Giáo án Những kỹ thuật gia tăng giá trị thương hiệu

Giáo án Những kỹ thuật gia tăng giá trị thương hiệu The ubiquity of social media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter) is no more apparent than at the university. Social media are increasingly visible in higher education settings as instructors look to technology to mediate and enhance their instruction as well as promote active learning for students. Many scholars argue for the purposeful integration of social media as an educational tool. Empirical evidence, however, has lagged in supporting the claim. Most of the existing research on the utility and effectiveness of social media in the higher education class is limited to selfreported data (e.g., surveys, questionnaires) and content anal yses. This paper summarizes the scholarly writings as well as reviews the findings of empirical investigations. Some limitations are discussed, and future areas of research are proposed.

Accelerat ing t he world's research The role of social media in higher education classes (real and virtual) – A literature review Herman Jimmy Cite this paper Downloaded from Academia.edu  Get the citation in MLA, APA, or Chicago styles Related papers Download a PDF Pack of t he best relat ed papers  T he role of social media in higher educat ion classes (real and virt ual) – A lit erat ure review Paul Cheanie Mae Lamban Social media challenges and affordances for int ernat ional st udent s: bridges, boundaries and hybrid s… Narelle Lemon, Jade Sleeman Using Social Net working Tools for Teaching and Learning: A Perspect ive of Universit y Lect urers and S… Karst en O Lundqvist , Shirley Williams, Francis Ot t o Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) A60–A68 Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect Computers in Human Behavior journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh The role of social media in higher education classes (real and virtual) – A literature review Paul A Tess Department of Educational Psychology, University of Minnesota, 56 East River Road, Suite 250, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Available online 26 January 2013 Keywords: Social media Higher education Facebook Twitter Blogs Educational technology a b s t r a c t The ubiquity of social media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter) is no more apparent than at the university Social media are increasingly visible in higher education settings as instructors look to technology to mediate and enhance their instruction as well as promote active learning for students Many scholars argue for the purposeful integration of social media as an educational tool Empirical evidence, however, has lagged in supporting the claim Most of the existing research on the utility and effectiveness of social media in the higher education class is limited to self-reported data (e.g., surveys, questionnaires) and content analyses This paper summarizes the scholarly writings as well as reviews the findings of empirical investigations Some limitations are discussed, and future areas of research are proposed Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved Introduction The growth of social media and other Web 2.0 technologies is unprecedented (Lenhart, Purcell, Smith, & Zickuhr, 2010) Social media technology has become an essential part of personal life as users generate content, share photos, choose to ‘‘like’’, or interact in a game The ubiquity of social media is no more apparent than at the university where the technology is transforming the ways students communicate, collaborate, and learn Even as today’s college student experiences a variety of classroom forms (i.e., ‘‘brick and mortar’’, virtual, hybrid), social media’s use and influence are evolving depending on context Widely embraced as a tool for personal or business purposes, the notion that social media could be an effective tool for educational purposes has received recent attention At the same time, this developing arena is receiving an increased research interest The potential role for social media as a facilitator and enhancer of learning is worth investigating As a result, this literature review will explore the question, ‘‘What is the role of social media in the higher education classroom (real and virtual)?’’ as described in current scholarship and studied in empirical investigations The review begins with a brief description of the literature review methodology employed in the identification of relevant works An operational definition for social media is offered followed by a look at usage trends of the most popular social networking sites The next section of the review focuses on what researchers have argued should be the antecedents of the educational use of social media The affordances and drawbacks of social media use in class are explored next Scholarship surrounding each E-mail address: tessx004@umn.edu 0747-5632/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.12.032 of the most popular social media applications follows The review concludes with suggestions for future research as gleaned from the