violence, and unsafe sex) The difference between these two groups derived from peer pressure was not considerable (around 6%) The variation in the likelihood of youth involvement in different types of risk behaviors among the school and not at school group as mentioned when different social capital indicators are taken into account offers various explanations It is interesting that the school group, not the not at school group, who were more likely to engage in drinking, drug use, violence, and unsafe sex once they held weak connection with their family This suggests that while being at school might be a protective factor, it might facilitate youth involvement in those health-risk behaviors when their family attachment was weak It is because these youth might find stronger attachment to their peers, considering it as an instrumental source of 63 emotional relief Such a circumstance would lead vulnerable youth to engage in health-risk behaviors if they were associated with negative friends This explanation is supported by Problem Behavior Theory, which indicates that adolescents who strongly attach to their friends than family are easily put at risk of health-compromising behaviors (Jessor & Jessor, 1977) For males who were not at school, probably they had other ways to release which accounted for their lower likelihood of engagement in these risk behaviors compared to those who were at school In relation to peer factors, this explanation appears to be relevant Having no group of friends was associated with lower likelihood of drinking, and drug use, violence, and unsafe sex among males who were at school than those who were not at school When it came to having close friends who smoke, peer influence was greater among males who were not at school However, the difference was not considerable (6%) The difference between males of school and not at school groups implies complicated relationships between these males and different sources of social capital as well as the effects of social capital on these youth’s health-compromising behaviors When only sociodemographic characteristics are taken into account, it is apparent that males who were at school were at a more advantageous position, or they were less likely to engage in health-risk behaviors compared to those who were not at school However, when social capital characteristics are taken into consideration, various patterns could be observed for males with different levels and types of connection to their family and friends in both groups It appears that while being at school might be a protective factor, males who had weak family connection in the school group might be more vulnerable to drinking, drug use, violence, and unsafe sex than those who were not at school This could happen due to their stronger attachment to peers at school rather than family In other words, family is one of the most protective factors to prevent youth from health-compromising behaviors, yet once its effects are undermined as a result of weak connection between family members and young males, association with peers becomes a risk factor 64 Findings of this study emphasize the importance of social capital, particularly the role of family and school in protecting youth from such health-compromising behaviors as smoking, drinking, drug use, violence, and unsafe sex Although peer influence was found to have greater effect on different risk behaviors among male youth, family and school connections were positive factors in this study Higher likelihood of involvement in a number of risk behaviors among males who were at school compared to those who were not at school given weak family connection suggests that youth’s relationship with family has an intervening power to their conventionality at school This family connection is of utmost importance that young people can be driven away from healthy tracks when family does not ensure its protecting functions Thus, the role of family should be taken into account, particularly in the context of ‘Doi Moi’ in Vietnam Such social change leads to conflicts between traditional and modern values, and between older and younger generation, which are likely to affect relationships within the