Dialogic pedagogy the importance of dialogue in teaching and learning

Dialogic pedagogy the importance of dialogue in teaching and learning, conyexr of dialogue interactiona statistical spoken dialogue systemresolve secondperson references in dialoguean isu dialogue system exhibiting reinforcement learninginformation state update dialogue systemspredicting userinitiated dialogue contributions in hciinformationstate based dialogue systemmixed initiative in dialogueadviser dialogues1 evidence for sufficiency of restricted language sinnatural language interfacesthe structure of useradviser dialogues

Dialogic Pedagogy NEW PERSPECTIVES ON LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION Series Editors: Professor Viv Edwards, University ofReading, Reading, UK and Professor Phan Le Ha, University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA Two decades of research and development in language and literacy education have yielded a broad, multidisciplinary focus Yet education systems face constant economic and technological change, with attendant issues of identity and power, community and culture This series will feature critical and interpretive, disciplinary and multidisciplinary perspectives on teaching and learning, language and literacy in new times Full details of all the books in this series and of all our other publications can be found on http://www.multilingual-matters.com, or by writing to Multilingual Matters, St Nicholas House, 31-34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK NEW PERSPECTIVES ON LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION: 51 Dialogic Pedagogy The Importance of Dialogue in Teaching and Learning Edited by David Skidmore and Kyoko Murakami MULTILINGUAL MATTERS Bristol • Buffalo • Toronto Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Names: Skidmore, David (Language teacher) editor I Murakami, Kyoko, editor Title: Dialogic Pedagogy: The Importance of Dialogue in Teaching and Learning/Edited by David Skidmore and Kyoko Murakami Description: Bristol; Buffalo: Multilingual Matters, [2016] I Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2016022322 I ISBN 9781783096213 (hbk : alk paper) I ISBN 9781783096220 (pdf) I ISBN 9781783096237 (epub) I ISBN 9781783096244 (kindle) Subjects: LCSH: Dialogue analysis I Language and languages-Study and teaching I Language teachers-Psychological aspects I Conversation analysis I Pedagogical content knowledge I Dialogism (Literary analysis) Classification: LCC P95.455.D473 2016 I DDC 401/.4-dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016022322 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library ISBN-13: 978-1-78309-621-3 (hbk) Multilingual Matters UK: St Nicholas House, 31-34 High Street, Bristol BSl 2AW, UK USA: UTP, 2250 Military Road, Tonawanda, NY 14150, USA Canada: UTP, 5201 Dufferin Street, North York, Ontario M3H 5T8, Canada Website: www.multilingual-matters.com Twitter: Multi_Ling_Mat Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/multilingualmatters Blog: www.channelviewpublications.wordpress.com Copyright © 2016 David Skidmore, Kyoko Murakami and the authors of individual chapters All rights reserved No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher The policy of Multilingual Matters/Channel View Publications is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products, made from wood grown in sustainable forests In the manufacturing process of our books, and to further support our policy, preference is given to printers that have FSC and PEFC Chain of Custody certification The FSC and/or PEFC logos will appear on those books where full certification has been granted to the printer concerned Typeset by Nova Techset Private Limited, Bengaluru and Chennai, India Printed and bound in Great Britain by the CPI Books Group Ltd Contents Contributors ix Dialogic Pedagogy: An Introduction David Skidmore and Kyoko Murakami Freire's Theory of Dialogic Pedagogy What is Dialogism? Prosody The Scope of the Book Overview of the Book Dialogism and Education David Skidmore Dialogue and Creativity Speech and Consciousness Different-languagedness: Heteroglossia Many-voicedness: Polyphony Dialogism and Education Vygotsky and Dialogic Pedagogy Harry Daniels Dialectical or Dialogic Vygotsky and Bakhtin Developmental Teaching Conclusion 1 17 17 21 25 33 40 48 50 56 61 64 The Conceptions of 'Dialogue' Offered by Bohm and Buber: A Critical Review Michelle Brinn Bohm's On Dialogue (1996) Buber's Between Man and Man (1947) Conclusions V 68 68 72 77 vi Dialogic Pedagogy Classroom Discourse: A Survey of Research David Skidmore The Essential Teaching Exchange Exploratory Talk in Small Groups The Lesson as a Speech Event Transformational Solutions to the Dilemma of Academic Language 83 Pedagogy and Dialogue David Skidmore Shaping the Agenda of Classroom Discourse Dialogic Instruction Dialogic Enquiry Dialogic Teaching The Affective Conditions for Learning 98 The Small Group Writing Conference as a Dialogic Model of Feedback Julie Margaret Esiyok Introduction Dialogic Classroom Talk Methodology Analysis Summary Appendix 7.1 Frequency of Active and Dialogic Indicators and Idea Development Giving Learners a Voice: A Study of the Dialogic 'Quality' of Three Episodes of Teacher-Learner Talk-in-interaction in a Language Classroom jean Baptiste Kremer Introduction Theoretical Framework Context Methodology Analysis and Discussion of Data Conclusions and Recommendations Authoritative Versus Internally Persuasive Discourse David Skidmore The Source of the Transcripts Talk About Texts in the Classroom From Pedagogical Dialogue to Dialogic Pedagogy 83 85 89 92 98 98 101 103 106 111 111 112 117 119 128 133 135 135 136 138 138 139 150 153 156 156 165 