the JAPANESE LANGUAGE the JAPANESE LANGUAGE by Haruhiko Kindaichi Translated and Annotated by Umeyo Hirano With a new Foreword by Mineharu Nakayama TUTTLE PUBLISHING Tokyo • Rutland,Vermont • Singapore Published by Tuttle Publishing, an imprint of Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd www.tuttlepublishing.com Copyright in Japan © 1978 by Charles E Tuttle Company, Inc Copyright © 2010 by Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd Originally published in Japan as Nippongo by Iwanami Shoten, Tokyo (1957) All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without prior written permission from the publisher Library of Congress Control Number: 2010927332 ISBN 978-1-4629-0266-8 Distributed by North America, Latin America & Europe Tuttle Publishing 364 Innovation Drive North Clarendon, VT 05759-9436 U.S.A Tel: (802) 773-8930 Fax: (802) 773-6993 info@tuttlepublishing.com www.tuttlepublishing.com Japan Tuttle Publishing Yaekari Building, 3rd Floor 5-4-12 Osaki Shinagawa-ku Tokyo 141 0032 Tel: (81) 5437-0171 Fax: (81) 5437-0755 tuttle-sales@gol.com Asia Pacific Berkeley Books Pte Ltd 61 Tai Seng Avenue #02-12 Singapore 534167 Tel: (65) 6280-1330 Fax: (65) 6280-6290 inquiries@periplus.com.sg www.periplus.com First bilingual edition 14 13 12 11 10 10 Printed in Singapore TUTTLE PUBLISHING® is a registered trademark of Tuttle Publishing, a division of Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd Contents Publisher’s Foreword ix Foreword to the new edition xi Author’s Preface xv Translator’s Note xvii Introduction • The life of the Japanese language • Evaluation of the language • Characteristics of Japanese PART I THE POSITION OF JAPANESE 11 An Isolated Language 13 • Origin 13 • Originality 14 • Role of isolation 16 Contact with Other Languages 18 • Linguistic isolation 18 • “Degeneration” of the language 18 • Influence from foreign languages 20 • Chinese character words—merits and demerits 22 • Chinese character words—what shall we with them? 25 • The influence of Japanese on foreign languages 28 PART II ASPECTS OF SPEECH 31 Regional Differences 33 • Differences in dialects 33 • The origin of dialects 35 • The standard language and the common language 37 Occupational Differences 39 • Military jargon 39 • Official terminology 40 • Academic circles 42 Differences by Status and Sex 45 • Upper and lower classes 45 • Superiors and inferiors 46 • Male-female distinctions 47 Differences by Situation 53 • Literary style 53 • Persistence of literary expressions 55 • Peculiarity of “desu” and “masu” forms 57 • “Desu” and “masu” forms in daily speech 59 PART III PRONUNCIATION 63 The Syllable 65 • Distinct breaks between syllables 65 • Each syllable is a dot 67 The Phonemes 69 • Vowels 70 • Consonants 71 • Relation between vowels and consonants 74 The Sound System 76 • Structure of the syllable 76 • Syllabic nasal and syllabic stop 77 • Paucity of syllable types 79 From Syllables to Words 83 • Laws uniting syllables 83 • Pitch accent 86 • Rhythm 90 PART IV VOCABULARY 93 Size and Construction 95 • Are there comprehensive words? 96 • Is the vocabulary system well organized? 97 • Are there contradictory words and phrases? 99 Characteristics of Words 103 • How words are separated 103 • Japanese words are long 104 • Abundance of variable words 106 • Many homonyms and synonyms 108 • Distinctions between parts of speech 110 The Cultural Index 112 • Nature of the vocabulary 112 • Various ways of differentiation 112 • Words characteristic of a language 114 • Favorite words 115 Nature 117 • The weather 117 • The seasons 118 • Heavenly bodies 120 • Topography 121 • Water 122 • Vegetation 124 • Animals 125 Human Biology and Emotions 128 • The human body 128 • Internal organs 129 • Injuries and diseases 130 • The senses 131 • Differentiation of feelings 132 • Value words 134 • Body movement 136 • Daily necessities 137 • Moral and aesthetic consciousness 139 Family and Society 142 • Kinship 142 • Social position and sex distinction 144 • Terms of respect 146 • Social interaction 149 Abstract Ideas 153 • Spatial relations 153 • Colors 155 • Abstract ideas 156 PART V SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 159 Form and Length 161 • Sentence form 161 • Sentence endings 163 • Sentence length 167 Sentence Types 172 • Significative words and phrases at the ends of sentences 174 • The subject and the topic words 176 • Expressions ending in nouns 179 Word and Phrase Arrangement 183 • The principle governing word order 183 • Languages with similar word order 185 • Freedom in Japanese word order 186 • Modifiers at the beginning 187 • Predicates at the end 189 Word and Phrase Combination 196 • Joining sentences 198 • Linking participial adjectives 201 • Flexibility of noun phrases 205 • Word modulation 210 Terse Expressions 214 • Omission of subjects and modifiers 214 • Ellipsis in the predicate 216 Postscript 219 We create Japanese 221 Supplementary Notes 222 Publisher’s Foreword No one would believe it now, but sixty years ago, the Japanese language was living on borrowed time In the agonizing national reappraisal that followed defeat in World War II, even the most hallowed national institutions were subjected to keen scrutiny The language itself was no exception Some people—and not just the Americans—blamed the war itself on the formality and complexity of the national idiom At one time, the occupying authorities seriously considered replacing Japanese with English as the sole offcial language And a renowned