literature or proposed by the author Methodology A review of the literature was undertaken in September and October of 2012 I systematically searched the following specialized database sources: Web of Science, EBSCOhost, and ERIC Additionally Google Scholar searches were performed Search words and phrases included Facebook, Higher Education, Social Media, Social Media in Education, MySpace, LinkedIn, Web 2.0, Social Networking, Social Networking Sites, and Blogs The ‘‘snowball’’ method of using the most recent works to find relevant articles cited in them provided additional articles Since keywords in research articles are not based on common lists, it is highly likely that some of the literature was missed An interesting strategy from a literature review on the same theme could be noted here Conole & Alevizou, 2010, besides the traditional review approach, used social media (i.e., Cloudworks) to outsource to other researchers inviting their collective input Definition and pervasiveness 3.1 Social media defined Social media is a term that is broadly used to describe any number of technological systems related to collaboration and community (Joosten, 2012) While it appears that a specific definition may be elusive (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010), social media is often described by example Social networking sites, blogs, wikis, multimedia platforms, virtual game worlds, and virtual social worlds P.A Tess / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) A60–A68 are among the applications typically included in recent illustrations (Barnes & Lescault, 2011; McEwan, 2012) To narrow the range for this review, social networking sites (SNSs) were chosen to be the focus in recognition of the prevalence of SNSs such as Facebook and MySpace, and LinkedIn Used interchangeably with terms such as social networking or online social networks, SNSs are web-based services that allow users to make personal profiles, create content, and share messages by connecting with other users in the system (boyd & Ellison, 2007) Some researchers use the more inclusive term Web 2.0 when referring to SNSs and other social media (Gruzd, Staves, & Wilk, 2011; Hemmi, Bayne, & Land, 2009; Kaplan & Haenline, 2010) The task of defining social media is made more challenging by the fact that it is constantly in a state of change SNSs evolve as developers create new or enhanced features that will meet the demands of users Some social networks are tailored to niche markets so features may be differentiated for particular users For example, Match.com and eHarmony.com are SNSs that cater to dating (and were not included in this review) Ning allows users to create their own social networks A brief description of Facebook’s functionality portrays most current capabilities of SNSs Inside Facebook, users can send messages, add friends, update personal profiles, join groups, develop applications, host content, and learn about other users through their online profiles (Haase, 2010) 3.2 Prevalence of social media 3.2.1 Facebook Facebook may be the face of online social networks Developed in 2004 by then Harvard undergraduate Mark Zuckerberg, it is the ‘‘dominant’’ social networking site (Lenhart et al., 2010) Among the many studies reporting statistics related to Facebook adoption and usage (e.g., Hargittai, 2007; Jones & Fox, 2009; Lenhart & Madden, 2007; Salaway & Caruso, 2008), Ellison, Steinfield, and Lampe (2007), found that 94% of their college students were users of Facebook spending an average of 10–30 on the site and having 150–200 friends More recently and in a larger study, 90% of undergraduate college students were reported to have Facebook accounts (Harvard, 2011) Reaching the one billion user mark during the first days of October, 2012 (Facebook.com), an interesting usage trend has recently emerged College-age users (Facebook’s most mature market) reportedly spent 25% less time on the site in August of 2012, a declining trend predicted to continue (Blodget, 2012) 3.2.2 MySpace MySpace, co-founded by Chris DeWolfe and Tom Anderson in 2003, was an early addition to the SNS field With enormous growth in its first few years, by 2009 it was considered the leading social media site (Lenhart, 2009) Fifty percent of adult social networking users reported that they owned a MySpace account Users were found to be more likely women, Hispanic or black, and highschool educated with some college experience The median age was 27 years old Like Facebook it offers an interactive, user-submitted network of friends, personal profiles, blogs, groups, photos, music and videos (boyd et al., 2007) 3.2.3 LinkedIn Used primarily for professional networking, LinkedIn is a networking site that launched in May, 2003 LinkedIn users usually affiliate with others in their work maintaining a list of contacts for people they know and trust The trust factor is an important concept in this SNS as connecting with others requires either a pre-existing relationship or some mutual contact (Papacharissi, 2009) Last December, comScore reported that LinkedIn had reached the 35,000,000 