Contents 10 Once More With Feeling: Utterance and Social Structure David Skidmore The Profit of Distinction The Polyphonic Utterance Ideologeme: The Inflected Sign Further and Further Apart: Rehearsed Improvisation Utterance, Genre and Society 11 How Prosody Marks Shifts in Footing in Classroom Discourse David Skidmore and Kyoko Murakami Introduction Theoretical Background Methods Results Discussion Conclusions: The Implications of Prosodic Analysis for Our Understanding of Classroom Discourse vii 170 171 173 174 176 180 186 186 187 189 191 198 199 12 Prosodic Chopping: A Pedagogic Tool to Signal Shifts in Academic Task Structure Xin Zhao, David Skidmore and Kyoko Murakami Introduction Prosody in Classroom Interaction Scaffolding Methodology Data Analysis Discussion Conclusions 203 203 204 206 207 208 214 216 13 Claiming Our Own Space: Polyphony in 220 Teacher-Student Dialogue David Skidmore and Kyoko Murakami Talk and Learning The Essential Teaching Exchange 'Mother, Any Distance Greater Than a Single Span': An Excerpt From an Episode of Plenary Discussion Discourse Analysis: A Teaching Exchange 'He Wants His Own Space': Analysis of Teacher-Student Dialogue Using CA Notation Claiming Our Own Space: Polyphonic Dialogue 226 233 Appendix: Conversation Analysis Conventions Used for Data Transcription Index 239 240 220 221 223 223 Contributors Dr Michelle Brinn has worked in the field of early years education for 25 years Currently an Assistant Leader of Learning in a large international school in Bangkok, she has taught and lectured in Poland, Malaysia, England, Wales and Northern Ireland Her interest in dialogue arose due to a desire to enhance communication between home and school within international education, wherein vastly different expectations regarding learning may exist This desire prompted a doctoral research project with the University of Bath, the initial stages of which are discussed within this chapter Professor Harry Daniels is Professor of Education at the University of Oxford He has directed research for more than 40 projects funded by ESRC, various central and local government sources, The Lottery, The Nuffield Foundation and the EU Much of his recent research draws on cultural historical and activity theory approaches to learning and organisational change, focusing on professional learning, processes of social exclusion and practices of collaboration in a variety of educational, medical and emergency settings He is also: Adjunct Professor, Centre for Learning Research, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia; Research Professor, Centre for Human Activity Theory, Kansai University, Osaka, Japan; and Research Professor in Cultural Historical Psychology, Moscow State University of Psychology and Education His CV witnesses an extensive publication list including a series of internationally acclaimed books concerned with sociocultural psychology Julie Esiyok is a classroom teacher and a member of her school's Middle Leadership Team She holds a BA (hons) in Linguistics, a Postgraduate Certificate of Education and a MA in Education from the University of Bath Her school-based research has so far focused on feedback through writing conferences, wait time and teacher-to-teacher coaching She is keen to explore how language and silence can be used effectively in schools to improve teaching and learning Jean Baptiste Kremer has a BA in English and German from the University of Hull, and qualified as an English teacher in Luxembourg in 1982 In 1990 ix x Dialogic Pedagogy he was awarded a Fulbright Scholarship to teach French in Wisconsin, USA for a year From 2005 to 2015 he led the English Teacher Education programme at the University of Luxembourg After graduating with a Master's degree in Education from the University of Bath in 2014, he became general coordinator of teacher education in Luxembourg He is currently working for the Luxembourg Ministry of Education Dr Kyoko Murakami is an Associate Professor at the Department of Psychology, University of Copenhagen Her research involves examining language use and social relations configured and reconfigured in social and cultural practices It draws on discourse analysis, discursive psychology and cultural psychology and related areas in the social sciences The topics of her recent publications include the discursive psychology of remembering and reconciliation (2012), an ethnography of battlefield and prison camp pilgrimages by British veterans (2014), and family reminiscence as memory practice (2016) With her educational research colleagues, Dr Murakami explores dialogic spaces in both formal and non-formal education settings - group work in higher education and the experiences of international students in the internationalisation initiative of a Danish university Dr David Skidmore is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Education at the University of Bath He has published widely in the fields of dialogic pedagogy and inclusive education, has held research grants from the ESRC and other bodies, and has supervised a number of doctoral studies in these areas Dr Xin Zhao is a Teaching Associate at the Information School at the University of Sheffield She obtained her PhD from the Department of Education at the University of Bath, UK Her PhD research investigates the functions of conversational prosody of classroom talk-in-interaction in the field of second language learning Her research interests include dialogic pedagogy, sociocultural theory and internationalisation Appendix: Conversation Analysis Conventions Used for Data Transcription [l overlapping utterances latched utterances (.) micro pause {0.8) measured pause (seconds) gra::dually lengthening, according to duration th- abrupt