Biodiesel science and technology from soil to oil

i Biodiesel science and technology ii Related titles: Bioalcohol production: biochemical conversion of lignocellulosic biomass (ISBN 978-1-84569-510-1) Bioethanol is one of the main biofuels used as a petroleum substitute in transportation Second generation bioalcohol production technology, based on highly efficient biochemical conversion, offers advantages over existing, energy-intensive bioethanol production processes This book covers the process engineering, technology, modelling and integration of the entire production chain, from feedstock pretreatment on to hydrolysis, fermentation, and purification Primarily reviewing bioethanol production, coverage extends to the production of longer-chain bioalcohols which will be elemental to the future of the industry Handbook of biofuels production: processes and technologies (ISBN 978-1-84569-679-5) This book provides a comprehensive and systematic reference on the range of biomass conversion processes and technology The initial section of the book covers the biofuels production chain and analysis of the environmental, social and economic issues surrounding biofuels production Sections then follow on the entire range of chemical, biochemical and thermochemical biofuels production routes, with chapters reviewing in detail the development of individual processes, from principles and feedstocks, to batch and continuous processes and technology, and also modelling and optimisation Handbook of waste management and co-product recovery in food processing, Volume (ISBN 978-1-84569-391-6) Food processors are under pressure, from both consumers and legislation, to reduce the amount of waste they produce and to consume water and energy more efficiently Handbook of waste management and co-product recovery in food processing provides essential information about the major issues and technologies involved in waste co-product valorisation, methods to reduce raw material waste and water and energy consumption, waste reduction in particular industry sectors and endwaste management Chapters in Volume focus on the transformation of food co-products using microorganisms and enzymes, advanced methods to optimise food manufacturing, such as closed-loop factories, non-food uses of food waste co-product and commercialisation issues Details of these and other Woodhead Publishing books can be obtained by:  visiting our web site at www.woodheadpublishing.com  contacting Customer Services (e-mail: sales@woodheadpublishing.com; fax: +44 (0) 1223 893694; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 891358 ext 130; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK) If you would like to receive information on forthcoming titles, please send your address details to: Francis Dodds (address, tel and fax as above; e-mail: francis dodds@woodheadpublishing.com) Please confirm which subject areas you are interested in iii Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy: Number Biodiesel science and technology From soil to oil Jan C J Bart, Natale Palmeri and Stefano Cavallaro CRC Press Boca Raton Boston New York Washington, DC Woodhead publishing limited Oxford    Cambridge    New Delhi iv Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK www.woodheadpublishing.com Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India www.woodheadpublishingindia.com Published in North America by CRC Press LLC, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA First published 2010, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC © 2010, Woodhead Publishing Limited The authors have asserted their moral rights This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials Neither the authors nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited for such copying Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Woodhead Publishing ISBN 978-1-84569-591-0 (book) Woodhead Publishing ISBN 978-1-84569-776-1 (e-book) CRC Press ISBN 978-1-4398-2730-7 CRC Press order number: N10147 The publishers’ policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp which is processed using acid-free and elemental chlorine-free practices Furthermore, the publishers ensure that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards Typeset by Replika Press Pvt Ltd, India Printed by TJ International Limited, Padstow, Cornwall, UK v Contents About the authors Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy Preface Biodiesel as a renewable energy source 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Introduction Energy policy Transformation of biomass Global biodiesel development Value chain of biodiesel Bibliography References 20 26 38 40 44 Development of non-food agricultural industries for biofuel applications 50 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Introduction Biofuels Biomass potentials and limitations Advanced agroenergy crops Bibliography References 50 51 52 56 59 60 Oleochemical sources: basic science, processing and applications of oils 62 Introduction Biochemistry of lipid metabolism Modification of vegetable oil quality Industrial use of vegetable oils Unusual fatty acids 62 64 76 80 85 