literary figure of the prewar period proposed the adoption of French It was in 1956, barely four years after the end of the occupation, that Haruhiko Kindaichi wrote his classic defense of the national language under the title of Nippongo Rejecting the arguments of those who had predicted linguistic decline or degeneration, he pointed instead to the language’s sturdy powers of assimilation Far from collapsing under a tide of foreign words, Japanese was becoming bolder and more innovative Kindaichi was determined to explore all facets of his forbidding subject To so, he drew not only on the resources of the literature but also on Japan’s numberless dialects and professional jargons, about which he is the acknowledged expert No one can emerge from this book without a feeling for the richness and complexity of the language spoken today throughout the world by over 130 million Japanese in all fields of human endeavor Foreword to the New Edition Nippongo (The Japanese Language) was originally published in 1957 in Japan, and translated into English and published in 1978 I read this accessible and very insightful book for the first time while I was in college in Japan It was before I became familiar with linguistic theories in the U.S Now I am fortunate to be given an opportunity to read it again and discuss how pertinent to current linguistic theories Kindaichi’s original insights are First, I would like to remind readers to read the author’s preface and the translator’s notes so that his essays can be placed into the context and time period of when this book was originally written Being mindful of the historical context will allow his remarks to be interpreted appropriately PART I: The Position of Japanese presents Kindaichi’s view towards the Japanese language He first discusses the origin of the language As Shibatani’s (1990) textbook title, The Languages of Japan, suggests, there is more than one language in Japan They are Ainu and Japanese, which are considered unrelated whereas Ryukyuan is considered a dialect of Japanese Generally speaking, Japanese is regarded as related to Korean, but Kindaichi thinks that supporting evidence for this view is insuffcient Recently, Vovin (2009) also challenged this general view and argued against the idea that Japanese and Korean share the same ancestry Unger (2009), on the other hand, supports the common origin hypothesis of the languages Given new linguistic, methodological, and archeological developments, this again became a hot topic of debate PART II: Aspects of Speech refers to pragmatic and socio-linguistic aspects of the language Speech styles commonly discussed in relation to politeness and gender issues deal with empowerment, but commonly accepted speech styles change over time as the society changes Certain forms are registered as part of grammar For instance, an appropriate honorific verbal form appears when the subject referent is exalted This subject-verb agreement can be considered similar to morpho-syntactic subject-verb agreement seen in many languages including English Osterhout and Inoue (2007), however, found in their study about the brain’s electrical activity (Event Related Potentials) that the brain activity for the subject-verb agreement in honorification (i.e., the appropriate use of honorific form) is not the same as that observed with the English subject-verb agreement Furthermore, this brain activity on agreement was only seen among those who often used the honorific language As we know, it takes time for Japanese speakers to acquire the honorific language This is because of its situational complexity Therefore, it was not strange for the study to find honorification grammaticalized among only those who were familiar with this type of language Given the diversity of dialects and their media exposure today, speech styles have changed and so have people’s feeling toward them In particular, men’s and women’s languages are moving toward more neutral styles, and given societal needs, more politically correct expressions are expected to increase in the near future, though not to the extent of those found in American English Historical difference in speech style can be seen in this section PART III: Pronunciation offers segmental and suprasegmental analyses of the language For instance, it discusses the difference between seion and dakuon, which is not necessarily the same as the difference between voiceless and voiced consonants It refers to Norinaga’s finding that voiced consonants and the /r/ series not appear at the beginning of a word in ancient Japanese This reminds me of the fact that /r/ resists palatalization in Japanese mimetics (Tsujimura 2007) These may be related and may suggest the underlying restriction of /r/ in Japanese Kindaichi also discusses the bimoraic rhythm of the language and the pitch characteristic of the word initial mora The latter is well-known as Haraguchi’s (1977) Initial Lowering Rule in the Tokyo dialect He also mentions that low pitch indicates word/phrase break, which relates to the “down step” prosodic characteristic As can be seen, these segmental and prosodic characteristics Kindaichi discusses have been studied in more depth in recent years, and Optimality theoretic applications may be found from his insightful discussions as well PART IV: Vocabulary easily attracts both those who study the language, but have not studied theoretical linguistics, and those who study linguistics Various characteristics of words are discussed in