cut-off of speech sound accentual emphasis they quieter speech i rising intonation J, falling intonation slower speech >< faster speech (.hhh) audible in-breath [ ] omitted speech (there) doubtful transcription ((coughs)) description of action YE:EH capital letters: especially loud speech ? rising inflection A full stop indicates a stopping fall in tone It does not necessarily indicate the end of a sentence Source: Maxwell Atkinson and Heritage (1984) 239 Index Abreu, G 52 Academic Task Structure 204, 206, 216 acknowledgement acts 192 action knowledge 11, 85, 86, 87 active listening 114, 127-128, 150, 192 activity theory 80, 101 addressivity/turning towards one another 38, 56, 73-74, 79, 136, 143, 195,213,234 adverbs 118, 126 affective/emotional domain affective conditions for learning 106-109 artefacts of 53 Bohm on 70 emotional capital 108 group work 87 participatory frameworks 147, 148-149 prosody 148, 171, 184, 200, 236 understanding of social experience 103 affirmations 180, 195, 198 agency 55 Alexander, R.J 12, 36, 50, 76, 98, 103-106, 114, 137, 142, 186, 203, 220,228 Alexandrov, V.E 59 alterity 60 analytical dualism 54 Andrews, P 44 animators/authors/principals 188, 193, 196, 197 anthropology 44-45 apperceptive mass 17-18, 19 Applebee, A.N 109, 186, 203 arbitrariness of the sign 22 Arievitch, I 62-63 artefacts 51-56, 57, 71, 80, 136 Ascorti, K 113 assimilationist views 91 assumptions 69, 70, 72, 77-80 asymmetrical speaking rights 27, 95, 159, 196,230,235 Athey, C 78 audio-recorded data 99, 100, 118, 165, 189,190 authentic questions 12, 98, 99-100, 113, 178, 186, 194-195 authoring, learning as 75 authoritarianism authoritative feedback 111 authoritative versus internally persuasive dialogue 31-32, 153-168, 198,199 authority asymmetrical speaking rights 27, 196, 235 authoritative discourse 203 versus dialogue partners 121, 124 and monologue 17, 19, 36, 40-41 subjugation to 37 of the teacher 3, 24 automatic speech 20-21, 40-41 autonomous thinking 137, 147, 164, 166 backchannelling 95 Bakhtin, M.M addressivity 38, 56, 136, 143,195,234 affective domain 108 Bakhtin Circle 1, 4-5, 25, 106, 165, 174 deploying of utterances 182 dialectical versus dialogic thinking 50 dialogic nature of language 17, 98, 100, 136, 154, 165 dialogue versus conversation 104 dissociation of language from context 78 heteroglossia 10, 25-33, 41-42, 137, 143,154 240 Index internally persuasive discourse 154-155, 198 microdialogues 10, 35, 42 monologism 15, 154, 221 pedagogical dialogue 160 polyphony 10, 33 40, 136, 173-174,234 on the quality of social interaction 204 semiotic bridges 183 social languages 77 speech genre 14, 22, 24, 60, 91, 96, 160, 171 unfinalised dialogue 197 and Vygotsky 56-61 Bakhurst D 51, 52, 54-55 banking concept of education 2-3, 15,35 Barnes, D 11-12, 20, 85-89, 93, 94, 109, 196,197,222,231,235 barriers to learning 72, 76 Bell, M.M Bereiter, C 101, 103 Bernstein, B 72, 88 Berson, S 115 Best, F 61-62 Between Man and Man (Buber, 1947) 72-76 Blackburn, S 70, 73 body language 19, 141, 145, 148, 172, 178 body-of-knowledge transmission approaches see transmission models of teaching Bohm, D 8, 11, 68-72, 74, 76, 77-80 Bolinger, D 170 Boscolo, P 113 boundary markers 7, 89, 90, 142, 145, 178, 191-192, 197,199 Bourdieu, P 14, 26, 72, 76, 171-172, 179 Boyd, M.P 135 Brandist, C 1, 4, 25, 43, 174 Brazil, D 187 breakdowns of communication 68-69 British National Curriculum 72 Bronfenbrenner, U 77-78 Brouwer, C.E 205 Brown, S.D 60 Bruce, T 76 Bruner, J.S 11, 55, 68, 72, 76, 104 Buber, M 8, 11, 68, 72-76, 77-80 Buchler, J 170 bystanders 137, 143, 187, 194 241 Cairney, T.H 153, 167 capitalism 4, 22, 28 Carless, D 111 case study research methods 117, 207,216 Cazden, C.B 12, 15, 24, 56, 92-96, 155, 173,178,186, 192,206-207,220, 222,224,225 CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) 136, 150-151 ceremonial communication 17, 19 Chaiklin, S 63-64 chaining of ideas 114-115, 121, 125, 137, 155-156, 163-164 Chang-Wells, G.L 153, 167 Cheyne, J.A 57 child development 44, 48, 49, 77 Cho, K 116 Christianakis, M 115 Clark, K 136 classroom layout 86, 93 Coates, J 115 co-construction co-developing consciousness 10 dialogic enquiry 101 of knowledge 72, 75-76 of meaning 143 and overlapping talk 115 and prosody 7, 207, 227 coding of data, issues with 100-101, 119, 221-222 see also transcription cognitive neuroscience 108 Cole, M 48-49, 53, 55 collaborative working collective processes of knowledge production 3, 37, 44-45, 103-106, 137, 164, 195-196 and definitions of discourse 101 dialogic enquiry 98 and hypothetical modes of discourse 87 meaning making 20, 77, 78 and prosody 189,206 responsive-collaborative scripts 155 shared enquiry 178-179 small group writing conferences 111-130 talk about texts 153 talk types for 114 virtual collaboration 57 'we' signifying group cohesiveness 119, 124,195 common knowledge 137 242 Dialogic Pedagogy common vocabulary 77 communication classroom discourse as a communication system 86 and classroom social orders 87-88 language as a tool of 4-5, 171 and prosody 6-8, 204, 205 communicative competence 12, 92, 105, 167 communities of inquiry 50, 101-103 Communities of Practice 136, 146, 149, 204,205-206,216 conceptual system of the learner, developing 31-33, 42, 63 conduit model of communication 59 consciousness arising from speech activity 45 discursive meaning versus consciousness 29 generators of human consciousness 54 heteroglossia 25-33 internalisation 94 and intonation 175 language as consciousness 44 polyphony 33 40 self-consciousness 33, 54, 78 and social interaction 21-25, 29, 33, 41 voice 56-61 consensus 58, 86-87 conservative forms of speech 21 constitutive ethnography 89 convergent/'test' questions 7, 27, 42, 100, 159, 165, 186 conversation