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 xi xiii xv vi Contents 3.6 3.7 3.8 Oil processing techniques Bibliography References 90 100 103 Vegetable oil formulations for utilisation as biofuels 114 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Introduction Fuel properties of oils and fats Low-viscosity formulations Bibliography References 114 116 121 125 125 Feedstocks for biodiesel production 130 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 Introduction Global oilseed and oil production Resources for biodiesel production Main biodiesel crops Minor edible oil crops Fish oils Algae mass culture systems Oleaginous microorganisms Non-edible oilseeds Low-quality feedstocks Bibliography References 130 135 137 143 159 163 168 187 188 197 206 208 Emerging new energy crops for biodiesel production 226 6.1 6.2 6.3 Introduction Crop selection criteria for biodiesel application Structure and quality parameters for evaluating alternative feedstocks Agronomic potential of underexploited oil crops by region Bibliography References 226 227 231 244 273 274 Transesterification processes for biodiesel production from oils and fats 285 Introduction Process variables Transesterification kinetics In-situ transesterification Non-catalytic fatty acid alkyl ester production References 285 287 295 308 310 314 6.4 6.5 6.6 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Contents vii Biodiesel catalysis 322 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 Introduction Homogeneous alkaline catalysis in biodiesel synthesis Liquid-phase acid catalysis Heterogeneous catalysis in biodiesel synthesis Bibliography References 322 327 340 348 371 371 Processes for biodiesel production from unrefined oils and fats 386 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 Introduction Fatty acid esterification Transesterification of acidic feedstocks Jatrodiesel Algal biodiesel Vegetable oil soapstocks for biodiesel application Tall biodiesel Bibliography References 386 389 394 412 414 420 423 425 425 10 Biocatalytic production of biodiesel 434 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Introduction Enzymatic (trans)esterification Bioplastic-to-biodiesel Bibliography References 434 435 454 454 455 11 Industrial process technology for biodiesel production 462 11.1 11.2 11.3 Introduction Biodiesel plant design and engineering Selected proprietary transesterification processing technologies Selected biodiesel producers Biodiesel blending techniques Bibliography References 462 467 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 12 12.1 487 497 505 508 509 Analytical methods and standards for quality assurance in biodiesel production 514 Introduction 514 viii Contents 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 Quality control of biodiesel feedstocks Biodiesel standardisation Biodiesel quality management Biodiesel analytical methodology Bibliography References 515 516 526 540 562 563 13 Valorisation of the glycerol by-product from biodiesel production 571 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 Introduction Industrial glycerol production Glycerol purification Industrial uses and markets Innovative use of glycerol Renewable diesel synthesis without glycerol co-production Bibliography References 571 572 575 579 584 611 615 615 14 Sustainability and use of biodiesel 625 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 Introduction Energy balance Life cycle assessment of biodiesel Performance characteristics for biodiesel Biodiesel cost structure Biodiesel use and markets Bibliography References 625 627 630 637 658 677 701 703 15 Evolution of biodiesel and alternative diesel fuels 713 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 Introduction Second-generation biofuels Biodiesel: the next generations Hydroprocessing technology Perspectives of biomass-to-liquid fuels Renewable energy and biomass Bibliography References 713 719 724 742 756 772 775 776 16 Epilogue: outlook for biodiesel science and technology 783 16.1 16.2 Introduction State of the biodiesel industry 783 784 Contents 16.3 Challenges for the global biodiesel industry Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Index I Acronyms/abbreviations of techniques II (Bio)chemical nomenclature III Physical and mathematical symbols IV General abbreviations V Main websites ix 789 799 801 810 814 820 822 826 Index ASTM D 6751-08 (B100) 519 ff ASTM D 7467-08 (B6 to B20) 519 ff ASTM D 7501 523 EN 590 (European Automotive Diesel Standard) 526 EN 14214 (B100) 524 ff, 655 European biodiesel standards 517, 524 ff procedures 519 ff, 524 ff Transesterification 22, 285 ff Use 625 ff, 640, 677 ff Biofining™ technology 761 Biofuels 715 ff, 719 ff Biobutanol 15, 721, 724 Biodiesel 52, 773 Biodimethylether 52, 720 Bio-ETBE 52 Bioethanol 15, 26 ff, 35, 52, 169, 256, 290, 630, 677, 692, 695, 699, 716 ff, 722, 765 ff, 773 Biogas 52, 721, 773 Biohydrogen 52, 593, 596 ff, 714 Biomethanol 52, 587, 716, 720 Bio-MTBE 52 Directive (EU) First-generation 715 ff Furanics 720 Jet fuel 678 Next-generation 670, 719 ff, 722 Production 26 ff R&D 19 Sustainability 80, 636, 790 Targets Technologies 125 developments 125, 721 next-generation 722 BioLiq® 