this section Although one has to consider the time period in which this book was written, Kindaichi’s insights are applicable to the current diverse linguistic issues surrounding Japanese words Japan annually identifies the most popular word, but does that popular word become a permanent part of the language? As the society changes rapidly, new words are created and disappear In the age of abundant media and cyber-communication, cell phone text messages and blogs and discussion boards on the World Wide Web and channel bring very interesting and innovative uses of letters as well as words (e.g., k for OK, for “envi- ous”, kwsk for “in detail”) Furthermore, morpho-phonological rules for word abbreviations (e.g., clipping) such as those discussed in Kubozono (2002) and Mutsukawa (2009) reveal the nature of the language, which has not changed very much PART V: Sentence Construction offers various perspectives on sentences, not only related to syntax, but also discourse analyses The sentence length and the word order of the language bring an interesting challenge to sentence processing theories, e.g., serial vs parallel processing, incremental vs delay processing, and memory load (see Nakayama [1999] and Nakayama, Mazuka, and Shirai [2006]) Part V also looks at sentences from the discourse perspective When phonologically null pronouns are used, when ellipsis occurs, and how the topic of the sentences moves in the discourse, e.g., centering, are all still being investigated in current linguistic theories The Japanese Language is a gold mine for those who are studying Japanese linguistics and looking for topics to investigate Although the book was written more than half a century ago, many characteristics of the language discussed in it have been analyzed in a new light in recent years, and the book remains pertinent in current linguistic theories This is an indication of how insightful Kindaichi was I hope those who read The Japanese Language for the first time and those who are reading it again find this book as illuminating and insightful as I have found it to be —MINEHARU NAKAYAMA Professor, Japanese Linguistics The Ohio State University Editor, Journal of Japanese Linguistics References Haraguchi, S (1977) The Tone Pattern of Japanese: An Autosegmental Theory of Tonology Tokyo: Kaitakusha Kubozono, H (2002) Shingo-wa kooshite tsukurareru Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten Mutsukawa, M (2009) Japanese Loanword Phonology Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo Nakayama, M (1999) Sentence processing In N Tsujimura (ed.), The Handbook of Japanese Linguistics 398–424 Boston: Blackwell Nakayama, M R Mazuka, and Y Shirai (eds.) (2006) Handbook of East Asian Psycholinguistics Vol 2: Japanese Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Osterhout, L and K Inoue (2007) What the Brain’s Electrical Activity Can Tell Us about Language Processing and Language Learning In T Sakamoto (ed.) Communicating Skills of Intention 293–309 Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo Shibatani, M (1990) The Languages of Japan Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Tsujimura, N (2007) An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics 2nd edition Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Unger, J M (2009) The Role of Contact in the Origins of the Japanese and Korean Languages Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press Vovin, A (2009) Koreo-Japonica: A Re-evaluation of a Common Genetic Origin Center for Korean Studies Monograph Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press Supplementary Notes Introduction Shiga Naoya (1883–1971), an outstanding novelist of present-day Japan Kaiz is one of the first-rate general magazines in Japan, started in 1919, published by Kaiz -sha This article appeared in the April number, 1946, pp 94–97 Meillet, Antoine, and Cohen, Marcel, eds., Les Langues du monde (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, 1952) Japanese translation, Sekai no Gengo, ed Izui Hisanosuke (Asahi Shimbun, 1954), p 1091 Kokugo Bunka K za [Japanese culture courses] (Asahi Shimbun, July 1941–January 1942), IV, pp 195–6 McGovern, William Montgomery, Colloquial Japanese (London: Kegan Paul, 1920), p Kokugo Bunka K za, IV, p 11 Kokugo Bunka K za, VI, p 23 Jespersen, Otto, Language (New York: Norton & Co., 1964), p 427 Ishiguro Yoshimi, Nihonjin no Kokugo Seikatsu [The function of speech in Japanese daily life] (T ky University Press, 1951), p Gengo Seikatsu [The function of speech in daily life] (Chikuma Shob , 1955), No 45, p 14 10 Fukuzawa Yukichi (1834–1901), educator and pioneer in the world of thought in the early Meiji period, and also the founder of Kei School 11 Novelist and dramatist (1887–1974) 12 K bunsha, 1956 13 Sugiura Ken’ichi, Jinruigaku [Anthropology] (D bunkan, 1954), p 208 PART I Chapter 1: An Isolated Language Emeritus professor of linguistics at T ky University (1876–1967), former professor of Japanese at Ky to University and editor of the Japanese dictionary K Sanseid , T ky , 1947, pp 55–56 K za Nihongo [The Japanese language courses] ( tsuki Shoten, 1955), III, p 143 Kotoba no Kenky shitsu [A research room for language], ed NHK (K dansha, 1955), V, pp 224–34 Chapter 2: Contact with Other Languages Kotoba no Kenky shitsu [A research room for language], ed NHK (K dansha, 1954), IV, p 14 Pei, Mario, The World’s Chief Languages (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1949), p 86 Kokugo Bunka K za [Japanese culture courses] (Asahi Shimbun, July 1941–January 1942), VI, p 136 Gengo Seikatsu [The function of speech in daily life] (Chikuma Shob , 1955), No 45, p 10 Four volumes, Fuzamb , 1915 6K za Nihongo [The Japanese language courses] ( tsuki Shoten, 1955), II, p 114 jien One of the most valuable dictionaries of ancient times Author unknown, but probably written in the late Heian period It divides Chinese characters into 120 parts, giving their Japanese readings, mostly using katakana It also shows the accents of Japanese words used at that time Kotoba to Seikatsu [Language and life], ed Nishio Minoru (Mainichi Library, 1955), p 12 Kikuchi Kan, Ren’aiby Kanja [A love patient], The Complete Works of Kikuchi Kan, Vol (Heibonsha, 1927), p 368 Kikuchi Kan (1888–1948) was a prominent novelist and dramatist 10 Hakusuisha, 1954, p 116 11 Literary critic and emeritus professor of French literature at Ky to University 12 The Outline of History (New York: Garden City Publishing Co., 1920), p 991 13 Kindaichi Ky suke, Gengo Kenky [A study of language] (Kawade Shob , 1933), pp 217–21 14 Iwanami Shoten, 1944, pp 584–89 15 Kokugo Bunka K za, VI, p 305 16 Nihongo no Junketsu no tame ni [For the purity of the Japanese language] (Awaji Shob , 1956), p 65 PART II Chapter 1: Regional Differences Meillet, Antoine, and Cohen, Marcel, eds., Les Langues du monde Japanese translation, Sekai no Gengo, ed Izui Hisanosuke (Asahi Shimbun, 1954), p 260 Pei, Mario, The Story of Language (New York: New American Library, 1964), p 331 Jespersen, Otto, Mankind, Nation and Individual from a Linguistic Point of View (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1964), p 34 Jespersen, Mankind, p 34 Chapter 2: Occupational Differences Senkusha, pp 58–61 Kokugo Und [The Japanese language movement] (Kokugo Ky kai, 1937–45), Vol II, No 8, p 21 Kotoba no K za [Lectures on language] (S gensha, 1956), Vol I, pp 190–91 “The Inconvenience of the Japanese Language,” Asahi Newspapers, March 12, 1955, p 5 Gengo Seikatsu [The function of speech in daily life] (Chikuma Shob , 1954), No 38, p Kokugo Bunka K za [Japanese culture courses] (Asahi Shimbun, July 1941–January 1942), V, p 66 Kotoba to Seikatsu [Language and life], ed Nishio Minoru (Mainichi Library, 1955), p 57 A romantic poet (1885–1942) Hokury kan, 1925 10 The book contains 250 lines of poetry, each line having four characters No character in the whole book is repeated 11 Kokugo Bunka K za, V, pp 152–53 Chapter 3: Differences by Status and Sex Jespersen, Otto, Mankind, Nation and Individual from a Linguistic Point of View (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1964), p 127 Miyatake Masamichi, Nan’y no Gengo to Bungaku [The languages and literatures of the South Sea Islands] (Yukawa K bunsha, 1943), p 114 A comic novel written by Jippensha Ikku (1765–1831) Izui Hisanosuke, Gengo no Kenky [A study of language] (Y shind , 1956), p 221 Originally a novel by Tokutomi Roka (1868–1927) Shioya Sakae and E F Edgett, trans., Namiko (Y rakusha, 1905), pp 18–19 Iwanami Shoten, 1938, p 199 A poet and writer (1903–74) of children’s songs and folk songs Jespersen, Otto, Language (New York: Norton & Co., 1964), p 250 Jespersen, Language, p 237 10 Boas, Franz, Handbook of the American Indian Languages (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1911), Part I, p 79 11 A court novel of the Heian period written by Lady Murasaki Shikibu (c 978–1016), a court lady; one of the masterpieces in Japanese literature 12 The oldest collection of poems in Japan, containing about 4,500 Its compilation began in the early Nara period and ended by 806 A.D 13 Omodaka Hisataka, Man’y sh Shinshaku [A new interpretation of the Man’y sh ] (Ky to: Hoshino Shoten, 1931), Vol 2, pp 269–70 14 In forty-eight volumes, an epic-like narrative of war between the Taira and the Minamoto clans, written sometime during the 15th or 16th century Author unknown 15 A celebrated general of the period of war between the Taira and the Minamoto clans in the late 12th century 16 A familiar character in the N drama and j ruri, together with Naozane 17 Shunkan (1142–78) was a high priest who supported the ex-emperor Goshirakawa’s attempt to overthrow Kiyomori, the head of the Taira clan; he was captured and exiled to Kikaigashima island, where he died 18 p 28 19 Gendai Kanazukai is the standard of the use of kana in the colloquial form of modern Japanese, based on modern pronunciation It was officially established in November 1946 Chapter 4: Differences by Situation An anthology of poems collected by imperial command in 905 The literal meaning of this name is “One poem from a hundred poets.” This game is based on the book Hyakunin Isshu, which is said to have been compiled by the famous poet Fujiwara Teika (1162–1241) The gameconsists of picking up the right cards as the reader reads the poems Jespersen, Otto, Mankind, Nation and Individual from a Linguistic Point of View (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1964), p 45 A literary critic, 1871–1902 One of the greatest tanka poets of modern Japan, 1882–1951 Novelist, 1864–1909 Novelist and poet, 1868–1910 Novelist, 1867–1903 “How Foreigners Look at the Japanese Language,” Gengo Seikatsu [The function of speech in daily life] (Chikuma Shob , 1955), No 49, p 10 Meiseisha, 1916 11 Gengo Seikatsu, No 21, p 39 12 Bally, Charles, Le Langue et la vie (Zurich: Max Niehans, 1935) Japanesetranslation by Kobayashi Hideo (Iwanami Shoten, 1941), p 96 13 Gendai Zuis Zensh [A complete