analysis (CA) versus discourse analysis 15, 221, 222, 226-233,235-236 learner voice 13, 135-151 as method 15, 138-139, 190 prosody 7, 14, 186-201, 204, 207-208 recipient design 31 speaker alignment 18 conversation versus dialogue 104 Corbin, J 191 Coulthard, R.M 11, 14, 83-85, 112, 140, 178,186,192,203,221, 223-224, 225,226,227,235 Council of Europe 136, 150-151 counter-fictional utterances 12, 98 Couper-Kuhlen, E 6, 7, 25, 205, 233 creative writing teaching 103 creativity 19-21, 40-41, 114-115, 180 credentialism 40 Creighton, L 221 Crinon, J 116 critical pedagogy critical sociolinguistics 26 critical turning points in discourse/pivot points 142, 160, 167 Crystal, D 44 cultural artefacts 51-56, 57, 71, 80, 136 cultural assumptions 80 cultural deprivation views 91 cultural differences in interactional norms 93, 105, 181-182 cultural misreading 78 cultural pluralism 10, 29, 42, 91-92 cultural relativism 70 Culture and Pedagogy (Alexander, 2001) 103-106 cumulative talk 12, 98, 104, 114, 121, 137,142, 163-164 curriculum models 4, 72, 86, 102-103 Cutler, A 204 Dale, H 114 Damasio, A.R 108 Daniels, H 71, 75, 80, 216 Davies, B 62 Davydov, V 8, 10, 62, 64 Dawes, L 113 de Montaigne, M 236 de Saussure, F 22, 23-24, 28, 154, 170 de Sousa, R 108 Deacon, T 170 deficiency-based explanations of educational failure 85, 88 degrees of dialogicality 18-19 democratic classrooms 3, 11 Denyer, J 113 developmental teaching 61-64 dialectic of enquiry 42, 44 dialectical versus dialogic thinking 50 dialectics 49 dialects 27, 56, 95 dialogic enquiry 12, 98, 101-103 Dialogic Inquiry (Wells, 1999) 101-103 dialogic instruction 12, 98-101 dialogic scaffolding 207 dialogic speech dialogic teaching 12, 98, 103-106, 137-138, 155,186 dialogical pedagogy 12, 98 dialogically-organised instruction 155 dialogism 1, 4-5, 17-45, 154, 155 Index dialogue groups 69 Dickens, C 35 didactics 62 difference of the other 58 direct versus double-voiced discourse 37-38,43 directives 84-85, 194 disassociation 78 disciplinary-specific discourse 38, 43, 221 discourse analytic (DA) approaches 15, 26,221,222,223-226,235 Discourse in the Novel (Bakhtin, 1981 [1934-1935]) 25-26 discourse referentiality 59 discursive meaning versus consciousness 29 discursive prompts 148 discursive teaching 178, 186, 225, 235 display questions 99, 108, 200 see also recitation dispositions for learning 71 dispreference markers 232 disputational talk 114, 138, 147, 148, 161, 179,228-229,231-232,233 distinctive deviation 172, 176, 179 distributed speech and thinking 137, 147 Doehler, S.P 205 Donaldson, M 72 Dostoevsky, F 33 double-voiced discourse 37-38, 43 Drew, P 203 ecosystemic circles 77-78 Ede, L 114 educational failure 85, 88 educational policies 76, 167 Edwards, A.D 15, 155, 156, 186, 190, 220,225,234 Edwards, D 27, 137, 156, 159, 225, 234 elaborated speech codes 88 elaboration, teacher seeking 155, 159, 163,192,231 Elbers, E 52, 206 elicitations, teacher 12, 83, 85, 89-90, 142, 145,212,225-226 Eliot, T.S 172 Elliott, V 204, 208 elliptic signals 17, 163, 214 embodied actions 149 emotional/affective domain affective conditions for learning 106-109 243 artefacts of 53 Bohm on 70 emotional capital 108 group work 87 non-verbal communication 148-149 participatory frameworks 147, 148-149 prosody 148, 171, 184, 200, 236 understanding of social experience 103 emphasis, adding 148, 187, 195, 197, 212, 213,214 Engestrom, Y 80 English as an Additional Language 28, 161 English for Academic Purposes 28 equality 3, 39, 95,113,172 Erickson, F 14, 172, 182, 183, 187, 205, 206,216 Eskin, M 9, 17, 19 essential teaching exchange see initiationresponse-evaluation/feedback (IRE/F) ethnographic research 89, 91, 181 euphemism 172 evaluative accent 6, 23, 24-25, 41 Every Child Matters 76 everyday conversation, compared to classroom discourse 91, 137, 172, 196 everyday knowledge 4, 86 see also action knowledge evolution of language 44-45 examinations 107 see also testing and assessment explicit positive assessment 227 exploratory talk collaborative working 13, 114, 150 in discursive teaching 186 versus final draft talk 11, 20, 93 ideologemes 179 prosody 14, 192, 194-197, 200, 231,235 small group work 13, 85-89 small group writing conferences 119 student voice 144-145 teacher modelling 109 versus test questions time limitations on 198 unpredictability of 137-138 extreme case formulations (ECF) 228 face, threats to 231 facial expression 19 see also body language Fairclough, N 26, 170 244 Dialogic Pedagogy Farmer, F 60, 61 Farr, F 118 feedback 111-130, 178, 192, 195, 222 see also initiation-response-evaluation/ feedback (IRE/F) field studies 89 final draft talk 11, 20, 85, 87, 93, 196-197 Fisher, J 76 Fitzgerald, J 116 floor-holding strategies 20,195,200, 212, 214,228-230,231,232,233 Florio-Ruane, S 113 footing, shifts in 14, 137, 142, 186-201,205 Ford, C.E form versus function 84-85 Forward, S 70 Foundation Stage 78 Freire, P 1-4 From Communication to Curriculum (Barnes, 1992) 11-12, 85-89 functional diversity 18, 37-38 Furlong, VJ 225 Calton, M 36, 200, 220 Gardiner, M Garfinkel, H 181 gender 95, 181-182 generational differences in speech 28, 30 generic utterances 182-183 genre14,22, 171, 178-179, 180-184,225 see also speech genre Gerhardt, S 76 gestures 19, 148, 149, 165, 212 Gibson, J.J 55 Gilbert, J 116 Gilbert, P 44 globalisation 77, 136 God, notions of 73 Goffman, E 14, 18, 87, 137, 142, 148, 187,188,192,193,199,227,231 Gooding, A 114 Goodwin, M.H 137 Graham, S 116 group talk 114 group work classroom discourse research and 84 collaborative working 101 dialogic enquiry 98 exploratory talk 85-89 exploratory talk in 12 as forum for collective learning 94-95 multilingual classrooms 28-29 peer response conferences 99 polyphony 34-35 and prosody 200 small