user mark making it the third most visited A61 SNS in the United States social networking market (comScore December 23, 2011) 3.2.4 Blog A weblog or blog is essentially an online journal where a number of contributors participate by dialoging about a particular topic or focus Like other social media, blogs allow users to post personal content, to comment on and connect to other media sites, and to make observations about other users’ posts (Du & Wagner, 2006) The word weblog was used as early as 1997 (Blood, 2000) Indicative of its growth, by 2004 the word blog was announced by Merriam-Webster as its Word of the Year (http://www.merriamwebster.com/info/04words.htm) One of the main tracking and ranking services for blogs, Technorati.com (2012) (http://technorati.com), lists over 1,315,000 active sites in its directory As a basic tool, blogs today are most often provided by hosting services such as Blogger, ModBlog, and Xanga Sophisticated and larger users may need to host their own blogs (Du & Wagner, 2006) 3.2.5 Twitter Twitter is a social networking site that is often termed a microblogging service In contrast to Facebook or MySpace, Twitter limits posts or updates to 160 characters Some have suggested that Twitter makes for a faster mode of communication because of the relatively short post lengths (Java, Song, Finin, & Tseng, 2007) The average blogger may update every few days whereas the average microblogger will update several times a day (Java et al., 2007) 3.3 Social Impact The Pew Internet Project, an initiative of the Pew Research Center, has gleaned extensive data on the social impact of the internet (www.pewinternet.org) Since 2007, the research organization has studied the use of social networking sites In their 2010 report of social media use among young adults, Lenhart et al found 72 % of online 18–29 year olds used SNSs which was significantly higher than the 39% of users older than 29 Sixty-six percent of young adults maintained a profile on My Space but only 7% on LinkedIn Among all age groups, young adults led the way in using Twitter as 33% of the group reported posting or reading status updates More recently, Madden and Zickuhr (2011) reported that 83% of internet users within the ages 18–29 group used social networking sites (61% of those on a daily basis) Young adults were more likely to use SNSs than older adults, but the percentage gap was reduced significantly from the previous years Fifty to sixty-four year old users had more than doubled from 25% in 2009 to 51% in 2011 Of all web-based applications, only email and search engines were used more frequently than SNSs among all ages While social networks have similar functionality, they exhibit different social norms and organization In a comparative analysis of Facebook, LinkedIn, and another SNS called ASmallWorld, Papacharissi (2009) concluded that Facebook was much more publicly open (a ‘‘glasshouse’’) where behavioral norms were looser Users could leave cues for one another, essentially constructing their own norms As was expected, LinkedIn was more tightly organized offering less room for spontaneity or norm generation The researcher posited that users did not have to wonder what was considered right or wrong on this website Antecedents of classroom use 4.1 Conceptual and theoretical antecedents Given the prevalence of social media in general and the saturation of SNSs in particular, many higher education instructors have A62 P.A Tess / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) A60–A68 looked to the technology to mediate and enhance their instruction as well as promote active learning for students (Anderson, 2007; Eijkman, 2008; McLoughlin & Lee, 2010; Selwyn, 2010) Of course, using the media may require the ‘‘looking’’ instructor to consider not only the practical integration of the tool into course goals, but also (and more importantly) the theoretical framework for implementing the technology as a learning resource Some have suggested that the latter has drawn little attention to date from either instructors or researchers (Merchant, 2012) The notion of bringing more scholarship into this area will be one of the research recommendations Selwyn (2010) argued that three interrelated concepts should motivate the use of social media in higher education: the apparently changing nature of the student who comes to the university highly connected, collective, and creative; the changing relationship that today’s university learner has with knowledge consumption, knowledge construction, and formal education; the deemphasis of institutionally provided learning and emergence of ‘‘user-driven’’ education Similarly, McLoughlin and Lee (2010) commented on the affordances and principles of social software as a pedagogical choice They argued that one of social constructivism’s (Vygotsky, 1978) foremost tenet’s can be applied to teaching with social media That is, learning is conversational in nature including dialogue and shared activity In addition, social networks can become the impetus for inquiry-based approaches and collaboration The commentators also posited