759, 765 ff Biomass 714 Cellulose 15, 21, 50, 721, 756 Conversion processes 21, 715 Lignocellulosics 51, 721, 724 Limitations 52 Potentials 52 Production 50 Resources 20 Biomass Action Plan (EU) 757 global 757, 772 USA 54, 758 Transformation 20 ff anaerobic digestion 21, 169, 718 enzymatic hydrolysis 718 fermentation 21, 169, 714 ff gasification 20, 169, 715, 721 pyrolysis 21, 169, 715, 721 thermolysis 21, 715 Use 50 Biomass-to-liquids (BTL) 21, 630, 721, 723, 748 ff, 756 ff, 760 ff Fuels 724, 756 ff Technologies 760 ff, 764 ff BioMethanol Chemie Nederland/BioMCN 575, 587 Biopolyester 454 Biocatalysis 454 Biorefinery 180, 718 ff Bioscopes 547 Biotech crops 57 Argentina 57 Brazil 57 Canada 57 India 57 P.R China 57 USA 57 Biotechnology 56 Bisphenol-A glycidyl ethers 607 ff Blackcurrant oil (R nigrum) 82 Enzymatic alcoholysis 441 Black liquor 267, 720 Transesterification 402 Blend ratio 28 Analytics 550, 554 Control 533 ff Blend sensors (on-vehicle) 539 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy 202 BP 19, 724, 747 ff, 759, 766 ff BQ-9000 fuel quality 530 Brassica 76, 80, 82, 143 ff Brazil 37, 204, 695 ff Biodiesel 37 feedstock potential 37, 204, 244 ff, 256 industry 695 ff plant size 464, 482, 696 producers 469, 505, 696 production cost 696 Bioethanol 27, 695 Biotech crops 57 Index Energy policy 16 H-BIO process technology 755 Petrobras 19, 264, 696, 755 Probiodiesel 16, 256, 695 Tallow diesel 204 Breakthrough biodiesel technologies 726 ff Amberlyst™ BD20 (Rohm & Haas) 732 ff ENSEL™ (NCL) 356, 728 Esterfip-H™ (IFP-Axens) 401, 495, 726, 729 ff Mcgyan 358, 402, 728 Nova Biosource Technologies 408, 410 RepCat (BDI) 401, 731 ff Yellowdiesel 469, 579 Breeding technologies 56 British Sugar 724 Brown grease 199, 266 Biodiesel 203, 463 Transesterification 410 Buffalo gourd (C foetidissima) 259 Butafuel™ 609 Butter 62, 202 Calculated cetane index (CCI) 521 Calendula 78 Camelina (C sativa) 190, 244, 265, 270, 792 Biodiesel 265 Oil 117 alcoholysis 445, 452 Canada 266, 463, 693 Biodiesel industry 31, 693 ff Biotech crops 57 BIOX Corp 493 British Columbia 265, 694 biodiesel feasibility study 466 community-scale biodiesel 465 Canola 146, 266, 693 Nova Scotia 167 Potential energy crops 266 ff Candida antarctica 436, 438, 448 Candida rugosa 439 Canola 37, 144 ff, 266 Biodiesel 463, 691, 693 Carbonates 336 Cardoon (C cardunculus) 189, 267, 272, 291, 792 In-situ transesterification 309 827 Cargill 38, 575, 593, 607 CaroDiesel 251 Castor beans (R communis) 54, 190 Oil 82, 84, 87, 115, 246, 269 biodiesel 256 transesterification 445 Catalysts 293, 322 ff, 386 ff, 434 ff Metal alkoxides 293, 296, 327, 333 ff Metal hydroxides 293, 296, 327, 332 ff Certification 18, 156, 250, 636 Cetane number (CN) 231, 234 ff, 520, 525, 532, 639 Analytics 551 Ignition Quality Tester™ 235 Chain length 242 Chemical nomenclature 801 ff Chevron 19, 55, 419, 768 Chinese tallow tree (T sebifera) 255 Chirazyme 451 Chokecherry (P virginiana) 267 Choren/Shell technology 762, 764 ff Chromatography 540 ff GC 543 ff HPLC 547 ff IC 549, 560 ff SEC 549 SFC 549 TLC 540 Chromobacterium viscosum 441 Climate change Cloud point (CP) 243, 520, 532, 642 Coal-to-liquid (CTL) technologies 699, 762, 767 Coconut (C nucifera) 158, 265 Oil 115, 386 biodiesel 38, 630, 632 ff Cod liver oil 166, 739 Ethanolysis 451 CO2 cycles CO2 emissions 7, 15, 252, 632, 652 Coffee grounds 163 Cold-climate biodiesel 648 Cold-filter plugging point (CFPP) 243, 642 Cold-flow improvers (CFIs) 642, 645 ff Cold-flow properties 243, 644 ff Cold-soak filtration test (CSFT) 522 ff Cold-temperature performances 641 ff Handling 641 Operability 641 ff 828 Index Colombia 257 Palm biodiesel 257, 699 Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) 9, 54 Community-scale biodiesel 117 ff, 465, 482, 485, 497 ff, 679, 695 ConocoPhillips 19, 500, 747 ff, 759 ff, 768 Contaminants 98 Analytics 559 ff Antioxidants 98, 388 Catalyst residues 472 FFA 388 Glycerides 483, 522, 525 Glycerol 472, 522, 525 Metal salts 98, 238, 241, 522, 525, 560 Methanol 472, 525 Particulates 98, 388 Phosphorus 98, 388, 525, 560 Residual alcohol 472 Soaps 472, 522 ff, 559 Sterols 522 Steryl glycosides (SGs) 522 ff Sulphur 525, 560 Water 98, 388, 525 Continuous deglycerolisation (CD) 490 ff Continuous stirred-tank reactor (CSTR) 473, 483 Continuous Trans-Esterification Reactor (CTER) 484 Controlled cavitation 469 Coriander (C sativum) 270 Corn 55, 244 Oil 82, 160 Corn-to-ethanol 35, 54, 692 Cornus wilsoniana 254 Corrosion 334, 347, 364, 473, 640 ff Cosmetics oils 82 Co-solvent blending 124 Cottonseed (G herbaceum) oil 82, 95, 160, 386 Transesterification 411 C protothecoides 184 Transesterification 416 Crambe (C abyssinica) 78, 145, 189, 263, 792 Oil 82, 445, 452 alcoholysis 445, 452 Crop selection criteria 227 Agronomic characteristics 229 Chemical composition data 227 DOE criteria 227, 265 Croton (C tiglium) 192 Crude oil pricing 29 Crude palm oil 100, 155, 664 Fuel use 122 Crude vegetable oils 386 Contaminants 98 Costs 141, 253, 310, 411, 474, 658 ff Deacidification 100 Refining 98 Transesterification 395, 398 Cryptococcus curvatus 444 Crystallisation fractionation 645, 648 Cuphea 78 ff, 82, 86, 124, 267, 269 ff, 