collection of modern essays] (S gensha, 1954), Vol 17, pp 132–34, under the title: “Polite and Impolite Words” by Miyagi Otoya PART III Chapter 1: The Syllable Sanseid , 1947, pp 105–6 A poet of the early Nara period (8th century), noted for his long poems on legendary subjects in the Man’y sh Pei, Mario, The Story of Language (New York: New American Library, 1964), p 93 Chapter 2: The Phonemes A scholar of Japanese classical literature, famous for his studies on the special usage of kana in ancient Japanese as well as for his studies on ancient phonology Kokugo to Kokubungaku [Japanese and Japanese literature] (T ky University Press, June 1953), pp 55–56 Meillet, Antoine, and Cohen, Marcel, eds., Les Langues du monde Japanese translation, Sekai no Gengo, ed Izui Hisanosuke (Asahi Shimbun, 1954), p 655 Sakuma Kanae, Nihon Onseigaku [Japanese phonetics] (Kazama Shob , 1963), p 111 Sekai no Gengo, p 237 1795–1859, a pupil of Moto-ori Norinaga Sekai no Gengo, p 91 Pei, Mario, The Story of Language (New York: New American Library, 1964), p 326 1823–1900, British philologist 10 Jespersen, Otto, The Growth and Structure of the English Language (New York: Doubleday & Co., 1955), p 11 Pei, Story of Language, p 158 12 Evening edition, T ky Mainichi, November 15, 1952, p 13 Jespersen, Growth and Structure, p Chapter 3: The Sound System Fujioka Katsuji (1872–1935) was a linguist famous for his advocacy of the similarity of Japanese and the Ural-Altaic languages This was at the end of the Meiji period, when there was much speculation about the origin of the Japanese language Ma Hsueh-liang, A Study of the Sani Language, ed Chinese Academy of Science (Shanghai: Shan-wu Publishing Co., 1951), pp 3–16 Founder of the Tendai sect of Buddhism in Japan on Mount Hiei 1867–1902, poet and critic of the Meiji period Tezukayama Gakuin Tanki Daigaku Kenky Nemp [Tezukayama Gakuin Junior College research annual] (1954), No 2, p 50 A great scholar and statesman of the mid-Edo period T ga is an etymological study of Japanese Nihon no Shingakki [A new school term in Japan] (Yomiuri Shimbun, 1955), p 185 Chapter 4: From Syllables to Words Meillet, Antoine, and Cohen, Marcel, eds., Les Langues du monde Japanese translation, Sekai no Gengo, ed Izui Hisanosuke (Asahi Shimbun, 1954), p 727 Arisaka Hideyo, Kokugo On’in-Shi no Kenky [A study of the history of Japanese phonology] (Sanseid , 1944), p 681 Arisaka Hideyo (1908–52) was a linguist famous for his researches in Japanese phonology Meillet and Cohen, Sekai no Gengo, p 613 Jones, Daniel, The Phoneme (Cambridge: Heffer and Sons, 1950), p 152 Pike, Kenneth L., Tone Languages (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1948), pp 79, 95 Koizumi Yakumo is the Japanese name of Lafcadio Hearn, a man of letters who wrote about Japan and introduced her to the world Originally English, he was born in Greece, lived in the United States, came to Japan in 1890, and became naturalized Pike, Tone Languages, footnotes on pp and Ward, I.C, An Introduction to the Ibo Language (Cambridge: Heffer and Sons, 1936), pp 38–41 Pike, Tone Languages, p 23 10 Pike, Tone Languages, p 36 11 Tanigawa Tetsuz , Nihonjin no Kokoro [The mind of the Japanese] (Iwanami Shoten, 1938), pp 178–79 PART IV Chapter 1: Size and Construction Tanizaki Jun’ichir , Bunsh Tokuhon [A reader on writing] (Ch k ronsha, 1942), p 51 Okamoto Chimatar , Nihongo no Hihanteki K satsu [A critical study of Japanese] (Hakusuisha, 1954), p 116 Quoted from R Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, pp 328–29, in Lucien Levy-Bruhl, How Natives Think [English translation of Levy-Bruhl’s Les Fonctions mentales dans les sociétés inférieures by Lillian A Clare] (New York: Washington Square Press, 1966), p 151 Levy-Bruhl, How Natives Think, p 136 Shingo-ron [On new words] in The Complete Works of Yanagida Kunio(Chikuma Shob , 1963), Vol 18, p 453 Levy-Bruhl, How Natives Think, p 148 “The Characteristics of the Japanese Language” in Watsuji Tetsur , Zoku Nihon Seishin-shi Kenky [Continued studies in Japanese spiritual history] (Iwanami Shoten, 1935), p 417 Sanseid , 1943, pp 148–49 Kokugo Und [The Japanese language movement] (Kokugo Ky kai, 1937–45), Vol V, No 8, p 46 10 Pei, Mario, The Story of English (New York: Fawcett Publications, 1962), p 240 11 Pei, Story of English, pp 239–40 12 Matsuzaka Tadanori, Kokugo Mondai no Honshitsu [The essence of Japanese language problems] (K bund Shob , 1942), p 55 Chapter 2: Characteristics of Words Nihon Gengo Gakkai, 1950, pp 1–23 Wang Li, Shina Gengogaku Gairon [An introduction to Chinese linguistics] (Sanseid , 1941), p Jespersen, Otto, The Growth and Structure of the English Language (New York: Doubleday & Co., 1955), p Yoshioka Sh ichir , S no Y moa [The humor of numerals] (Gakuseisha, 1956), p 95 Gengo Seikatsu [The function of speech in daily life] (Chikuma Shob , 1953), No 21, p 14 Jespersen, Otto, Language (New York: Norton & Co., 1964), pp 330–31 Ueda Bin was a professor of English at Ky to University and an introducer of European literature to Japan The magazine N Plays (N gaku Ky kai, 1951), Vol V, No 11, p 30 K za Nihongo [Japanese language courses] ( tsuki Shoten, 1955), II, p 118 10 Vandryes, Joseph, Language Japanese translation by Fujioka Katsuji (T k Shoin, 1942), p 182 11 Miyatake Masamichi, Nany no Gengo to Bungaku [The languages and literatures of the South Sea Islands] (Yukawa K bunsha 1943), p 70 12 Vandryes, Joseph, Language, pp 200–202 Chapter 3: The Cultural Index Tachibana Sh