family, particularly in terms of parent-child communication With the assistance of effective means of media today, family should be provided with adequate knowledge about how to communicate with their children, and to have open discussions with their children about health-compromising behaviors as well as related consequences Findings of this study also indicate the importance of a co-operation between family and school in supervising young people, and positive school environment to improve a school sense of belonging among students so that they can fully develop their potential, knowledge and skills to become productive individuals in the future Peer influence implies the missions of schools in orienting students to healthy activities In addition, the insignificant role of social networking in this study calls for more efforts from schools to build up their organizations and clubs for students along with extra-curricular activities so that a difference could be made There should also be different policies for youth who were at school and those who were not at school, as it appears that these two groups differ from each other to a certain extent in terms of their involvement in health-risk behaviors The involvement of young males in several health-risk behaviors at the same time when different social capital characteristics are taken into account also indicate the importance of policies and programs that tackle health-risk behaviors as multi-component risk behaviors, or a syndrome of risk behaviors among young males rather than separate problems Such combination of solutions with multi-purposes and 65 functions will help increase cost-effectiveness and bring about more long-term and comprehensive outcomes for young males’ health and wealth being There are a number of limitations in this study that deserve attention Both SAVY1 and SAVY2 had the same question content; therefore, it would be useful if these two surveys could have been compared together to understand how the relationship between social capital and health-compromising behaviors among youth have changed between these two surveys However, due to lack of data on the current involvement of youth in smoking and drinking in SAVY1, this comparison could not be exercised This comparison, if possible, would contribute more insights into changes among Vietnamese youth in relation to their healthcompromising behaviors in an ‘update-context’, which are important for suggesting solutions for improving youth’s health in Vietnam Another limitation of this study lies in the indicators which were used to measure social capital As the design of SAVY2 was based on SAVY1, in which health-compromising behaviors was approached from a risk and protective theoretical framework (Problem Behavior Theory), there were not sufficient indicators to measure social capital on a wide range of aspects relating to youth’s social networks For instance, family connection was only the available indicator for examining family social capital It has been acknowledged in studies that parental guidance, parental attitudes towards children’s health-risk behaviors, sibling model of involvement in substance use, and family norms and disciplines are also among meaningful indicators when social capital is taken into consideration Lack of indicators for social capital could partly undermine the strength of this concept in explaining the role of family, school, and peer as social resources to youth’s health behaviors in this study These limitations, along with the results of this study, suggest the need of conducting further research into the relationship between youth’s health-compromising behaviors and social capital in Vietnam As indicated by Abbott (2009), more qualitative research and appropriate design of questionnaires would help to better capture the comprehensiveness and diversity of 66 social capital Understanding youth’s health behaviors from a broader context, particularly with respect to neighborhood characteristics, youth social participation, and trust and mutual support within individuals in society is also useful Further data analysis, in which sociodemographic and individual as well as public social capital characteristics are adjusted