792 Davy Process Technology 592 DDG corn oil 161 Transesterification 410 Deacidification 100, 155, 326, 388 Deforestation 156, 633, 697, 701, 717, 791 Degumming 100, 388 Degussa 303, 334, 573, 589 ff Density 525, 561, 638 Dewaxing 100 Diacylglycerols 72, 286, 291, 327, 483, 614 Diesel 114 Cars 30 Energy content 236 Engines 114, 120 ff Fuel processing 23, 30, 757 blending 23, 505 ff cracking 23 gasification 23 hydrotreating 23, 26, 742 ff microemulsification 23, 124 ozonation 23, 26, 614, 647 pyrolysis 23 transesterification 23, 285 ff, 322 ff Standard (EN 590) 526 Diesel Rudolf 114 Diester® 680 Diester Industrie 38, 498, 659, 730 Diglycerides 72, 286, 291, 327, 483, 614 Distillers dried grains 161 Distribution chain 537 Quality control 537 ff Dow Chemical Co 363, 368, 575, 593, 607, 766 Index Drying oils 82, 156 DuPont 19, 58, 334, 589, 593, 724, 767 Dynamic turbulence 303 ff, 476 ShockWave Power™ reactor 303, 470, 725 STT technology 304, 470, 725 Ecobalance, See life cycle assessment Ecofining™ hydroprocessing 747, 753 ff Green Diesel 753 ff Edible nuts 262 Edible oils 143 ff, 159 ff Cluster analysis 227 Global production 50 Market segments 50 Energy ff, 772 ff Balance 627 ff coconut biodiesel 630 rape biodiesel 627 soy biodiesel 627 Consumption Crops 51 Europe 54 Independence and Security Act (USA) 14, 36 Needs 53 Policy 3, 12 Act (EPAct, USA) 13 ff, 22, 688, 693 Asia 16 Brazil 17 EU 17 P.R China 16 USA 17 Security 53, 784 Sources Tax Directive (EU) Engine performance 120 Eni 753 ff, 759 ENSEL™ process 356, 604, 613, 728 Enzymes 435 Denaturation 436 ff Organic solvent tolerance 439 Specificity 438 Transesterification 434 ff characteristics 435 solvent-free 442 Epicerol™ process 605 ff Epichlorohydrin 605 ff 829 Eruca (E sativa) 271 Escherichia coli 454, 610, 740 Esterfip-H™ 495, 501, 579, 729 ff Esterfip technology 354, 495 ff, 501 Esterification 285, 389 ff, 665 Acid-catalysed 390, 478 Biocatalysts 443 Free fatty acids 389, 442 Liquid acid catalysts 390 Reaction medium 440 Solid-acid catalysts 364, 390 ff Amberlyst™ BD20 364, 391 heteropolyacids 393 ion-exchange resins 391 mesoporous materials 392 mixed-metal oxides 393 superacids 392 ff zeolites 392 Water effect 396, 410 Ester value (EV) 242 Ethanolysis 256, 289, 408, 411, 484 Lipase-catalysed 450, 451 Ethylene glycol 590 Euphorbia 78, 88, 267, 270 Europe (EU) 17 Biodiesel 27 demonstration plants 498 ff investment costs 659 nameplate capacity 678 ff, 682 producers 483, 502 ff, 678, 680 ff production 32, 676 Energy policy 17 Oil crop production 135 ff Rape biodiesel 30 ff, 484, 495, 680 European Biodiesel Board (EBB) 11, 32, 680, 682, 687 Extraction 91 ff, 170, 184 Reactive 310 ExxonMobil 19, 532, 759 ff, 768 Fallow croplands 54 ff, 155, 633 FAME, See Biodiesel Fats 62, 198, 200 ff Market segments 51 Transesterification 476 Fat-to-biodiesel 386 Fat-to-liquids 761 Fatty acids 63 Biosynthesis 65 ff 830 Index Nomenclature 63, 73 Fatty acid salts 339, 401, 495, 731 ff Feedstock 130 ff Analytics 515 Composition 131 ff product yield 295 Control 466 Cost 253, 310, 474, 658 ff Impurities 293, 388 Normalisation 738 Quality 322 control 515, 533 ff Selection 386, 462, 467 Fermentation 740 Fertiliser program 264 Fertilisers 177 Field pennycress (T arvense) 266 Finland 682, 752, 765 Fischer Tropsch 596, 725 ff, 748 Diesels 726 FT-BTL 728, 769 FT-GTL 759 Synthesis 596, 758 Fish oil 62, 82, 163 ff Biodiesel 167 Fatty acid profile 164, 166 Transesterification 410 Fish wastes 167, 739 Flash point 561 Setaflash 562 Flax(seed) (L usitatissimum) 93, 97, 156 Flexible-fueled vehicles 27 Food security 53 Food vs fuel debate 636, 786, 798 Fossil fuels 3, 699, 714, 758 ff, 767 Consumption Production Fractionation 154, 648 France 172, 685 Biodiesel industry 30 ff, 463, 498, 678, 682 Institut Franỗais du Petrole (IFP) 19, 354, 401, 495 ff, 501, 603, 613, 726, 729 ff, 759 Free fatty acids (FFAs) 155 Contents 386 Lipase-catalysed esterification 442 Pre-processor 396 Fuel economy 641, 653 Fungi 187 Furanics 720 Gas-to-liquid (GTL) technologies 758 ff, 762, 768 Genetic engineering 56, 78 Technology goals 59 Germany 678, 681 ff, 764 ff Biodiesel production 30 ff, 33, 681 ff CD Connemann 38, 490 ff, 500, 678 Potential energy crops 267 Taxation 32, 681 Glyceric acid 586 Glycerine-to-methanol (GtM) 587 ff Glycerol (glycerine) 571 ff, 797 Acetalisation/ketalisation 604 biofuels 604 Analysis (bound, free, total) 543 ff, 553 Animal feed 584 Biodiesel by-product 575 Carbonate 607 Carboxylation 607 Chemistry 576 Chlorination 605 ff epichlorohydrin 605 ff Content 543 ff, 553 Dehydration 593 ff acrolein 593 ff 3-hydroxypropionaldehyde 593 polyglycerols 594 Etherification 602, 613 glycerol polyethers 604 glycerol tert-butyl ethers (GTBEs) 602 polyglycerols 605 solketal tert-butyl ether (STBE) 602 Fermentation 574, 584, 607 biobutanol 609 bioethanol 609 propanediols 610 Fuel additives 586, 602 ff Glut 574, 611 ff, 745 Grades 575 high-purity 410 kosher 577 Heat source 580 Hydrogenolysis 587 ff ethylene glycol 587 methanol 587 Index 1,3-propanediol 587 ff propanol 588 ff propylene glycol 587 ff, 591 Industrial use 579 ff Innovative use 584 ff Oligo/polymerisation 605 polyglycerol esters (PGEs) 