group writing conference 12-13 small group writing conferences 111-130 spontaneity of 18 spontaneous versus rehearsed speech 20-21 growing knowing 147 'Guess what teacher thinks' (GWTT) 226 Gumperz, J.J 203, 205 Guo, X.J 203 Gutierrez, K.D 98-99, 155, 159, 163, 165, 166, 186, 220 habits of thoughts 69, 74, 75, 77 Hall, J.K 222 Halliday, M.A.K 14, 18, 91, 101, 173, 178 Haneda, M 221 Hargreaves, A 108 Harvey, S.T 203 Hasan, R 178 Hattie, J.A 111 Haworth, A 136, 137 Heath, S.B 93 Hedegaard, M 63-64 Hedgcock, J 113 hedges195,222,226,229,231-232 Hellerrnann, J 142, 187, 188-189, 192, 197,203,205,212,216 Heritage, J 15, 203, 226 hesitations and false starts 86, 179, 228, 231,232 heteroglossia 10, 25-33, 34, 41-42, 96, 137,143,154 hexis 172 Hicks, D 50 hidden curriculum models 86 high pitch 187 Hillocks, G 116 Hirschkop, K historicity 4, 41, 60, 182 Hodge, R 26, 159, 170 'holistic' education 76 Holquist, M 136 home-school communication 28, 78-80 Hu, 0.0 203 Hughes, M 167 Hull, G 116 Index Humphris, R 116 Hutchby, I 15, 31, 204, 226 Hyatt, D.F 113 Hyland, F 111 hypothetical mode of speech 85, 86-87, 196 ideologemes 14, 174-176, 179 ideology 21-25, 29-30, 33, 41, 43, 154, 167, 182 Ilyenkov, E 54-55 imagined worlds 53 imperatives 84-85, 113, 119, 121, 159, 198 improvisation and active listening 150 collective improvisation 10, 180 and disputational talk 148 as feature of skilled teaching 12, 91, 92, 96,148,234 improvisational strategies 89, 91, 234 improvised elaboration 196 pedagogy as a live event 20, 36, 42 rehearsed improvisation 176-180 structured practice of 183 inclusion 107 inforrnatives 225 Ingram, J 204, 208 initiation-response-evaluation/feedback (IRE/F) alternatives to 123-124, 142, 143, 163, 167, 178, 194, 222 closed questioning 225 conversation analysis (CA) 222 versus dialogic enquiry 102 discourse analytic approaches 224-225 entrenchment of 112-113 as the essential teaching exchange 11, 12, 83-85,221-222 positive views of 203 prevalence of 203, 220 prosody 5-6, 187, 192-194, 199, 204-216,227 and recitation practices 92 as scaffolding 216 setting the tone 135-136, 140-141, 143,144,150 small group work 13 social interaction orders 27 speech acts 90 in talk about texts 159 245 inner speech 21-25, 34, 45, 61, 86, 175 instruction giving 98-99, 155, 197-198, 199 see also recitation intentionality interaction analysis categories 89 interaction orders 19, 24, 27, 41, 43, 88, 91, 170-184,227,230-231 interaction-based explanations of educational failure 85, 88 interanimation 59 intercultural competence 136 intermediation 59 intermental development zone 30, 137, 147 internal social voice 57 internalisation 94 internally persuasive discourse 13-14, 31-32, 153-168, 198 International Baccalaureate Learner Profile 72 international schooling 77, 78 interpersonal relationships 114, 121, 182,235 interpretation models of teaching 85, 88 interrogatives 84-85, 226 interruptibility 17, 20, 222, 229 intersubjective understanding 12, 60-61, 142,143,197 intertextuality 50 intonation evaluative accent 41 footing shifts 187 introduction and meaning 175 nomination of students for response 90 pivot moves 142 prosodic orientation 180, 187 and the utterance 170-171 and Voloshinov 25 introspection 117 Ivie, I 52, 64 Jarning, H 62 Jefferson, G 230 Jonsson, A 111 Jurow, A.S 221 Katz, LG 71 Kazak, S.50 Kelly, S 221 knowledge versus pedagogy 62, 159 246 Dialogic Pedagogy Knox, J.E 53 Kovalainen, M 204, 205, 208 Kozulin, A 50, 54, 55-56, 71, 75 Kramsch, C 136 Kress, G 26, 159, 170 Krishnamurti, J 69, 73, 74, 75 Kumpulainen, K 204, 205, 208 labor of politeness 172 Lakatos, I 221 language education policies 26-27 language game 56 Lave, J 204, 216 Leadbeater, C 107 Leander, K 55 learning as authoring 75 based on coherent talking and thinking 142 definitions of 61, 137 internalisation 94 learning to learn 50-51, 64, 71-72 as psychologically transformational 86 as recoding 86 as social 205 and talk 220-221 learning difficulties, students with 156-157 learning journals 99 Learning Lessons (Mehan, 1979) 12,89-92 Lee, G 111 Lee, Y.A 222 Lefkowitz, N 113 Lefstein, A 112, 114 Lemke, J.L 95, 203 Leont'ev, A.N 44, 94, 101 lesson plans 36 lessons, as a speech event 83-84, 89-92 linguistic diversity 10, 25-33, 41, 96 linguistic pluralism 29 listening 114-115, 117, 118, 127-128, 129,143,149, 187-188 literacy practices 13-14, 105, 153-168 literate thinking 153, 167 literature 33, 55-56 Littleton, K 135, 137 live event, pedagogy as 36 Letman, Y 59 loudness 189, 194, 197, 230 low attainment groups 93, 99, 104, 107, 156-157, 160 Lunsford, A 114 Lyle, S 155, 166 MacArthur, C 116, 119 Macfarlane, S 205 Miikitalo, A 171 Margutti, P 205 Marin, B 116 Marion, H 61-62 Markarian, WC 135 Marshall, J.D 160, 167 Martin, L 116 Marx, K 21, 44 Marxism and Language (Voloshinov, 1973 [1929]) 9-10, 41 Marxism and the Philosophy of Language (Voloshinov, 1973 [1929]) 21 Maslow, A 76 Mastergeorge, A 114, 124 Matusov, E maximal grammatical control 228 Maxwell Atkinson, J 15, 226 Maybin, J 50 McNeill, D 212 Mead, C.H 54, 175 meaning Bakhtin versus Vygotsky's views on 56-61 Buber on 73 collaborative construction of 20, 77, 78 and common understanding 77 communication as flow of meanings 71 ideologemes 14, 174-176, 179 internally persuasive discourse 155 narrative understanding 155 and objects in social worlds 55 polyphony 174 and prosody 175,183,205 and the psychological tool 53 and reciprocity 137 shifting negotiation of positions 30-31, 32 social semiotics 14, 26, 173 and the social-verbal interaction of speakers 23-24 storying 72 worlds of meaning 29 mediation 50, 51, 57, 71, 75 Medvedev, P.N 14, 174-176, 179 Mehan, H 12, 15, 24, 27, 89-92, 178, 186, 192,220,225,230,233,234 Index Mercer, N 27, 50, 113, 114, 118, 135, 137, 142, 