for, should be the next step to examine the strength of these indicators in predicting healthcompromising behaviors among young males A comprehensive theoretical framework which links the relationship between different forms and dimensions of social capital and how it affects youth’s health and wealth being would be of utmost importance to understand the power of social capital in explaining youth’s health and suggesting effective related policies 67 References Abbott, S (2009) Social capital and health: The problematic roles of social networks and social surveys Health Sociology Review, 18(3), 297 – 306 Adlaf, E M & Ivis, F J (1996) Structure and Relations: the Influence of Familial Factors on Adolescent Substance Use and Delinquency Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse, 5(3), 1–19 Alexander, C., Piazza, M., Mekos, D., & Valent, T W (2001) Peers, Schools, and Adolescent Cigarette Smoking: An Analysis of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health Journal of Adolescent Health, 29(1), 22 – 30 Ary, D V., Tildesley, E., Hops, H., Andrews, J (1993).The Influence of Parent, Sibling, and Peer Modeling and Attitudes on Adolescent Use of Alcohol International Journal of the Addictions, 28(9), 853 – 880 Bachman, J G., O'Malley, P M, Schulenberg, J E., Johnston, L D., Bryant, A L., Merlins, A C (2002).The Decline of Substance Use in Young Adulthood: Changes in Social Activities, Roles, and Beliefs Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Bachman, J G., Wallace, J M., Jr, O'Malley, P M., Johnston, L D., Kurth, C L., & Neighbors, H W (1991) Racial/Ethnic Differences in Smoking, Drinking, and Illicit Drug Use among American High School Seniors, 1976-89 American Journal of Public Health, 81(3), 372 – 377 Bahr, S J., Marcos, A.C, & Maughan, S L (1995) Family, Educational and Peer Influences on the Alcohol Use of Female and Male Adolescents Journal od Studies on Alcohol, 56(4), 457 – 469 Bala-Brusilow, C (2010) Study of the Associations between Childhood Obesity and Three Forms of Social Capital (Doctoral Dissertation) Barrett, A E., & Turner, R J (2006) Family Structure and Substance Use Problems in Adolescence and Early Adulthood: Examining Explanations for the Relationship Addiction, 101(1), 109–120 Baum, F (2000) Social Capital, Economic Capital and Power: Further Issues for a Public Health Agenda Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 54, 409 – 410 68 Bauman, K & Ennett, S (1996) On the Importance of Peer Influence for Adolescent Drug Use: Commonly Neglected Considerations Addiction, 91(2), 185 – 198 Bhandari, H & Yasunobu, K (2009).What is Social Capital? A Comprehensive Review of the Concept Asian Journal of Social Science, 37(3), 480-510 Blount, W.R & Dembo, R (1984), The Effect of Perceived Neighborhood Setting on Selfreported Tobacco, Alcohol, and Marijuana Use among Inner-city Minority Junior High School Youth International Journal of the Addictions, 19 (2), 175–198 Blum, R W., Beuhring, T., Shew, M L., Bearinger, L H., Sieving, R E., & Resnick, M D (2000) The Effects of Race/Ethnicity, Income, and Family Structure on Adolescent Risk Behaviors American Journal of Public Health, 90(12), 1879–1884 Blum, R.W., Beuhring, T., Shew, M L., Bearinger, L H., Sieving, R E., Resnick, M D (2000) The Effects of Race/ethnicity, Income, and Family Structure on Adolescent Risk Behaviors American Journal of Public Health, 90(12), 1879-1884 Bourdieu, P (1986) The Forms of Capital In In J Richardson (Ed.) Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education (pp.241-258) New York: Greenwood Bray J., Adams G J., Getz J G., Stovall, T (2001) Interactive Effects of Individuation, Family Factors, and Stress Factors on Adolescent Alcohol Use American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71(4), 436 – 449 Brook, J S., Whiteman, M., Gordon, A S., Nomura, C., & Brook, D W (1986) Onset of Adolescent Drinking: A Longitudinal Study of Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Antecedents In B Stimmel (Ed.) Alcohol and Substance Abuse in Women and Children (pp 91 - 110) Binghamton, New York: Haworth Press Brown, B B., Clasen, D R., & Eicher, S A (1986) Perceptions of Peer Pressure, Peer Conformity Dispositions, and Self-Reported Behavior among Adolescents Developmental Psychology, 22(4), 521–530 Charlton, A., Blair, V (1989) Absence From School Related to Children's and Parental Smoking Habits British Medical Journal, 298(6666), 90-92 Chassin, L.; Pitts, S.C., & Prost, J (2002) Binge Drinking Trajectories from Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood in a High-risk Sample: Predictors and Substance Abuse Outcomes Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70 (1), 67–78 Chilcoat, H D., Breslau, N.