605 Production 574 Product value 571, 582 ff Purification 575 ff Ambersep ™BD50 process 579 Pyrolysis/gasification 594 ff aqueous-phase carbohydrate reforming 597 ff liquid alkanes 596 Refinement 472 Selective oxidation 586 Synthesis routes 572 (Trans)esterification 600 ff (poly)glycerol esters 600 Valorisation 571 ff Glycidol 607 GM crops 57, 80 Europe 58 USA 59 Green chemistry 795 Green Diesel 746 Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions 7, 59, 631 ff, 635, 651, 720, 722, 747, 791 Groundnut, See Peanut H-BIO process technology 755 Heating oil (biodiesel as) 641, 678 Hempseed (C sativa) 83, 254, 267 Henkel 337, 406, 409, 488 ff Heterogeneous acid catalysis 364 ff Cation-exchange resins 368 Heteropolyacids 369 Mesoporous silica 367 Montmorillonite 368 Nafion 367 ff Pillared clays 369 Superacids 370 Transesterification 364 ff Zeolites 369 Heterogeneous base catalysis 311, 348 ff, 356 ff Anionic-exchange resins 363 831 Carbonates 360 Hydrotalcites 359 Hydroxides 358 Mesoporous catalysts 362 Oxides 358 ff Transesterification 348 ff, 356 ff Zeolites 360 ff Homogeneous acid catalysis 300, 325 ff, 340 Brønsted acids 341 Esterification 346 Organosulphonic acids 341 Reactions conditions 342 ff Transesterification 339, 344 effect of water 346 Homogeneous base catalysis 323, 327 ff, 338, 474 ff Alkali hydroxides 327, 332 ff Alkaline carbonates 336 Alkoxides 327, 333 ff Alkylguanidines 327 Reactions conditions 330 ff, 336 Transesterification 323, 327 ff, 338 Humicola lanuginosa 444 Huntsman Corp 593, 607 Hybrid diesel fuels 123 ff Hydrodiesel 614, 726, 743 ff Hydrogen economy Hydrolysis-(trans)esterification 308, 313 Hydroprocessing technology 742 ff, 747 Ecofining™ 747, 753 ff H-BIO 748, 755 Hydrodiesel 743 ff Hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) 743 ff, 789 NExBTL 747 ff Hydrotalcites 359 Hydroxyl value (HV) 242 IATA 678 Iberian dragonhead (L iberica) 156 Ignition quality 243 Ignition Quality Tester (IQT™) 235, 521 Immobilised biocatalysts 446 ff Esterification 446 Transesterification 448 Immobilised lipases 446 ff Biocatalysis 446 ff 832 Index Lipozyme 442 Novozym 442 T lanuginosa 442 India 245 ff Agricultural policy 56 Biodiesel industry 700 Biotech crops 57 Energy policy 16, 700 Potential energy crops 159, 245 ff Vegetable oils 191, 226, 665 Indonesia 251, 700 Biodiesel industry 700 ff Energy policy 16 Palm oil 250 Industrial crops 130 ff, 226 ff Utilisation 53 Institut Franỗais du Petrole (IFP) 19, 354, 603, 613, 726, 729 ff, 759 Esterfip 495 Esterfip-H™ 401, 495, 501, 579, 729 ff Heterogeneous catalysts 354, 401, 726 Interesterification 286, 442, 581, 612 Intersolubility 298 Iodine value (IV) 232 ff, 525 Ion-exchange resins 363, 368 IR biodiesel analysers 536 ff Isis (Brassica spp.) 268 Italy 270 ff Biodiesel industry 30 ff, 678 Potential energy crops 270 ff Japan 251 Biocatalysis 435 Energy policy 16 Waste vegetable oils 138, 199, 482 Jatropha curcas 117, 192 ff, 246, 254, 411 Biodiesel 412 ff, 655, 700 standards 517 Blends 122 Energy crop 193, 724 Energy system 118 Enzymatic transesterification 441 Multipurpose use 193 Oil extraction 97 Plantation projects 195, 257, 263, 265, 413, 700 Transesterification 331 Jatropha-palm biodiesel blend 645, 655 Jet fuel 419, 678, 755, 761 Jojoba (S chinensis) 84, 97 Karanja (Pongamia pinnata) 192, 226, 246, 305 Oil 117, 411 Karl Fischer 522 Kenaf (H cannabinus) 247 Kinetics 295 Acid-catalysed 296, 339 Base-catalysed 296, 337 Intersolubility 298 Process intensification 299 ff Krill oil 84 Kukui nut (A moluccana) 82, 265 Kyoto Protocol 7, 653 Land use 633 Lard 62, 64, 198, 202 Transesterification 402 Latin America 255 ff Drivers for biodiesel 262 Potential energy crops 255 ff Legislation, biodiesel related ff Lesquerella 76, 78, 87, 267, 269, 791 Life cycle assessment (LCA) 630 ff Land use 631 Palm biodiesel 633 Rape biodiesel 632 Rendered fats 657 Soy biodiesel 699 Limnanthes, See Meadowfoam Linola 156 Linolenic acid 71, 74, 152, 156, 243 Methyl ester 243 analytics 525, 545 Linseed (L usitatissimum) 156 Oil 82 ff, 644 Lipases 435 ff Catalysis 435 ff esterification of free fatty acids 435 ff transesterification of triglycerides 435 ff Inactivation 437 Inhibition 437 Specificity 443 Lipid biosynthesis 64 ff Environmental factors 74 Lipid metabolism 64 ff Index Lipozyme 442, 448, 450 Low-cost feedstocks 197 ff Rendered oils and fats 198 Used cooking oils 198 US production 204 Low-viscosity formulations 121 ff Blending 121 Derivatisation 121 Dilution 121 Microemulsification 121 Pyrolysis/gasification 121 Lubricity 22, 640, 677, 693 Lupin (L mutablis) 83, 271 Macroalgae 185 ff Mahua (Madhuca indica) 192, 226, 246, 411 Transesterification 411 Malaysia 38, 700 ff Biodiesel industry 31, 38, 250, 700 ff Energy policy 16 MPOB (PORIM) 122, 408 Palm oil 250 Petronas 19 Market acceptance 514, 518, 657, 677 ff, 688, 796 ff Fuel quality 514 Mathematical symbols 810 ff “McDiesel” 465 Mcgyan biodiesel process 358, 402 ff, 423, 671, 728 Meadowfoam (Limnanthes spp.) 79, 267 Oil 239 Meal (cake) 92, 95, 151, 164, 665 Metal alkoxides 293, 296, 327, 333 ff, 389 Methanol 288, 291 ff Content 525, 561 Poisoning 436 Supercritical 305, 307, 311 ff Synthesis 587 