ichi, “The Dialects on Cattle” in the magazine H gen [Dialects], Vol 3, No 10 (October 1933), pp 31–38 Shibuzawa Keiz , Nihon Gyomei no Kenky [A study of the names of Japanese fish] (Kadokawa Shoten, 1959), pp 15–16 Kokugo Und [The Japanese language movement] (Kokugo Ky kai, 1937–45), Vol II, No 5, p 22 Sasaki Tatsu, Gogaku Shiron-sh [Preliminary essays on linguistics] (Kenky sha, 1950), p 303 The Collected Works of Fukuda Tsuneari (Shinch sha, 1957), Vol 7, pp 9–10 Chapter 4: Nature Bungei Shunj , December, 1935, p 238 Bungei Shunj is a general magazine on literary arts, started in 1923 by Bungei Shunj -sha, with Kikuchi Kan as editor Terada Torahiko Zensh [The complete works of Terada Torahiko] (Iwanami Shoten, 1950), Vol V, p 575 Compiled by Kokugakuin University, 1935 Levy-Bruhl, Lucien, How Natives Think (New York: Washington Square Press, 1966), p 150 Po Chu-i (772–846) was a famous Chinese poet of the Tang dynasty whoseworks greatly influenced the literature of Japan’s Heian period A haiku book or saijiki written by Kigen in 1713 Kokusho Kank kai reprinted it in 1917 A book of essays by Yoshida Kenk (1283–1350), a well-known poet of his time He was formerly a court offcial, but later became a monk and lived at Narabigaoka, Ky to The novel Nowaki (1908) Kaiz sha, 1924 10 Kokinshoin, 1936, p 126 11 Levy-Bruhl, How Natives Think, p 149 12 F to Bungaku [Natural features and literature] in Terada Torahiko Zensh [The complete works of Terada Torahiko], rev ed., (Iwanami Shoten, 1950), Vol V, p 596 13 Nihonjin no Kokoro [The mind ol the Japanese] (Iwanami Shoten, 1938), p 291 14 Palmer, L R., An Introduction to Modern Linguistics (London: Macmillan Co., 1936), footnote 1, p 177 15 Levy-Bruhl, How Natives Think, p 151 16 Vandryes, Joseph, Language Japanese translation by Fujioka Katsuji (T k Shoin, 1942), p 353 17 Hattori Shir , M ko to sono Gengo [Mongolia and its language] (Yukawa K bunsha, 1943), p 163 18 Shibuzawa Keiz , Nihon Gyomei Sh ran [A collection of names of Japanese fish] (Kadokawa Shoten, 1958) Vol II, pp 203–32 19 Its literal meaning is “Grass Skylark,” an insect like a cricket The essay is in the Koizumi Edition, Writings of Lafcadio Hearn (Boston: Houghton Miffin Co., 1923), Vol X, pp 380–91 Chapter 5: Human Biology and Emotions Fukushima Masao, “Sh k no Atama” [A military offcer’s head] in the magazine Shis no Kagaku [The science of thought], Vol V, No (January 1949), pp 26–38 Levy-Bruhl, Lucien, How Natives Think (Washington Square Press, 1966), p 149 Nihon J Bunka Kenky sho, 1954 Gengo Seikatsu [The function of speech in daily life] (Chikuma Shob , 1955), No 45, p 11 Gengo Kenky [A study of language] (Nihon Gengo Gakkai, 1950), combined Nos 26 and 27, p 36 Levy-Bruhl, How Natives Think, p 135 Haga Yaichi, Nihonjin [The Japanese people] (Fuzamb , 1939), p 158 Candau, Sauveur Antoine, Basuku no Hoshi [The stars of Basque] (T h Shob 1956), p 29 Father Candau (1897–1955) was a French missionary and teacher Minami Hiroshi, Nihonjin no Shinri [The psychology of the Japanese] (Iwanami Shoten, 1954), p 59 10 (Boston: Houghton Miffin Co., 1946), pp 222–27 11 Ichikawa Sanki, Konch , Gengo, Kokuminsei [Insects, language, national traits] (Kenky sha, 1939), p 252 12 Ikejima Shimpei, Hensh sha no Hatsugen [An editor’s proposal] (Kurashino-tech -sha, 1955), p 115 13 (Boston: Houghton Miffin Co., 1946), p 43 14 Takagi Masataka, Nihonjin no Seikatsu Shinri [The Japanese psychology of living] (S gensha, 1954), p 115 15 Watanabe Shin’ichir , Ren’ai Sah [The etiquette of love] (Shikisha, 1955), p 109 16 Shimmura Izuru, Kokugo no Kijun [The standard of the Japanese language] (Kenbunkan, 1943), p 168 17 Minami Hiroshi, Nihonjin no Shinri [The psychology of the Japanese] (Iwanami Shoten, 1954), pp 60–66 18 Sait Kiyoe, Kokubungaku no Honshitsu [The essence of Japanese literature] (Meiji Shoin, 1924), pp 6–7, 22–33 19 First published in 1907 by seki (S seki Zensh Kank kura Shoten This anecdote is found in The Complete Works of Natsume S kai, 1936), Vol X, p 348 Chapter 6: Family and Society Hattori Shir , M ko to sono Gengo [Mongolia and its language] (Yukawa K bunsha, 1943), pp 164–65 Seijisha, 1942, pp 214–17 Nihon Hy ron Shinsha, 1952, p 21 Nihonjin [The Japanese people], compiled by Yanagida Kunio (T ky Mainichi Newspapers, 1955), p 178 Gengo Seikatsu [The Function of Speech in Daily Life] (Chikuma Shob , 1953), No 26, p 14 Sekai-no-Nippon-sha, 1948, pp 140–44 Gengo Seikatsu, No 34, p 14 The speaker is Nakamura Shigeru Nihon Shakai no Kazokuteki K sei [The family-like formation of Japanesesociety] (Nihon Hy ron Shinsha, 1952), p 21 Kishida Kunio, Nihonjin towa [What are the Japanese?] (Kadokawa Shoten, 1954), p 84 10 Nihonjin, p 59 11 Candau, Sauveur Antoine, Eien no Kessaku [The eternal masterpiece] (T h Shob , 1955), p 81 12 Benedict, Ruth, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword (Boston: Houghton Miffin Co., 1946), p 133 13 Wakamori Tar , Nihonjin no K sai [The social relations of the Japanese] (K bund , 1953), p 15 Chapter 7: Abstract Ideas Miyauchi Hideo, Eigo no Kangaekata [The way of thinking in English] (Kokusai Shuppansha, 1951), p 93 Kokugo Und [Japanese language movement] (Kokugo Ky kai, 1937–45), Vol V, No 9, p 16 One of the annual events of the court held on the 7th day of the first month, when aouma horses from the two offces (the Right and Left) in charge of horses were submitted to the inspection of the emperor, after which a banquet was held Satake Akihiro, Kodai Nihongo ni okeru Shikimei