147, 159, 186, 200, 204, 206, 220,225,234 message unit analysis 208 meta-discursive comments 192,227 metaprocess elicitation sequences 90 Miao, P 203 microdialogues 10, 35, 42 Middleton, D 60 Milroy, J 26, 170 Milroy, L 26, 170 Minick, N 52 misunderstandings 58, 60, 68-69, 114, 145,148,159 modal verbs 118, 164 Moffett, J 87 Moll, LC 48 Mondada, L 205 monologic dialogue 18 monologic teaching methods and addressivity 234 cognitive change 160 and consciousness 36 versus dialogic views of teaching 8, 40-43, 98-99 prevalence of 15, 101, 186, 203, 220,221 pseudo-dialogues 38 monologism 96, 154-155 monologue versus dialogue 9, 13, 17-21, 34-35, 74, 76 Moore, N.S 119 Morson, G.S Mortensen, K 149 Mottet, T.P 116 Mroz, M 109,186,220 multiaccentuality of discourse 22, 26 multicultural societies 28-29, 41-42, 136,137 multilingual classrooms 135, 142 Muncie, J 111 Murakami, K 40, 204, 205, 208 Musgrave, A 221 musical metaphors 33-40, 42, 92, 174, 180, 182-183 mutual understanding 7, 196 narratives 55, 72, 155 Nassaji, H 222 naturalistic approaches 102, 117, 189,207 naturalistic dialogue 14 247 naturalistic texts 84 negotiation processes 30, 85, 93, 102, 137, 142 nomination of students for response prosody 193, 194, 225, 228 self-selection 93, 156, 159, 163 turn allocation apparatus 83-84, 90, 109, 145, 155, 163 in whole class discussion 105 non-verbal communication see also prosody; visual channel of communication body language 19, 141, 145, 148, 172, 178 boundary markers 90, 145 in the classroom 83 and conversational analysis 138 gestures 19, 148, 149,165,212 indicating emotion 148-149 and prosodic chopping 212 proxemics 141 teacher management of discussions 165 Noor, N.M 205 normative testing 107 Noth, E 205 Nystrand, M 12, 76, 98-101, 137, 155, 160,166,167,186,197,203,235 obligating modalities 113-114, 119, 121 observation methods 99 obuchenie 8, 10, 64-65 O'Connor, M.C 214 Odell, L 116 Ogden, R 203 Ohta, A 149 Olitsky, S 205 Ollin, R 117 Olson, D.R 153 On Dialogue (Bohm, 1996) 68-72 open dialogue 86, 113, 120, 166 open questioning 113, 120, 145, 178, 225,226 Opening Dialogue (Nystrand, 1997) 98-101 opinions, soliciting 90, 113, 120, 145, 225-226 opportunity sampling strategy 117 oracy development 105, 153 orality 153 Orsolini, M 118 otherness, responding to 136 overhearers 95, 137, 141, 149, 187, 194 248 Dialogic Pedagogy overlapping speech 93, 115, 121, 229, 232,233 owning a concept 31 pace of speech 20, 170, 188-189, 191-193, 195,197,212,228,229,231,233 participation see also bystanders; overhearerers; turn-taking guided participation 142, 143 maximising student participation 98-101, 102,114,146 participatory frameworks 139-150, 188, 193-194, 196 and prosody 197, 212-213 shifting participation patterns 137 shifts in footing 14, 137, 142, 186-201,205 silence does not mean nonparticipation 117 as socially constructed 205 task participation frameworks 136 participatory research methods 91-92 Paulus, T.M 113 pauses 208, 212, 229 pedagogical dialogue 13-14, 160, 165-168 pedagogy definitions of 61-64 and dialogue 98-109 and teacher education 150-151 Vygotsky's understanding of 51-56 Pedagogy for Liberation, A (Freire and Shor, 1987) 1, pedagogy of mutuality 104 Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Freire, 1993 [1970]) 1, peer response conferences 99 peer support 86-87, 94-95, 98, 113-114, 116,163,196 Pennebaker, J.W 44 performance measurement (of schools) 107 Petress, K 117 phylogenetic origins of language 44 Piaget, J 49, 64 Pilonieta, P 123 pivot moves 142, 160, 167 Plato 37 plenary discussions 190-198, 222,223, 227-228, 234 see also whole-class teaching Plumb, C 116 politeness 172 politically revolutionary education politics 26, 51 Pollock, D 77, 78 polyphony 10, 25, 33-40, 42, 136, 173-174, 233-236 Pomerantz, A 228, 232 Pontecorvo, C 118 position papers 99 power see also authority and classroom talk 112 and construction of meaning 181-182 and dialogue groups 70 and discursive interaction 181 and monologue 17, 19, 40-41 transmission models of teaching 88 and voice 60 pragmatics 231 Prawat R.S 54 preference organisation 222, 226 principled understanding 137 private speech 149 problem-posing education 2-4, 37, 42 process of becoming progressive discourse 101, 102, 103 proprioception 69, 70 prosody and confidence levels 198 conversation analysis (CA) 138, 222, 226-233 as coordination signal 206 definitions of 204-205 and dialogism 40 in dialogue 19 in discourse analysis 224 evaluative accent 6, 23, 24-25, 41 footing shifts 14, 186-201 indicating emotion 148, 171, 184, 200 integral nature of 183 introduction 5-8 marking shifts in stance 145 and meaning 175, 183 pivot moves 142 prosodic chopping 212-216 prosodic orientation 176, 180, 187, 200, 204 and psychological reactions 76 and social order 184 proxemics 141 Psathas, G 190 pseudo-dialogues 37, 42 psychological tools 53, 71, 75-76, 77 psychology 48-49, 62 Index quality of talk 13 questioning strategies see also initiationresponse-evaluation/feedback (IRE/F); nomination of students for response; recitation authentic questions 12, 98, 99-100, 113,178,186, 194-195 display questions 99, 108, 200 'Guess what teacher thinks' (GWTT) 226 open questioning 113, 120, 145, 178, 225,226 prosody 187, 200 quick-fire 105 referential questions 144 scaffolding 104 student self-selection 93 tag questions 180, 226 test questions 7, 27, 42, 100, 159, 165, 186 quiet students, encouraging 116-117, 125 quiz games 188-189 Rajala, A 118 real-time observed data 100, 189 Reason, P 198 Reay, D 76, 108 recipient design 31 reciprocal teaching 59 reciprocity 12, 94, 98, 104, 136, 137, 143 recitation see also initiation-responseevaluation/feedback (IRE/F) affective domain 107 and authority 27, 37 as default 14, 92, 104-105, 107, 108-109, 