Tolerance 438 Methanolysis 288 Effect of methanol content 437 Supercritical 305, 311 ff Methyl acetate 440, 611 ff Microalgae 168 ff Classes 169 Growth 175 heterotrophic 175 833 mixotrophic 175 photosynthetic 175 Oil 170, 174, 182 biocatalytic transesterification 445 biodiesel 171, 414 ff content 172 fatty acid profile 172 Technology 174 ff fermentation 175, 184 open ponds 175 ff photobioreactors 175, 177 ff raceways 175 ff Microbial oils 187 Microdiesel 740 ff Microemulsions 23, 124 Microorganisms 187 Microwave Accelerated Reaction System (MARS) 469 Microwave-enhanced reactions 300 ff Milkweed (A syriaca) 266 Miscibility 122, 327 M miehei 446 Monoglycerides 286, 291, 327, 333, 483, 600, 614 Monsanto 58 Moringa (M oleifera) 162, 246, 792 Multi-feedstock 468, 482, 486, 663, 666, 690 ff, 732 Technology (MFT) 388, 495, 732 Mustard 145 ff, 244, 263, 792 Myco-diesel 725 Nahor (Mesua ferrea) 247 Oil 117 Nameplate capacity 465, 500, 678, 680, 682, 688 National Biodiesel Board (NBB, USA) 14, 519, 530, 626 National Chemical Laboratory (NCL, India) 356, 613, 726, 728 ENSEL™ 356, 604, 613, 726, 728 Natural gas Near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy Applications 79 biodiesel 552 ff Technology 533 Neem (Azadirachta indica) 192, 226, 247, 411 Neste Oil 19, 614, 649, 687, 701, 747 ff 834 Index Netherlands 3, 15, 272, 752 Biodiesel industry 31, 682, 687 NExBTL Renewable Synthetic Diesel 649, 651, 687, 701, 746, 748 ff Nitrogen oxides emissions 76, 233, 236, 635, 651, 653, 655, 658 Nomenclature 801 ff Non-edible oils 143, 188 ff Non-ester renewable diesel (NERD) 725 Non-food crops 52 Industrial use 54 North America 33 ff, 688 ff Potential energy crops 264 Norway 3, 167, 682, 765 Nova Biosource Technologies 408, 410, 691 Novasep 578 Oehlmühle Leer Connemann 38, 490 ff, 500, 678 OEM warranties 518, 524, 657, 796 ff Oilcrops 130 ff, 226 ff Agronomic potential 244 Emerging 268 Production 135 Europe 135 globally 136 Productivities 230 Oil palm 153, 263 Global fruit production 56 Oil processing techniques 90 ff Bleaching 100 Dehulling 91 Deodorisation 100 Enzymatic hydrolysis 91 Extraction 91, 310 Mechanical pressing 93, 170 Mixed mechanical/solvent extraction 96 Novel extraction techniques 97 ff Rendering 90 Solvent extraction 94, 170 Sterilisation (‘cooking’) 91 Supercritical fluid extraction 97, 170 Oilseeds 130 ff Fatty acid variants 148 ff Oleic acid 69 Olein 122, 154 Oleochemical sources 62 Olive (O europaea) oil 65, 79, 82, 93, 159, 644 Alcoholysis 335 Lipase-catalysed methanolysis 445 Oscillatory flow reactor (OFR) 484 Overcapacity 676, 679, 693 Oxidation stability 237 ff Classification 239 Index (OSI) 238 ff, 558 Storage stability 238 Testing 555 ff PDSC 556 peroxide value 557 PetroOXY test 556 photochemiluminescence 238 Rancimat™ test 238, 556 Yellowness index (YI) 238, 557 Thermal stability 238 Unsaturated fatty acids 239 Ozonation 23, 26, 614, 647 Palatase 20000L 450 Palm fruit 65, 94 In-situ transesterification 309 Palm kernel 93, 95, 153 Palm oil 79, 82, 122, 153 ff Biodiesel 38, 155, 250, 636, 655, 664 Colombia 257 Indonesia 250, 700 Malaysia 38, 156, 700 Ethyl esters 155 Fractionation 154 RSPO 156, 250 Palm olein 122, 154 Pangasius (P hypophtalmus) oil 167 Paris Exposition 114, 158 Particulate emissions 651 ff Peanut (A hypogaea) 158, 257, 263, 692 Oil 97, 114, 257 Pecan oil (C illoensis) 70 ff, 97, 259 Penicillium camembertii 442 Perilla 83 Permaflo biodiesel 648 Peroxide value (PV) 557 Petrobras 19, 264, 696, 747 ff, 755 Petrodiesel fuel 22 Petronas 19, 408 Philippines 38 Coconut biodiesel 251, 630, 637 Index Energy policy 16 Photobioreactors 177 ff Photochemiluminescence 238 Physical symbols 810 ff Physic nut, See Jatropha curcas Pilinut (C ovatum) 247 Pioneer 58 Pistachio (P chinensis) 254 Plants 130 ff, 226 ff Biology 76 fatty acid synthesis 65 ff Biotechnology 173 GM techniques 56, 78, 148 ff mutation breeding 77, 148 ff plant breeding 56, 77, 148 ff Economic value 50 Metabolism 64 ff Water supply 790 Plug-flow reactor (PFR) 332, 483 ff Polyglycerol esters 605 Polyunsaturates (PUFAs) 62, 70, 165, 231, 239, 244, 525, 643 ff Analytics 547 Poppyseed (P somniferum) 163 Potassium hydroxide 293, 296, 327, 332, 334 ff, 338 Pour point (PP) 637, 642 P.R China 115, 191, 252 ff Algae 419 Biodiesel 31 cost 253 forests 254 industry 252, 699 ff Biotech crops 57 Energy policy 16, 699 Glycerol 574 Oilseed imports 663 Potential energy crops 84, 252 ff Pre-esterification 326, 346, 405, 409 Acid-catalysed 476, 478 Pre-treatment 197, 203, 388, 405, 665, 765, 766 Glycerolysis 408 Prions 202 Probiodiesel 16, 256, 695 Process Control (PC) 532 ff, 535 at-, in-, on-line 533 test kits 533, 538 835 Intensification 299 ff co-solvents 305 dynamic turbulence 303 ff microwave enhancement 300 ff sub/supercritical reaction media 306 ff ultrasonics 302 ff Technology 462 ff Product Quality (PQ) 530 ff control 535 ff Yield 294 feedstock composition 295 1,2-Propanediol 589, 610 1,3-Propanediol 589, 610 Propylene glycol 589 ff Prototec 486 Pseudomonas cepacia 438 ff, 442, 449 Pseudomonas fluorescens 439, 442, 448 Pumpkin seed (C maxima) 163 Oil 252 Purification technology 471 ff Amberlite™ BD10 Dry™ 472 Dry wash 472 