no Seikaku [The nature of the names of colors in ancient Japanese] in the magazine Kokugo Kokubun (Ky to University Press, June, 1955), Vol 24, No 6, pp 13–16 A verse of a popular song The 30th night of the lunar calendar when there is no moon, meaning something improbable 1826–97, a Dutch scholar and philosopher in the last days of the Tokugawa shogunate and the early Meiji period He went to Holland to study Dutch, and became one of the first translators of Western philosophical terms Kotoba no Oitachi [The growth of language] (ed and pub NHK, 1956), p 125 Kotoba to Seikatsu [Language and life], ed Nishio Minoru (Mainichi Library, 1955), p 65 10 Mikami Akira, Gendai Goh Josetsu [An introduction to modern syntax] (T k Shoin, 1953), pp 2, 73 PART V Chapter 1: Form and Length An outstanding short-story writer (1892–1927) A poet-priest (1119–90) of the late Heian period This passage appears in Section 19 of the Essays A tanka poetess and critic (1878–1942) A collection of essays by Sei Sh nagon, a court lady of the mid-Heian period It is one of the masterpieces in Heian literature Poet and writer (1896–1933) of juvenile stories K za Nihongo [Japanese language courses] ( tsuki Shoten, 1955), IV, p 138 A judicial case (1950–57) concerning It Sei’s Japanese translation of D H Lawrence’s Lady Chatterley’s Lover, which was charged with public indecency A mass murder at Teigin Bank (Teikoku Gink ) in 1948 10 kubo Tadatoshi, Kotoba no Majutsu to Shik [The magic of language and thought] (Shunj sha, 1956), p 70 11 One of the eighteen famous pieces of the Kabuki plays 12 One of the plays of the Kabuki, composed by Kawatake Mokuami (1816–93), in which each of the five thieves makes a long speech 13 A Chinese pastoral poet (365–427) of the Eastern Jin dynasty Chapter 2: Sentence Types Kenky sha, 1954, p Sh bunkan, 1940, pp 224–25 T k Shoin, 1953, p 155 Sakuma Kanae, Nihongo no Gengo Rironteki Kenky [The theoretical study of the Japanese language] (Sanseid , 1943), p 144 Vandryes, Joseph, Language Japanese translation by Fujioka Katsuji (T k Shoin, 1942), p 185 Sakuma Kanae, Nihongo no Gengo Rironteki Kenky , p 147 Mio Isago, Kokugoh Bunsh ron [The Japanese diction] (Sanseid , 1948), pp 71–75 A poet (1090–1155) of the late Heian period A romantic poet (1885–1928) of the Meiji-Taish period 10 Matsuo Bash (1644–94), a great haiku poet of the early Edo period 11 Enomoto Kikaku (1661–1707), a haiku poet, pupil of Bash 12 Yosano Buson (1716–83), a haiku poet and artist of the mid-Edo period 13 Kaya Shirao (c 1738–91), a haiku poet of the late Edo period, formerly a retainer of the Ueda clan Chapter 3: Word and Phrase Arrangement Kimura Ichir , Indogo Yonsh kan [The Indian language in four weeks] (Daigaku Shorin, 1943), p 10 Kotoba no K za [Lectures on language] (S gensha, 1956), Vol I, pp 83–84 Izui Hisanosuke, Gengo no Kenky [A study of language] (Y shind , 1956), p 28 Vandryes, Joseph, Language Japanese translation by Fujioka Katsuji (T k Shoin, 1942), p 220 Matsuo Sutejir , Kokugo to Nihon Seishin [The Japanese language and the Japanese spirit] (Hakusuisha, 1939), p 33 Pei, Mario, The Story of Language (New York: New American Library, 1964), p 327 Les Langues du monde Japanese translation Sekai no Gengo, ed Izui Hisanosuke (Asahi Shimbun, 1954), p 369 Kotoba no Kenky shitsu [A research room for language], ed NHK (K dansha, 1954), IV, p 181 From the short story Aki [Autumn] 10 Quoted from the short story Mikan [Oranges] by Akutagawa Ry nosuke 11 Chikuma Shob , 1955 12 Lafcadio Hearn, “Otokichi’s Daruma,” in The Writings of Lqfcadio Hearn (Boston: Houghton Miffin Co., 1923), Vol X, p 391 This is from the original; its Japanese translation, quoted here, is by Tanabe Ry ji 13 A poet of the late 9th century 14 A romantic poet (1886–1912) 15 This is the third stanza of a poem called “Furusato” [A native town] by Miki Rof (1889–1964), a symbolist poet 16 Hyakumannin no Gengogaku [The linguistics for a million people] (Shink sha, 1947), pp 143–47 Chapter 4: Word and Phrase Combination Poem No 4139 in the Man’y sh tomo Yakamochi (718–85) was one of the compilers of the anthology and a son of Tabito, also a poet Yamaguchi Sod (1642–1716), a haiku poet of the early Edo period K za Nihongo [Japanese language courses] ( tsuki Shoten, 1955), VI, pp 68–69 A war chronicle in the form of a long epic poem in twelve books, describing the rise and fall of the Heike clan It is said to have been written by Shinano no Zenji Yukihira sometime before 1220 Natsume S seki’s novel, first published in the magazine Hototogisu in 1906 Shimazu Hisamoto, Genji Monogatari K wa [Lectures on the Genji Monogatari] (Ch k kan, 1930–36), Vol I, pp 68–70 Futabatei Shimei, Heibon [Mediocrity] (Iwanami Bunko, 1940), p 28 Itwas first published in the Asahi newspapers in 1907 Ki no Tsurayuki (?