(1996) Alcohol Disorders in Young Adulthood: Effects of Transitions into Adult Roles Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 37(4), 339 – 349 69 Chuang, Y C , Cubbin, C., Ahn, D , Winkleby, M A (2005) Effects of Neighbourhood Socioeconomic Status and Convenience Store Concentration on Individual Level Smoking Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 59(7), 568 – 573 Coleman, J S (1988) Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital The American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95-S120 Cotterell, J (2007) Social Networks in Youth and Adolescence London; New York: Routledge Curran, E M (2007).The Relationship of Social Capital and Substance Use by High School Students Journal of Alcohol & Drug Education, 51(2), 59 – 74 Dornbusch, S M., Erickson, K G., Laird, J., Wong C A (2001) The Relation of Family and School Attachment to Adolescent Deviance in Diverse Groups and Communities Journal of Adolescence, 16(4), 396–425 Duncan, T E., Tildesley, E., Duncan, S C., Hops, H (1995) The Consistency of Family and Peer Influences on the Development of Substance Use in Adolescence Addiction, 90(12), 1647 - 60 Duong, C T., Nguyen T H., Hoang, T T H., Nguyen, V V., Do, T M., Pham, V H., et al (2008) Sexual risk and bridging behaviors among young people in Hai Phong, Vietnam AIDS Behavior, 12, 643-651 Elder, J P., Campbell, N R., Litrownik, A J., Ayala, G X., Slymen, D J., Parra-Medina, D., Lovato, C Y (2000) Predictors of Cigarette and Alcohol Susceptibility and Use among Hispanic Migrant Adolescents Preventive Medicine, 31(2), 115 – 123 Escobedo, L.G., Marcus, S.E., Holtzman, D., & Giovino, G.A (1993) Sports Participation, Age at Smoke Initiation, and the Risk of Smoking among US High School Students The Journal of American Medical Association, 269(11), 1391–1395 Ewing, S W F , Venner, K L., Hilary, K M., Bryan, A D (2011) Exploring Racial/ethnic Differences in Substance Use: a Preliminary Theory-Based Investigation with Juvenile Justice Involved Youth BMC Pediatrics, 11(31), 71 Fawzy, F I., Coombs, R H., Simon, J M & Bowman-Terrell, M (1987) Family Composition, Socioeconomic Status, and Adolescent Substance Use Addictive Behaviors, 12(1), 79 – 83 Ferlander, S (2007) The Importance of Different Forms of Social Capital for Health Acta Sociologica, 50(2), 115-128 70 Gaughan, M (2006) The gender Structure of Adolescent Peer Influence on Drinking Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 47(1), 47-61 Gil, A G., Vega, W A & Biafora, F (1998) Temporal influences of Family Structure and Family Risk Factors on Drug Use Initiation in a Multiethnic Sample of Adolescent Boys Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 27(3), 373 – 393 Gillies, P (1998) The Effectiveness of Alliances and Partnership for Health Promotion Health Promotion International, 13, – 21 Henrich C.C., Brookmeyer, K.A., & Shahar (2005) Weapon Violence in Adolescence: Parent and School Connectedness As Protective Factors Journal of Adolescent Health, 37(4), 306 – 312 House, J S (2002) Understanding Social Factors and Inequalities in Health: 20th Century Progress and 21st Century Prospects Journal of Health Social Behavior, 43(2), 125-142 Hunter, S M., Webber, L S., Berenson, G S (1980) Cigarette Smoking and Tobacco Usage Behavior in Children with Adolescents: Bogalusa Heart Study Preventive Medicine, 9(6), 701-712 Hussong, A M (2002) Differentiating Peer Contexts and Risk for Adolescent Substance Use Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31(3), 207–20 Jessor, R., & Jessor, S L (1977) Problem Behavior and Psychosocial Development: A longitudinal Study of Youth New York: Academic Press Johnston, L D., O’Malley, P