Glycerol refinement 472 Magnesol® D-Sol 472 Pyrolysis 23 ff Oil 121, 718 Quality Assurance (QA) 468, 514 ff Control (QC) 514 ff Indexes 231 anisidine value 231 free fatty acid content 231 peroxide value (PV) 231 phosphorus content 231 Management (QM) 526 AGQM (Germany) 528 BQ - 9000 (USA) 530 ExxonMobil 532 REG® (USA) 532 Surveys 528 ff AGQM 528 NREL 528 ff UFOP 528 WHOI 529 Rancidity 91 836 Index Rapeseed (Brassica spp.) 144 ff, 664 Biodiesel (RME) 30 ff, 288, 313, 484, 644, 655 aging 557 life cycle assessment 632 storage stability 650 Processing 150 Reactant purity 293 Free fatty acids 293 Phosphorus content 293 Unsaponifiables 293 Water 293 Reactive distillation 371, 410, 469 Recycled oils 37, 197 Biodiesel 251, 449, 657 REG® specification 532 Regulatory agencies 539 Rendering 167 Oils/fats 198, 692 Renewable energy ff, 20, 772 Renewable Energy Act (Germany) 12 Renewable Energy Directive (EU) 11 Renewable Fuels Standard (USA) 13, 692, 758 Renewable Transport Fuels Obligation (UK) 11, 684, 769 RepCat technology 401, 495, 731 ff Rice bran oil 82, 95, 97, 160, 401 In-situ transesterification 309 Methanolysis 341, 401 R miehei 442, 446 Rohm & Haas Co 363 ff, 368, 388, 391, 472, 578, 726, 732, 734 R oryzae 438, 440 Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) 156, 250, 752 Royal Dutch Shell 19, 21, 420, 498, 573, 589 ff, 759, 762, 764, 766, 768 R rhizopodiformis 443 Alcoholysis 443 Rubber seed (H brasiliensis) oil 189 Rudolf Diesel 114 Sacha inchi (P volubilis L.) 262 Safflower (C tinctorius) oil 82, 119, 157 Transesterification 448 Sal (Shorea robusta) 192, 226, 246 Salicornia (S brachiata) 247 Alcoholysis 450 Salmon (S salar) oil 166 ff, 739 Saponification number (SN) 231, 233 Sasol 759 ff Scotland 204, 685 Argent Energy 204, 498 ff Biodiesel producers 204, 498 ff Rape biodiesel 627 ff Seashore mallow (K virginica) 266, 692 Selective hydrogenation 736 ff Fish waste oils 739 Highly unsaturated feedstock 736 Tall oil 739 Sesame (S indicum) oil 82, 162 Set-aside regulations 54 ShockWave Power™ reactor (SPR) 303, 469, 725 Simarouba (S glauca) 246 Simultaneous esterification/ transesterification 399 ff, 478 Commercial technologies 400, 410 Critical fluid medium 399 Heterogeneous acid catalysis 399 Homogeneous acid catalysis 399, 478 Singapore 172 ff, 614 Canola biodiesel 251 Energy policy 16 Renewable diesel industry 701, 752 NExBTL diesel 251, 701, 752 Single-cell oils 187, 444 Slurry catalyst 729 Soapstock 97, 205 Biodiesel 666 Lipase-catalysed esterification 452 Transesterification 345, 398, 402, 409, 420 ff Sodium hydroxide 293, 296, 327, 332 ff, 338 Soladiesel 419, 497 Solin 156 Solvay 575, 605 ff Solvent-assisted methanolysis 305 ff Solvent properties (of biodiesel) 640 South-East Asia 250 ff Biodiesel industry 505, 700 ff Deforestation 156, 701 Exports 687 Potential energy crops 250 ff RSPO 156, 250 Southern Europe 267 Index Potential energy crops 267 Soybean (G max) 54, 57, 95, 97, 151 ff, 664, 697 Acid oil 423 Food use vs fuel use 636 In-situ transesterification 309 Transesterification 337 World production 55 Soy biodiesel (SEE, SME) 33 ff, 37, 54 ff, 256, 297, 644, 655, 664 Spain 682 Biodiesel industry 685 ff Spectroscopy 549 ff Mid-IR 550 ff NIRS 552 ff NMR 555 Raman 555 UV-VIS 544 Splash-and-dash 15, 687 Standards 517, 560 Statoil 167, 759 ff Stearin 154 Steryl glycosides (SGs) 522 ff, 657 Storage stability 238 ff, 649 Additivation 241 Straight vegetable oils 114, 124 Structure indexes 231 ff Cetane number (CN) 231, 234 ff, 520, 525, 532, 551, 639 Hydroxyl value (HV) 231 Iodine value (IV) 231 ff, 525 Oil stability index (OSI) 231, 238 ff, 558 Saponification number (SN) 231, 233 STT (Spinning tube-in-tube) technology 304, 469, 725 Sub/supercritical reaction media 305 ff Enzyme catalysed reactions 441 Supercritical carboxylate esters 308 Supercritical methanolysis 305 ff, 312 Subsidies/tax exemptions 14, 29, 32, 36 Sulphuric acid 300, 341 SunDiesel 764 Sunflower (H annuus) 76, 96, 122, 150, 310, 664 Biodiesel 150 In situ transesterification 309 Transesterification 335 Super-biodiesel 251 837 SuperCetane 743 Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) 97 Supermethanol 572, 588 Sustainability 80, 625 ff, 790 Sustainable agriculture 59, 156, 636, 701, 786 Sustainable biodiesel 498 Sustainable Biodiesel Alliance 80, 626 Symbols 810 ff Syntroleum 759 ff Sweden 3, 27, 682, 764 ff Switchgrass 724 TAG, See Triacylglycerol Tall oil 198, 205, 267, 306, 423, 743 Biodiesel 423 ff, 665 Selective hydrogenation 739, 743 Transesterification 402, 423 Tallow 62, 198, 201 ff, 204, 387, 787 Biodiesel (TME) 498, 500, 643 Quality parameters 516 Transesterification 405, 410, 476, 498, 500 Tax incentives 14, 29, 32, 36, 204, 681, 697 ff, 701 TBK biodiesel 581, 611 Tea seed (C sinensis) oil 163 Technology providers 467, 487 ff, 659 Testing laboratories 539 Test kits 533, 538 Thermal stability 238 Tigernut (C esculentus) 159, 255, 263 Oil 117, 159 Total 19, 498, 720 Toxicity 635, 639, 641 Traceability 636 Transesterification 22, 285 ff, 322 ff Acid-catalysed 325 ff, 340 ff, 364 ff, 394 ff Acidic feedstocks 394 ff High-FFA oils, etc 306, 336, 345, 389, 396, 473, 731 ff multi-stage catalytic processes 403 