–945) was a famous poet and compiler of the Kokinsh anthology This poem appears in the anthology Gendai Zuis Zensh [A complete collection of modern essays] (S gensha, 1954), Vol 21, pp 187–88 10 Nait J s (1661–1704), a haiku poet, was a priest and a disciple of Bash 11 Mikami Akira, Gendai Goh Josetsu [An introduction to modern syntax] (T k Shoin, 1953), pp 128–30 12 This is the title of one of Natsume S seki’s novels 13 Kaga Chiyojo (1703–75), a haiku poetess 14 Onoe Saish (1876–1957), a waka poet 15 Kinoshita Rigen (1881–1925), a waka poet 16 Kotoba no Kenky shitsu [A research room for language], ed NHK (K dansha, 1954), I, pp 170–71 Chapter 5: Terse Expressions Novelist (1898–1947) Poet and novelist (1872–1943) Kitayama Keita, Genji Monogatari no Goh p 96 [The syntax of the Genji Monogatari] (T k Shoin, 1951), Postscript T k Shoin, 1955 i.e., Hy jun Nihon Bump [A standard Japanese grammar] (Ch bunkan Shoten, 1928) Such as Nihongo no Gengo Rironteki Kenky [The theoretical study of the Japanese language] (Sanseid 1943) Kenky sha, 1955 1954 Published by Kokugo Gakkai, T ky University, since 1948 Published by Kokubun Gakkai, Ky to University, since 1931 , Other Japanese Language Titles from Tuttle Publishing A Guide to Reading and Writing Japanese 3rd Edition compiled by Florence Sakade, revised by Kenneth G Henshall, Christopher Seeley & Henk de Groot ISBN 978 8048 3365 ISBN 978 8053 1001 4** Beginning Japanese: Your Pathway to Dynamic Language Acquisition* by Michael L Kluemper, Lisa Berkson, Nathan Patton, Nobuko Patton ISBN 978 8048 4056 (paperback) ISBN 978 8048 4132 (hardcover) Beginning Japanese Workbook by Michael L Kluemper, Lisa Berkson, Nathan Patton, Nobuko Pattonisbn ISBN 978 8048 4057 Tuttle Japanese for Beginners: Mastering Conversational Japanese* ISBN 978 8053 0906 Elementary Japanese* by Yoko Hasegawaisbn ISBN 978 8048 3504 (Vol 1) ISBN 978 8048 3506 (Vol 2) Contemporary Japanese: An Introductory Textbook for College Students* by Eriko Satoisbn ISBN 978 8048 3377 (Vol 1) ISBN 978 8053 0799 (Vol 1)** ISBN 978 8048 3378 (Vol 2) ISBN 978 8053 0800 (Vol 2)* Contemporary Japanese Workbook: An Introductory Workbook for Students of Japanese* by Eriko Satoisbn ISBN 978 8048 3811 (Workbook 1) ISBN 978 8048 3812 (Workbook 2) 250 Essential Japanese Kanji (rev ed) by Kanji Text Research Group, University of Tokyoisbn ISBN 978 8053 0946 (Vol 1) ISBN 978 8053 4047 (Vol 2) A Japanese Reader: Graded Lessons for Mastering the Written Language by Roy Andrew Miller ISBN 978 8048 1647 A Guide to Remembering Japanese Characters by Kenneth G Henshall ISBN 978 8048 2038 ISBN 978 8053 1121 9** A Guide to Writing Japanese Kanji & Kana by Wolfgang Hadamitzky & Mark Spahn ISBN 978 8048 3392 (Book 1) ISBN 978 8048 3505 (Book 2) Basic Japanese Grammar by Everett F Bleiler ISBN 978 8053 1039 7** Business Japanese by Reiko Suzuki, Are Hajikano, Sayuri Kataoka ISBN 978 8048 3780 ISBN 978 8053 0858 5** Colloquial Kansai Japanese: The Dialects and Culture of the Kansai Region by DC Palter & Kaoru Slotsve ISBN 978 8048 3723 ISBN 978 8053 0846 2** Complete Japanese Adjective Guide by Ann Tarumoto ISBN 978 8048 3276 Complete Japanese Verb Guide compiled by the Hiroo Japanese Center ISBN 978 8048 3274 Easy Japanese: A Direct Learning Approach for Immediate Communication 4th revised edition by Samuel E Martin ISBN 978 8048 3746 ISBN 978 8053 0864 6** Handbook of Japanese Grammar by Masahiro Tanimori ISBN 978 8048 1940 Japanese for Travelers by Scott Rutherford ISBN 978 8053 1046 Japanese Kanji Power: A Workbook for Mastering Japanese Characters by John Millenisbn ISBN 978 8053 0859 Japanese Kanji & Kana: A Guide to the Japanese Writing System by Wolfgang Hadamitzky & Mark Spahn ISBN 978 8048 2077 ISBN 978 8053 1116 5** Japanese Made Easy revised ed by Tazuko Ajiro Monane ISBN 978 8053 0963 Japanese Respect Language: When, Why, and How to Use It Successfully by P.G O’Neill ISBN 978 8053 0976 Japanese Slang Uncensored by Peter Constantine ISBN 978 900737 03 Mastering Japanese Kanji: The Innovative Visual Method for Remembering Japanese Characters by Glen Nolan Grant ISBN 978 8053 0992 Outrageous Japanese: Slangs, Curses & Epithets by Jack Steward ISBN 978 8053 0848 Practical Japanese: Your Guide to Speaking Japanese Quickly and Effortlessly in a Few Hours by Jun Maeda ISBN 978 8053 0852 Read Japanese Today: The Easy Way to Learn 400 Practical Kanji by Len Walsh ISBN 978 8053 0981 Speak Japanese Today: A Self-study Course for Learning Everyday Spoken Japanese by Taeko Kamiyaisbn ISBN 978 8053 1115 Japanese in a Flash by John Millen ISBN 978 8048 3791 (Vol 1) ISBN 978 8053 0887 (Vol 1)** ISBN 978 8053 0888 (Vol 2) Japanese Kana Cards by Glen McCabe ISBN 978 8048 3550 Kanji Cards by Alexander Kask ISBN 978 8048 4056 (Vol 1) ISBN 978 8048 4056 (Vol 1)** ISBN 978 8048 4056 (Vol 2) ISBN ISBN ISBN ISBN 978 8053 0856 (Vol 2)** 978 8048 3685 (Vol 3) 978 8053 0857 (Vol 3)** 978 8048 3686 (Vol 4) Japanese Kana-a-Day Practice Pad by Richard S Keirstead ISBN 978 8048 3547 Japanese Kanji-a-Day Practice Pad by Richard S Keirstead ISBN 978 8048 3548 (Vol 1) ISBN 978 8048 3725 (Vol 2) The Compact Nelson Japanese-English Character Dictionary abridged by John H Haig ISBN 978 8048 2037 ISBN 978 8053 0574 4** Japanese Business Dictionary revised edition by Boyé Lafayette De Mente ISBN 978 8053 0913 The Learner’s Japanese Kanji Dictionary by Mark Spahn & Wolfgang Hadamitzky ISBN 978 8048 3556 ISBN 978 8053 0984 1** Tuttle Compact Japanese Dictionary by Samuel E Martin & Fred Perry ISBN 978 8053 0890 * with audio CD/CD-Rom ** for sale in Japan only ... Riddle of the Man’y sh )12 raised the question of the relationship between the Japanese language and the language of a small race of people called the Lepcha at the foot of the Himalayas, the problems... following at the beginning of the book: The Japanese language is making great advances abroad, following the expansion of the nation Although this is the natural result of the advance of the Japanese. .. this book ? ?the nature of the Japanese language? ?? in the terms stated above, or, to use a more ambitious expression, ? ?the characteristics of the Japanese language. ” Evaluation of the language Various