that social software applications promote active participation, learner self-direction, and personal meaning construction In line with social constructivism, situated learning theory appears to support SNSs in the classroom (Hung & Yuen, 2010) The theory views learning as set in a participatory social context According to Lave and Wenger (1991), situated learning extends the model of knowledge construction by proposing that learning is situated in a specific context and embedded in a particular social and physical environment The use of social media to enhance the ‘‘community of practice’’ in the college classroom makes for a logical argument Hung and Yuen (2010) contend that a sense of community is an essential element for successful e-learning 4.2 The argument from a philosophical perspective Others would argue for social media use from a more philosophical perspective (Anderson, 2007; Brown & Duguid, 2002) Social media enables what Eijkman (2008) termed ‘‘non-foundational network-centric learning spaces.’’ He contended that higher education’s approach to using Web 2.0 architecture needed to fundamentally change from its implementation of Web 1.0 Instead of the information-focused paradigm (foundationalist), Web 2.0 afforded knowledge construction that was vested in globally diverse networks of learning Optimum use of social media meant linking the architecture of participation to another architecture built on non-foundational acculturation (Eijkman, 2008) 4.3 Antecedent cautions The argument is not one-sided, however Some scholars posit that social media should not be adopted just because of availability or affordances Already in the early 1980’s, Clark (1983) argued that no available research supported any use of media His argument included the often quoted ‘‘grocery truck’’ analogy about claiming the delivery vehicle (media) as the cause for student achievement More recently Friesen and Lowe (2011) questioned the ability of social media to foster debate and disagreement, a crucial component of learning Like others, they made the argument that social networks were not developed for formal education To adopt their use simply because they were so readily available was to employ a tool for a task for which it may be unsuitable Cautioning against the ‘‘over-privileging’’ of SNSs, Madge, Meek, Wellens, and Hooley (2009) concluded that academic adoption of social media should involve a study of ownership and boundaries Findings 5.1 Affordances and drawbacks Researchers have been examining the role that social media plays in the higher education classroom Some of the work has highlighted the affective outcomes of SNS integration A few studies investigated learning outcomes and student achievement in relationship to the educational use of social media in college courses While the majority of studies reported positive affordances, there was evidence of drawbacks as well This section summarizes key findings from the studies King, Greianus, Carbonaro, Drummond, and Patterson (2009) described the development of an interprofessional team course in the healthcare field showing how to integrate social networking Recognizing the need for future healthcare providers to adopt a community of practice paradigm, the researchers found that the integration of an educationally structured social networking environment facilitated growth toward the concept of effective communication One recommendation that surfaced was the suggestion that the institutional website have a more intuitive format similar to the commercial applications such as MySpace Recently, Sadaf, Newby, and Ertmer (2012) studied pre-service teachers’ beliefs about their intent to use Web 2.0 technology in their future classrooms The 12 participants in the exploratory qualitative study (i.e., interviews, reflections) were first-year students in a teacher education program at a large Midwestern university In addition to the 12 initial participants, 190 students completed an open-ended survey The results showed that a majority (51%) were committed to Web 2.0 technology as an instructional tool primarily because it may increase student engagement The pre-service teachers recognized that although they were comfortable users of the technology, they would need guidance as how to implement its effective use in the classroom Other students did not perceive the affordances and offered a different perspective Using a web-based questionnaire and student interviews from four universities, Jones, Blackey, Fitzgibbon, & Chew (2010) found a large distinction in student perceptions regarding technology use in the personal space versus the learning space While more than 70% of the students reported having a social networking account, they also indicated that they rarely used social media for educational purposes Three of the five themes that emerged in the interviews may explain the reasons for the ‘‘divide.’’ (a) The students tended to separate their social life (pleasurable) from their learning (painful); (b) concerns arose about the difficulty in identifying original sources of ideas that were posted (concern for copyright infringement); and (c) the students were not keen on information overload or the added time constraints that technology may bring Brady, Holcomb, and Smith (2010) studied the use of Ning in online graduate courses at North Carolina State University A convenience sample of students (N = 50) from three different courses were surveyed to determine their perceptions of the SNS for elearning benefits Seventy percent reported agreement with the notion that Ning made more communication possible between peers than a comparable face-to-face class Nearly the same amount (82%) indicated that Ning helped communication outside of the class as well Most users (74%) agreed that Ning allowed them to reflect and comment on other’s work more effectively than may have occurred in a face-to-face class P.A Tess / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) A60–A68 By conducting a small-scale survey of faculty and students at a mid-size southern university (public), Roblyer, McDaniel, Webb, Herman, and Witty (2010) compared the uses of Facebook between the two groups They reported that 95% of the students surveyed compared to 73% of the faculty had Facebook accounts Of all the uses identified (e.g., communications with friends, career networking), communication regarding coursework was least on the list The faculty were less likely to support Facebook as an instructional tool (v2 = 17.464, p < 001) Additional faculty perceptions were studied by Ajjan and Hartshorne (2008) in which they collected survey data from 136 faculty members at a large university in southeast United States to investigate faculty’s awareness of technologies and benefits of adopting Web 2.0 tools for the classroom Social networks were viewed as a useful tool for improving student satisfaction (32%) and increasing student to student interaction (56%) However, only 24% of the faculty used SNSs in their courses In examining the factors that predicted potential use, the researchers discovered that attitudes and perceived behavior control strongly influenced adoption Ease of use, usefulness, and compatibility were the primary determinants of attitudes with self-efficacy the sole significant predictor for behavior control One of the conclusions suggested that training in the integration of technology was an important mechanism in influencing decisions by faculty to utilize them in class Surveying a large group (N = 2368) of students from a Northeast college, Junco (2012) investigated the relationship between type of and frequency of Facebook use and student engagement Prior research had shown a positive relationship between use and engagement (Heiberger & Harper, 2008) One of Junco’s (2012) outcome variables for student engagement was time spent preparing for class He found that Facebook time and Facebook activity were mildly, but significantly (p < 001) predictive of classroom preparation time (1.6%, 1.7%, explained variance, respectively) While a significant finding statistically, the relationship seemed to provide little in terms of practical importance especially since the direction of the effect could not be determined A few studies have shown that time spent on social networking sites can negatively impact student achievement Paul, Baker, and Cochran (2012) examined a number of predictors often shown to influence student achievement and included time spent on SNSs to model behaviors Business students (N = 340) at a large state university were surveyed with an instrument developed from questions used previously in research as well the authors’ own personal experiences In their final structural equation model, the researchers found a small, but significant negative relationship (r = 119, p = 048) between time spent on an SNS and academic performance as measured by course grades and cumulative GPA Kirschner and Karpinski (2010) reported a negative relationship between Facebook use and GPA Quantitative data showed that there were mean differences between the GPAs of users (M = 3.06) and nonusers (M = 3.82) Thirty-five of the 219 participants provided qualitative data by stating their reasons for the impact of Facebook on their performance Those suggesting that Facebook had a negative impact had comments about distraction or poor time-management skills (as observed in less time studying) The researchers were cautious about implying a causal relationship as the study design did not permit such an implication Rather they concluded that the findings may show that activities done in parallel (i.e., multitasking) were important factors to explore Motivated to replicate findings of the negative relationship of Facebook use and GPA, Pasek, More, and Hargittai (2009) found instead mixed results They used three existing data sets containing the variables needed for study In the largest group (N = 1049), a representative sample of first-year students at the University of Illinois – Chicago, there was no statistically significant result A63 (r = 010, p = 746) when no variables were controlled On the other hand, the data set from the smallest group (N = 303) from the National Annenberg