167 easier on teacher than exploratory 137-138 as instructional script 155 interaction orders 43 monologic views of teaching 98-99 not developing understanding 220, 228,234 pedagogical dialogue 36 psuedo-dialogue 42 and published materials 159-160 recitation scripts 159, 165, 186 versus retelling in own words 33 and whole class teaching 105-106 recoding, learning as 86 Reda, M 114,117 redrafting 20 249 referential questions 144 reflection 114, 118, 125, 126, 228 reformulation moves 179, 214 register 18, 26-27, 56, 91, 95, 101-102, 173, 178 rehearsed improvisation 176-180 relationships, and dialogic talk 114, 121, 182,235 relevant talk 212 religion 32, 37, 73, 155 repetition 119, 146, 148,195,214,225, 227,232 respect 72 response tokens 226 responsive teaching 94, 155, 178-179 responsive-collaborative scripts 155-156, 163-164, 166 restricted speech codes 88 retelling stories in own words 12, 13-14, 33,98, 164-165, 166 retrospective content-based education 71-72 Reutzel, D.R 116 revisions, of writing 116, 126-128 revoicing moves 214-215, 227, 232 Reznitskaya, A 221 rhetorical speech 61, 171, 175, 179, 182-183,226 rhythm 6, 7, 159, 180, 187 rickshaw puller 140, 144 Riegel, K.F 49 right to question 38 Riordan, E 118 ritualised communication 18, 19, 32, 98 Rogers, C 62 Rojas-Drummond, S 207 rote learning 32 Roth, W-M 76,187,212 Rousseau, J.-J 184 Rowan, J 198 rules of classroom discourse 85, 92, 95, 114,173,206 rush-through 229 Rymes, B 138 Sacks, H 7, 15, 178, 181, 200, 222, 226,229 Siiljo, R 171 Sameroff, A.J 49 Saussure, F de 22, 23-24, 28, 154, 170 Sawyer, K 234 Sawyer, R.K 50, 115, 180, 183, 201 250 Dialogic Pedagogy scaffolding classroom discourse as 12, 76, 94 dialogic scaffolding 104, 207 front-loaded scaffolding 206-207, 216 multilingual classrooms 142 peer support 114, 143, 145 questioning styles 186 in talk about texts 159 titrating 206-207 Schallert, D 111 Schegloff, E.A 7, 228 school knowledge 11, 33, 85, 86, 87, 92 Schultz, K 116, 117 Schwab, G 145, 150 Scott, P.H 113 second language teaching 220-221 Seedhouse, P 222 self-consciousness 33, 54, 78 self-correction habits 93, 111, 145, 172 self-directed speech 149 self-evaluation 181 self-selection 93, 156, 159, 163 Selting, M 6, 7, 25, 233 semantics 23-24, 94, 155 semiotic apprenticeship, schooling as 101-102 set phrases 90 setting the tone 135-136, 140, 143, 148,150 Sharpe, T 137, 142, 221 Shepherd, G 200 shifts in academic task structure 203-219 Shor, I 1, 2-4 side conversation in the dialogic classroom 95 silence 73, 116-117, 124-125, 127-128, 141,188 Silverman, D 156 Simon, B 62, 107 Sinclair, J.M.H 11, 14, 83-85, 112, 140,178,186,187,192,203,221, 223-224,225,226,227,235 single voice 115, 121 Sipple, S 111 situated learning 63, 136, 146, 205 Skidmore, D 12, 15, 40, 68, 76, 98, 107, 109,135,173,186,189,204,205, 208,220,221,235 small group work classroom discourse research and 84 collaborative working 101 dialogic enquiry 98 exploratory talk 85-89 exploratory talk in 12 as forum for collective learning 94-95 multilingual classrooms 28-29 peer response conferences 99 polyphony 34-35 and prosody 200 small group writing conference 12-13 small group writing conferences 111-130 spontaneity of 18 spontaneous versus rehearsed speech 20-21 Smith, J.A 116 Snell, J 112, 114 social class 92, 95, 108, 181-182 social constructivism 11, 71, 80 social diversification 30 social identity 25-33, 41-42 social interaction orders 19, 24, 27, 41, 43, 88,91, 170-184,227,230-231 social languages 77-78 social order of the classroom 85, 87-88, 91,226 social orders 170-184 Social Participation Structure (SPS) 204, 206,212-213,215,216 social semiotics 14, 26, 173 social stratification 27-28, 30 sociocultural theory 8, 10-11, 56, 60, 106, 135,138,153 socio-ideological variation 27 sociolects 26 sociology of everyday life 18 socio-verbal interaction, language as 1, 4-5,23,44 Socratic dialogues 37 Sommers, N 116 speaker alignment 18 speech acts 89-90, 225-226 speech events, lessons as 89-92 speech genre 14, 22, 24, 60, 91, 96, 160, 171 speech tact 175 spontaneous versus rehearsed speech 20-21, 38,42-43,96, 174,183 Stacey, K 114 Stallard, C.K 116 stance 17, 145, 146, 192 see also footing standardised language 10, 22, 26-27, 95 Stetsenko, A 62-63 Stevens, C 53 Index stimulus means 53 Stone, A 142 Stone, C.A 206 stories, retelling in own words 12, 13-14, 33,98, 164-165, 166 storying 72 storytelling 93 Strauss, A 191 Stringer, C 44 structuralism 22, 23-24, 28, 85, 154, 170, 171 student-initiated exchanges in the classroom 43, 91, 98, 187, 208, 222,227 student-talk register 95 style 95, 171 subject discipline-specific discourse 37-38,43 subjectivity 52-53 suspension 70 Sutton, A 10, 64 syllable stress 7, 188, 197, 199, 205, 231 symbolic artefacts 71 see also cultural artefacts symbolic capital 14, 26, 171-172, 179 syntactical forms 84-85 Sypnowich, C 51 systemic functional linguistics 101 Szczepek Reed, B 6, 7, 25, 176, 180, 183, 187,200,204 tacit expectations 86, 91, 95 tag questions 180, 226 talk about texts 153 talk-in-interaction Tarulli, D 57 task participation frameworks 136 teacher question-student answer-teacher feedback see initiation-responseevaluation/feedback (IRE/F) teachers see also monologic teaching methods affective domain 108 asymmetrical speaking rights 27, 95, 159,196,230,235 co-assembling discourse 178 consultative role 102, 109, 123-124 co-presence of 109 developmental teaching 61-64 importance of listening 129 improvisation 12, 91, 92, 96, 148, 234 inhibiting exploratory talk 87 251 knowing when to use an expository style 100 leadership responsibilities of 3, 89, 102, 119-120, 123-124, 138,150 as listeners 143 as managers of classroom discourse 76, 93,98-99, 100,112,145,229,234 modelling equal status behaviour 95 