M., Bachman, J G., & Schulenberg, J E (2009) Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975–2006: Volume I, Secondary school students (NIH Publication No 07-6205) Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse Retrieved from http://monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/monographs/vol1_2006.pdf Johnston, L D., O'Malley, P M., & Bachman, J G (2002) Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975-2001 Volume I: Secondary school students (NIH Publication No 02-5106) Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 503 pp Retrieved from http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/monographs/vol1_2001.pdf Kaljee, L M., Genberg, B L., Minh, T T., Le, H T., Le, T K T & Stanton, B (2005) Alcohol use and HIV risk behaviors among rural adolescents in Khanh Hoa Province Viet Nam Health Education Research, 20(1), 71-80 71 Kaljee, L M., Green, M S., Zhan, M., Riel, R., Lerdboon, P., Lostutter, T.W., Le, H.T., Vo, V.L., Truong, T.M (2011) Gender, Alcohol Consumption Patterns, and Engagement in Sexually Intimate Behaviors Among Adolescents and Young Adults in Nha Trang, Vietnam Youth & Society, 43(1), 118-141 Kaljee, L M., Green, M., Riel, R., Lerdboon, P., Le, H T., Le, T K T, et al (2007) Sexual stigma, sexual behaviors, and abstinence among Vietnamese adolescents: Implications for risk and protective behaviors for HIV, sexually transmitted infections, and unwanted pregnancy Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 18(2), 48-59 Kaplan, C.P., Zabkiewicz, D., McPhee, S J., Nguyen, T., Gregorich, S E., Disogra, C., Hilton, J F., Jenkins, C (2003) Health-compromising Behaviors among Vietnamese Adolescents: the Role of Education and Extracurricular Activities Journal of Adolescent Health, 32(5), 374 - 383 Kawachi, I (2000) Social Capital Elsevier, 3, 466–467 Kawachi, I (2006) Commentary: Social Capital and Health: Making the Connections One Step at a Time (2006) International Journal of Epidemiology, 35(4), 989 - 993 Kawachi, I., Berkman, L.F (2000) Social Cohesion, Social Capital and Health In Berkman & Kawachi (eds.) Social Epidemiology ( pp.174-190) Oxford: Oxford University Press Khuat, T.H., Nguyen, T.V.A., & Odgen, J (2004) Understanding HIV and AIDS-related Stigma and Discrimination in Vietnam International Center for Research on Women Retrieved from http://www.icrw.org/publications/understanding-hiv-andaids-related-stigma-and-discrimination-vietnam Kirke, D M (2006) Teenagers and Substance Use: Social networks and Peer Influence, London: Kluwer Kobus, K (2003) Peers and Adolescent Smoking Addiction, 98(1), 37 – 55 Kritsotakis, G & E Gamarnikow (2004) What is Social Capital and How Does It Relate to Health? International Journal of Nursing Studies, 41(1), 43 - 50 Kuntsche, E N., & Silbereisen, R K (2004) Parental Closeness and Adolescent Substance Use in Single and Two-parent Families in Switzerland Swiss Journal of Psychology, 63(2), 85–92 72 Le, L C., Blum, R W., Magnani, R., Hewett, P C., & Do, H M (2006) A Pilot of AudioComputer Assisted Self-interview For Youth Reproductive Health Research in Viet Nam Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 740-747 Le H T., Singhasivanon, P., Kaewkungwai, J., Kaljee, L., & Charoenkul, C (2007) Sexual behaviors of alcohol drinkers and non-drinkers among adolescents and young adults in Nha Trang, Viet Nam Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, 38, 152-160 Li, C., Pentz, M A., & Chou, C P (2002) Parental Substance Use As a Modifier of Adolescent Substance Use Risk Addiction, 97(12), 1537 - 1550 Lundborg, P (2005) Social Capital and Substance Use among Swedish A dolescents - An Explorative Study Social Science & Medicine, 61(6),1151-1158 Macinko, J & B Starfield (2001) The Utility of Social Capital in Research on Health Determinants Milbank Quarterly, 79(3), 387 – 427 McBride, C M., Curry, S J., Cheadle, A., Anderman, C., Wagner, E H., Diehr, P., & Psaty, B (1995) School-level Application of a Social Bonding Model to Adolescent Risktaking Behavior The Journal of School Health, 65(2), 63 - 68 Mennis, J., & Mason, M J (2010) People, Places, and Adolescent Substance Use: Integrating Activity Space and Social Network Data for Analyzing