Survey of Youth, showed a reliable negative relationship (r = 148, p = 010) The third data set (a follow-up to the NASY) reported a positive relationship between Facebook use and academic performance (r = 122, p = 002) The researchers concluded that there was more evidence to support a positive correlation between Facebook use and grades 5.2 SNSs as course management systems Wang, Woo, Quek, Yang, and Liu (2011) explored Facebook’s capabilities as a substitute for or addition to a learning management system Two groups of course participants (N = 14, graduate; N = 14, undergraduate) enrolled at a teacher education institute in Singapore completed course-end surveys related to Facebook use in their respective class work Reporting averages of Likert-type data, the researchers indicated that overall, participants viewed Facebook as a successful LMS for the course (M = 3.9, out of 5-point scale) although a high standard deviation value for the graduate students suggested there was less general agreement among that group A limitation of Facebook as a LMS substitute was explained in that it did not support direct uploads of resources in typical course formats such as a pdf document or PowerPoint presentation (i.e., ppt) Similarly, Schroeder and Greenbowe (2009) studied the effects of introducing Facebook as the course communication tool versus a learning management system (i.e., WebCT) The posts of 128 undergraduate students enrolled in an introductory inorganic chemistry lab at Iowa State University were examined at the end of the semester Even though only 41% of the students enrolled in the Facebook group for the course, the number of discussion posts was nearly four times (67 versus 17) those in the WebCT forum The researchers noted that the Facebook group’s activity was fairly consistent throughout the semester and that communication patterns were more complex They surmised that from simply a standpoint of access, Facebook usage for personal reasons could explain the differences in post quantity and quality 5.3 Results from specific SNSs 5.3.1 Facebook Facebook has been more widely investigated than most SNSs as an instructional tool in the college classroom Irwin, Ball, Desbrow, and Leveritt (2012) studied the use of Facebook pages within four specific university courses Based on student perceptions, the findings showed that many course participants (N = 135, 78%) felt initially that Facebook could be an effective learning tool Among the top responses, increased interaction, participation in course discussions, and posted lecture notes or assessments were chosen as anticipated benefits However, in post-course surveys, only half of the students felt that the Facebook inclusion actually assisted their learning The researchers suggested one reason for the mediocre perception was that the instructors were inconsistent in their integration attempts Ophus and Abbitt (2009) reported similar findings as far as students’ perceptions of Facebook utility Students (N = 100) in a survey biology course felt that communication with other students (95.5%), access to notes and materials (86.3%), and schedule views (82.8%) were likely outcomes Interestingly, they anticipated that less likely activities were online discussions that included the instructor (64.3%) and general communication with the instructor (56.4%) Finding little research on the types of discourse activated between instructor and learner, Rambe (2012) used Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to study Facebook posts during a course taught at a A64 P.A Tess / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) A60–A68 South African university The posts revealed that more participants were communicating administrative or formal type posts Fewer ‘‘horizontal’’ posts or ‘‘liberating’’ communication was evident The posts also showed a superficial engagement regarding theory and exposed unsophisticated study skills Two implications were derived by the researcher Instructors should involve students in critical engagement rather than allow them to passively receive teacher-generated content Weak study skills and an over-reliance on the instructor can be overcome by developing a community of learners modeled in Facebook McCarthy (2010) suggested that Facebook was the ideal host site for a blended learning environment In a first-year elective course for 120 architecture students, 95% of participants agreed that the inclusion of Facebook helped them to develop peer relationships Most (92%) appreciated the interactive discussions with peers in the virtual classroom The researcher also found an increase in course engagement particularly with an assessment task as indicated by the Facebook activity logs Some researchers have waved the yellow caution flag Madge et al (2009) recognized the importance of Facebook for social networking, but cautioned over-privileging the site when it comes to actual pedagogical purposes As pervasive as it may be (over 95% saturation for British college students), Facebook usage as a teaching tool did not have strong support among the 213 British students sampled (