ff simultaneous esterification/ transesterification 399 ff, 732 Alcohol/oil molar ratio 291 ff, 331 Base-catalysed 323, 327 ff, 356 ff, 395, 474 ff 838 Index Biocatalytic (enzyme catalysed) 435 ff, 443 Catalysts 293, 322 ff, 386 ff, 434 ff Co-solvent effect 305 Critical fluid medium 399 ff Dynamic turbulence 303 ff Heterogeneous catalysis 301, 348 ff, 446 ff Homogeneous catalysis 300, 327 ff In-situ 308 ff Kinetics 295 ff, 337 variables 295 Low-FFA oils 323, 389 Mechanism 327, 330, 341 Metal-based catalysis 338, 352 ff dual-metal catalysts 356 organometallics 353 ff transition metal compounds 354 ff Microwave-enhanced 300 ff, 470 Monophasic 292, 298, 305, 400 Multistage catalytic processes 403 ff Non-catalytic 310 supercritical methanol 311 ff Pre-treatment 388, 395 Process technology 452, 462 ff, 465 ff, 468 BDI 400, 420, 493, 495, 498 ff, 731 BIOX Corp 493 CD Connemann 38, 490 ff, 500 Desmet Ballestra 495, 504, 659 Henkel 337, 406, 409, 488 ff IFP - Axens 354, 495 ff, 501, 726, 729 ff Lion Corp 488 Lurgi 493 ff Nova Biosource Technologies 408, 410 Pacific Biodiesel 497 Process variables 287, 331 alcohol/oil molar ratio 291 ff, 331 catalyst (concentration) 292, 332, 336 mixing 294, 332 nature of alcohol 288 ff nature of glyceride 287 pressure 331 product yield 294 ff reactant purity 293 reaction temperature 287, 331 reaction time 331 Reaction media 440 supercritical methanolysis 311 ff Solid-acid catalysis 364 ff cation-exchange resins 368 heteropolyacids 369 mesoporous silicas 367 montmorillonite 368 Nafion 368 pillared clays 369 reaction conditions 365 superacids 370 zeolites 369 Solid-base catalysis 311, 348 ff, 356 ff anionic exchange resins 363 carbonates 336, 360 hydrotalcites 359 hydroxides 358 mesoporous catalysts 362 ff oxides 358 ff reaction conditions 350 zeolites 360 ff Solvent effect 441 Ultrasonication 302 ff, 310, 477 Water effect 441 Trap grease 199 Transesterification 398, 410 Tree-borne oils 245 Transesterification 411 Triacetylglycerol 440 Triacylglycerol 286 Biosynthesis 70 ff Tricaprin 79, 85, 124, 788 Tricaproin 79, 85, 124, 788 Tricaprylin 79, 85, 124, 788 Triglycerides 64, 286 Analysis 515 ff Classification 85 Hydrolysis 312 Hydrolysis-(trans)esterification 313 Transesterification 22, 285 ff, 322 ff, 386 ff, 434 ff Trimethylolpropane triesters 446 Tung (Aleurites spp.) oil 82, 84, 115, 241, 245 Tyson 747 ff, 761 UFOP (Union for Promotion of Oil and Protein Plants) 528, 684 Index UK 33 Biodiesel industry 682 ff Davy Process Technology 592 Potential energy crops 267 Renewable Fuels Agency 18 Ultrasonication 302 ff, 310, 477, 481 Undi (C inophyllum) 247 Unrefined oils 98 ff, 386 ff Biodiesel 386 ff Unusual fatty acids 85 Biosynthesis 70, 72 Halogenated 87 Oxygenated 87 Unsaturated 87 UOP LLC 747, 753 ff, 767 USA 33, 264 ff, 688 ff Alaska 167 Arizona 179 Biodiesel 31, 33 ff, 36 feedstocks 33 ff, 203, 692 investment costs 659 markets 688 ff nameplate capacity 37, 465 plants 36, 464, 678, 688 ff plant size 464, 468, 497, 688 Bioethanol 26, 692 Biomass 54 Biotech crops 57 Colorado 523 Energy and Tax Extenders Act 688 Energy policy 17 Exports 15, 36, 677, 687, 785 Hawaii 172, 265 Idaho 119 Iowa 689 Minnesota 11, 146, 522 ff, 530, 657, 690 Montana 265 North Dakota 146, 691 Nova Biosource 408, 410, 691 Oregon 673 Pacific Biodiesel 497 Rohm & Haas Co 363 ff, 368, 388, 391, 472, 578, 732, 734 Selection criteria 265 South Carolina 765 Soy biodiesel 33 ff, 37, 55, 151 ff, 644, 655, 690 Splash-and-dash 15, 687 839 Tax incentives 14 ff, 29, 36, 204, 688 Texas 463, 689 UOP LLC 753 ff, 767 Virent Energy Systems, Inc 593, 596 ff, 599 Waste cooking oil 37, 690 Used cooking oil 198, 336, 387, 665 Biodiesel 200, 498, 643, 657 exhaust emissions 651 Transesterification 336, 476, 488, 497 ff Vegetable oil/diesel blends 122 Vegetable oils 62 ff, 114 ff, 130 ff, 226 ff Aroma 74 Biofuel technology 125 Biosynthesis 65 ff Catalytic cracking 23 Classification 83 Comparison to mineral oils 52, 119 Cost 141, 253, 310, 474, 658 ff Deacidification 100, 155, 388 Engine performance 120 Fatty acid profiles 131 ff Fuel properties 116 Global trade 136 Homogeneous-catalysed transesterification 293, 327 ff, 340 ff, 578 Hydrogen facilities 747 Hydrotreated (HVO) 742 ff, 789 Industrial use 80 Microemulsions 23, 124 Oil content 92, 515 OSI values 238 Ozonation 23, 26, 614, 647 Processing 90 Producers 142 Production 135 Pyrolysis 23 ff Quality parameters 515 Resources 135 ff Selection criteria 130, 265 Viscosity 23 Verenium Corp 766 Vernonia (V galamensis) 78, 80, 88, 263, 267 Vietnam 167 Virent Energy Systems, Inc 593, 596 ff, 599 840 Index Virtual acres 58, 136 Viscosity 23, 114 ff, 121 ff, 522, 561, 655 Winterisation processing 645, 648 Winterising agents 646 Waste restaurant grease 200 Biocatalytic transesterification 445 Waste vegetable oils 138, 387 Biodiesel production 482, 497 Transesterification 335 Water supply 790 Plant growth 52 Websites 820 ff Whole-cell biocatalysts 453 Whole-cell microorganisms 434 Yam bean (Pachyrhizus spp.) 259 Yeasts 187 Yellowdiesel process 469, 579 Yellow grease 199 ff, 665 Transesterification 200, 402, 410 Yellowhorn (X sorbifolia) 254 Yellowness index (YI) 238, 557 Zeolites 360 ff, 367