Health Behavior Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 101(2), 272-291 Miller, B C (1998) Families Matter: A Research Synthesis of Family Influences on Adolescent Pregnancy, Washington, DC: National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy Retrievedfromhttp://www.etr.org/recapp/index.cfm?fuseaction=pages.currentresearc hdetail&PageID=212&PageTypeID=5 Morgan, A & Haglund, B J A (2009) Social Capital Does Matter for Adolescent Health: Evidence from the English HBSC Study Health Promotion International, 24(4), 363 - 372 Morrow, V (1999) Conceptualising Social Capital in Relation of the Well-being of Children and Young People: A Critical Review The Sociological Review, 47(4), 744 - 765 Morrow, V (1999) Conceptualising Social Capital in Relation to the Well-being of Children and Young People: a Critical Review The Sociological Review, 47(4), 744 - 765 73 Myers, L L (2010) Health Risk Behaviors among Adolescents in the Rural South: A Comparison of Race, Gender, and Age Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 20(8), 1024-1037 Nash, S G., McQueen, A., Bray, J H (2005) Pathways to Adolescent Alcohol Use: Family Environment, Peer Influence, and Parental Expectations Journal of Adolescent Health, 37(1), 19 – 28 Nutbeam, D., Smith, C., Moore, L., Bauman, A (1993) Warning! Schools Can Damage Your Health: Alienation from School and Its Impact on Health Behaviour Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health 1993, 29(1), 25 – 30 O’Connor, R J., Kozlowski, L T., Vandenbergh, D J., Strasser, A A., Grant, M D., Vogler, G P (2005) An Examination of Early Smoking Experiences and Smoking Status in a National Cross-sectional Sample Addiction, 100(9), 1352–1357 O’Malley, P M, Johnston, L D., & Bachman, J G (1998) Alcohol Use among Adolescents Alcohol Health & Research World, 22(2), 85 – 9.3 Pesa, J (1998) The Association between Smoking and Unhealthy Behaviors among A National Sample of Mexican-American Adolescents Journal of School Health, 68 (9), 376–380 Poder, T G., & He, J (2010) Social Capital and Health: What the Empirical Literature Teaches Us? Global Journal of Health Science, (1), 3-8 Portes, A (1998) SOCIAL CAPITAL: Its Origins and Applications in Modern Sociology Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 1-24 Putnam, R D (2000) Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community New York: Simon & Schuster Rasmussen, M , Damsgaard, M T., Holstein, B E , Poulsen, L H., Due, P (2005) School Connectedness and Daily Smoking among Boys and Girls: the Influence of Parental Smoking Norms European Journal of Public Health, 15(6), 607 – 612 Reifman, A., Barnes, G M., Dintcheff, B A., Farrell, M P., Uhteg, L (1998) Parental and Peer Influences on the Onset of Heavier Drinking among Adolescents Journal of Studies on Alcohol , 59(3), 311 – 317 Reijneveld, S A (1998) The Impact of Individual and Area Characteristics on Urban Socioeconomic Differences in Health and Smoking International Journal of Epidemiology, 27(1), 33 – 40 74 Resnick, M D., Bearman P., Blum, R.W., Bauman, K E., Harris, K M, Jones, J., , Udry, J.R (1997) Protecting Adolescents From Harm: Findings From the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health Journal of the American Medical Association, 278 (10), 823 – 832 Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/dissertations/AAI3397832/ Robinson, L.J., Schmid, A.A., Siles, M.E (2002) Is social capital really capital? Review of Social Economy, 60(1), – 21 Rosen, J E (2004, April) Adolescent Health and Development (AHD) – A Resource Guide for World Bank Operations Staff and Government Counterparts HNP Discussion Paper Retrieved from http://siteresource.worldbank.org/health nutritionandpopulation /resources/281627-1095698140167/Rosen-AHDFinal.pdf Shilts, L (1991) The Relationship of Early Adolescent Substance Use to Extracurricular Activities, Peer Influence, and Personal Attitudes Adolescence, 26(103), 613–617 Shucksmith, J., Glendinning, A., Hendry, L B (1997) Adolescent Drinking Behaviour and the Role of Family Life: a Scottish Perspective Journal of Adolescence, 20(1), 85– 101 Simetin, I P., Kuzman, M., Franelic, I.P., Pristas, I., Benjak, T., Dezeljin, J.D (2011) Inequalities in Croatian Pupils' unhealthy Behaviours and Health Outcomes: Role of School, Peers and Family Affluence European Journal of Public Health, 21(1), 122 – 128 Simons-Morton, B., Haynie, D., Crump, A D, Eitel, P., & Saylor, K E (2000) Peer and Parent Influences on Smoking and Drinking among Early Adolescents Health Education & Behavior, 28(1), 95 - 107 Smylie, L., Medaglia, S., Maticka-Tyndale, E (2006).The Effect of Social Capital and Sociodemographics on Adolescent Risk and Sexual health Behaviours The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality , 15(2), 95 -103 Springer, A E., Selwyn, B J., Kelder, S H (2006) A Descriptive Study of Youth Risk Behavior in Urban and Rural Secondary School Students in El Salvador BioMed Central, 6, Stevens-Watkins, D S., Rostosky, S (2010) Binge Drinking in African American Males From Adolescence to Young Adulthood: The Protective Influence of Religiosity, Family Connectedness, and Close Friends’ Substance Use Substance Use Misuse, 45(10), 1435 – 1451 75 Stronks, K., Van de Mheen, H D, Looman, C W N., & Mackenbach, J P (1996) Behavioral and Structural Factors in the Explanation of Socio-economic Inequalities in Health: An Empirical Analysis Sociology of Health & Illness, 18(5), 653 - 674 Suh, T., Schutz, C G & Johanson, C E (1996) Family Structure and Initiating Non-medical Drug Use among Adolescents Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse, 5(3), 21–36 Terre, L., Ghiselli, W., Taloney, L., DeSouza, E (1992) Demographics, Affect, and Adolescents’ Health Behaviors Adolescence, 27(105), 13 – 24 The General Statistics Office of Vietnam, Ministry of Health, & Asian Development Bank (2009) Report of Survey Assessment of Vietnamese Youth Ha Noi The General Statistics Office of Vietnam (2010) Published results of Survey Assessment of Vietnamese Youth Retrieved from http://www.gso.gov.vn/ default_en.aspx?tabid=484& Tilson, E C., McBride, C.M., Lipkus, I.M., Catalano, R.F (2004) Testing the Interaction Between Parent–Child Relationship Factors and Parent Smoking to Predict Youth Smoking Journal of Adolescent Health, 35(3), 182 – 189 Turner, B (2003) Social Capital, Inequality and Health: the Durkheimian Revival Social Theory & Health, 1(1), - 20 Umberson, D., Crosnoe, R., & Reczek, C (2010) Social Relationships and Health Behavior Across the Life Course Annual Review of Sociology, 36, 139 – 157 Urberg K A., Degirmencioglu, S.M., Pilgrim, C (1997) Close Friend and Group Influence on Adolescent Cigarette Smoking and Alcohol Use Developmental Psychology, 33(5), 834 –844 Wang M Q , Fitzhugh, E C., Westerfield, R C., Eddy, J M (1995) Family and Peer Influences on Smoking Behavior Among American Adolescents: An Age Trend Journal of Adolescent Health, 16(3), 200–203 Wang, J., Simons-Morton B G., Farhat, T., Luk, J W (2009) Socio-demographic Variability in Adolescent Substance Use: Mediation by Parents and Peers Prev Sci 10(4), 387 - 96 Weyers, S., Dragano, N., Richter, M., Bosma, H (2010) How Does Socio Economic Position Link to Health Behaviour? Sociological Pathways and Perspectives For Health Promotion Global Health Promotion, 17(2), 25 – 33 76 Whitaker, D J., Kim, S M (2000) Parent-Adolescent Discussions about Sex and Condoms Impact on Peer Influences of Sexual Risk Behavior Journal of Adolescent Research, 15 ( 2), 251 – 273 World Health Organization (2001) The Second Decade Improving Adolescent Health and Development.Retrieved from http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1998/WHO_FRH_ADH_98.18_ Rev.1.pdf World Health Organization (2007) Injury and Violence Prevention Retrieved from http://www.wpro.who.int/vietnam/sites/dhp/injury/programs.htm World Health Organization (2009) Tobacco Control Retrieved from http://www.wpro.who Wright, D (2004) State estimates of substance use from the 2002 National Survey on Drug Use and Health., Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies DHHS Publication No SMA 04–3907, NSDUH Series H-23 Retrieved from http://www.samhsa.gov/data/2k2State/PDFW/2k2SAEW.pdf Wright, D R., Fitzpatrick, K (2006) Social Capital and Adolescent Violent Behavior: Correlates of Fighting and Weapon Use among Secondary School Students Social Forces, 84(3), 1435-1453