modelling problem-solving 89, 109, 197 physical presence not necessary 57 professional development 167 responsibility for classroom dialogue 76,93 as 'rickshaw puller' 140, 144 role in writing conferences 13 teacher education 150-151 teacher talk as a register 95 teacher-student ratios 107 teacher-student versus studentsteachers 2, 4, 10-11, 103-104, 113, 150, 178-179, 195 teaching to the test 107, 160 ten Have, P 7, 189 test questions 7, 27, 42, 100, 159, 165,186 testing and assessment 107, 160, 166, 167 textbooks 159-160 theoretical sampling 191 theory of mind 175 thinking aloud 7, 86, 105, 180, 192, 194-198, 199, 231 see also exploratory talk Thinking and Speech (Vygotsky, 2004 [1934]) 9, 41 Third Culture Kids 77, 78 third turn 222 third voice 57-58 Thompson, J.B 181, 182 thought as barrier to comprehension 74-75 as a cultural and historical creation 71 in definitions of learning 137 and exploratory talk 87 silent thinking as activity 117 social production of 72, 74 students as thinkers 104 thinking devices 59 thinking skills 72 Timperley, H 111 Toma, C 59 tone of voice 9, 19, 76, 200 tone-setting 135-136, 140, 143, 148, 150 252 Dialogic Pedagogy tools of mediation 50, 51-56, 71, 80, 136 topic-related sets (TRS) 12, 89-90, 178, turning towards one another/addressivity 192,228,233 Torrance, N 153 Towards an Analysis of Discourse (Sinclair & Coulthard, 1975) 11 Towards an Analysis of Discourse (Sinclair and Coulthard, 1975) 14-15,83,221 Transana 190 234 tum-taking see also initiation-responseevaluation/feedback (IRE/F); nomination of students for response analysing 118 asymmetrical speaking rights 27, 95, transcription constitutive ethnography 89 conventions 156, 176, 190, 207-208,222 conversation analysis (CA) 139, 199, 207-208,235 discourse analytic (DA) approaches 223,224,235 and interpretation 190 limitations of 165 of prosody 7, 199 real-time data 100-101 Transana 190 transition relevant pauses 229 transitional function of classroom discourse 43 translation 10 transmission models of teaching see also monologic teaching methods affective conditions for learning 107 Alexander on 104 banking concept of education 2-3, 15,35 Barnes on 85, 88 body-of-knowledge transmission versus dialogic enquiry 102 'filling the vessels' 142 and IRE 203 limitations of 35-36, 39-40, 42-43 prevalence of 220 prosody 214 Vygotsky on 64-65 Trudgill, P 26 truths collectivity 37, 44 cultural relativism 70 monologic teaching methods 15, 36, 154,160,165,221 in talk about texts 156-161 teacher as possessor of truth 159, 160 valid propositions in non-science subjects 103 38, 56, 73-74, 79, 136, 143,195,213, 159,196,230,235 breaking down of 34 competitive bidding for 104, 105, 187 controlled by teacher 196 everyday conversation versus classroom 91 extended turn constructional units 178 floor-holding strategies 20,195,200, 212,214,228-230,231,232,233 monologue versus dialogue 19-20 not forcing participation 114 overlapping speech 121 participatory frameworks 148 and prosody 7, 193, 200 recipient design 31 self-selection 92, 93 shared routines 104 student-talk register 95 teachers and extended tum-taking 119, 124,143,159,163,225,230 teachers in control of 112, 178, 193 turn construction units 226, 228, 231 turn-allocation apparatus 89, 90-91, 159 turn-competitive devices 230 Uhmann, S 212 understanding, as a dialogic act 17-18, 25 undirected elicitations 145 unfinalised dialogue 39, 43, 59, 197 unpredictability 148 uptake 99, 197 utterances message unit analysis 208 and social structure 170-184 as units of discourse 23, 59-60, 170-184 Valsiner, J 49, 71, 75 value judgements 23 Van Compernolle, R.A 136, 138, 149 Van De Mieroop, M 45 Van De Pol, J 206 Van Der Veer, R 75 Index Van der Veer, R 49, 71 Van Lier, L 142 Van Reken, R 77, 78 Vassa, E 115, 121 ventriloquism 56 Vice, S 25 video-recorded data 89, 91-92, 138, 176, 189-190, 198-199,223 virtual support 57-58 visual channel of communication 19 see also non-verbal communication voice 56-61, 117, 135-151, 171-172 Voloshinov, V.N 6, 9, 17, 21-25, 41, 108,109 Vygotsky, LS affective domain 108 and Bakhtin 56-61 consciousness 9, 41, 45 dialectical or dialogic 50-56 and dialectics 49 and dialogic pedagogy 48-65 domination of 68 general genetic law of cultural development 48 inner speech 21-25, 34, 45, 61, 86, 175 internalisation 94 language and thought 24, 44 mediation 50, 51, 57, 71, 75 on pedagogy 61-64 psychological tools 77 rickshaw puller 140, 144 social constructivism 71 sociocultural theory 8, 10, 11, 136 understanding of pedagogy 51-56 word meanings 29 zone of proximal development (ZPD) 57-59, 72, 76, 77 Wagner, J 205 Walsh, M 151,222 Waring, H.Z 203, 222, 227 Wartofsky, M 53 'we' signifying group cohesiveness 119, 124,195,196 253 Webb,N 114,124 Wegerif, R 50-51, 114 Wells, B 205 Wells, G 12, 50, 72, 75, 76, 77, 78, 98, 101-103, 138,147,153,167,192, 203,206,216,220,221,222,235 Wenger, E 204, 205, 216 Wennerstrom, A 6, 7, 25, 183, 187 Wertsch, J 48, 50, 53-54, 55, 56, 59-61, 142 Westgate, D.P.G 15, 155, 167, 186, 190, 220,234 Wharton, T 205 Whiteside, A 136 whole-class teaching competitive bidding for turns 105 discourse analytic (DA) approaches 84 one at a time rule 93 plenary discussions 190-198, 222,223, 227-228,234 prevalence of 103, 113 prosody 9, 90,190,203,212, 214-215 teacher authority 20, 140, 144 turn allocation apparatus 7, 105 Williams, C 123 Williams, L 136, 149 Wilson, D 205 Wong, E.D 113, 115 Wood,D 72, 76,159,206 Wood, H 159 Wooffitt, R 15, 31, 204, 226 working-class students 92, 95 worlds of meaning 29 Wozniak, R.H 49 writing conferences 12-13, 111-130 written word, primacy of 173 Yakubinsky, LP 9, 17-21, 40 Yamazumi, K 78 Yin, R 117 Young, R 33,178,186,220,225,226,235 zone of proximal development (ZPD) 57-59,63, 72, 76, 77