Kenneth j skipka energy resources availability, management, and environmental impacts

ENERGY RESOURCES AVAILABILITY, MANAGEMENT, and ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT SERIES EDITOR Abbas Ghassemi New Mexico State University PUBLISHED TITLES Energy Resources: Availability, Management, and Environmental Impacts Kenneth J Skipka and Louis Theodore Finance Policy for Renewable Energy and a Sustainable Environment Michael Curley Wind Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment, Second Edition Vaughn Nelson Solar Radiation: Practical Modeling for Renewable Energy Applications Daryl R Myers Solar and Infrared Radiation Measurements Frank Vignola, Joseph Michalsky, and Thomas Stoffel Forest-Based Biomass Energy: Concepts and Applications Frank Spellman Introduction to Renewable Energy Vaughn Nelson Geothermal Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment William E Glassley Solar Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment Robert Foster, Majid Ghassemi, Alma Cota, Jeanette Moore, and Vaughn Nelson ENERGY RESOURCES AVAILABILITY, MANAGEMENT, and ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS Kenneth J Skipka Louis Theodore CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Printed on acid-free paper Version Date: 20140131 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-1740-0 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may 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without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Skipka, Kenneth J Energy resources : availability, management, and environmental impacts / Kenneth J Skipka and Louis Theodore pages cm ‑‑ (Energy and the environment ; 11) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978‑1‑4665‑1740‑0 (hardback) Power resources I Theodore, Louis II Title TJ163.2.S6138 2014 333.79‑‑dc23 2013040447 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com To those who seek a true and complete understanding of the world’s energy problems and continually strive to select the best available resources to meet energy demands considering all attendant impacts Our collective existence and prosperity are in their hands Kenneth J Skipka and Governor Mike Huckabee—who thankfully continues to confront the negative impacts of a biased media, and whose commitment to traditional values and the American Dream has never wavered Lou Theodore Contents Series Preface xvii Series Editor xxi Preface xxiii The Authors xxv Section I Basic Principles Introduction to the Issues Introduction .3 Energy Terms Conservation Law for Energy .6 Enthalpy Heat Transfer 10 Net Energy Analysis 11 Developing a National Energy Policy 13 Short Term 14 Long Term 14 References 15 Thermodynamic Principles: Entropy Analysis 17 Introduction 17 Qualitative Review of the Second Law 18 Describing Equations 19 The Heat Exchanger Dilemma 22 Applications 26 Concluding Comments 29 References 30 Energy Demand 31 Introduction 31 Early History 32 The First Humans 33 The Industrial Revolution 34 Recent Years 35 Effect of Demand of Energy Resources 36 Coal 36 Oil 37 Natural Gas 38 Oil Shale 38 vii viii Contents Nuclear Energy 39 Solar 39 Hydroelectric 40 Geothermal 40 Canada 41 Energy Needs 41 Energy Resources 41 Tar Sands 42 Future Energy Demands .42 Concluding Remarks 47 References 48 Sustainability and Green Science/Engineering 49 Introduction 49 Sustainability 50 Historical Perspective 50 Resource Limitations 51 Sustainable Development Considerations 53 Resources for Sustainability 57 Future Trends 57 Green Science/Engineering 58 Introduction to Green Chemistry 58 Introduction to Green Science/Engineering 61 Green Chemistry versus Green Engineering 62 Green Resources (Internet Sources) 64 References 65 Energy Regulations 67 Introduction 67 The Regulatory System 68 Laws and Regulations: The Differences 69 The Role of the States 71 The Department of Energy (DOE) 73 The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) 75 Energy Information Administration (EIA) 76 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 77 The 2013 New York State Energy Plan .80 Overview of New York’s State Energy Plan 81 References 88 The Modern Energy Matrix: An Overview 89 Introduction 89 Energy System Components .90 Resources 90 Production 91 Contents ix Transportation/Transmission 92 Coal 93 Oil 94 Natural Gas 95 Utilization 95 Energy Matrix Overview 97 References 102 Section II Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels Coal 105 Introduction 105 Early History 107 Availability/Distribution and Characterization 108 Availability/Distribution 109 Characterization 112 Extraction, Processing, and Transportation/Transmission 119 Extraction 119 Processing 124 Transportation/Transmission 125 Environmental Issues 126 Future Prospects and Concerns 127 References 130 Oil 131 Introduction 131 Early History 132 Availability/Distribution and Characterization 133 Availability/Distribution 133 Characterization 134 Extraction, Processing, and Transportation/Transmission 140 Extraction 140 Processing 144 Transportation/Transmission 147 Pipelines 147 Ships 148 Trains 148 Environmental Issues 148 Future Prospects and Concerns 150 References 150 Natural Gas 151 Introduction 151 Index locations coal, 109–110 historical developments, 90–91 natural gas, 157–158 steel mills, 125 tar sand, 175 log mean temperature difference (LMTD) cost requirement, 28–29 heat exchanger dilemma, 22–26 key equations, 21–22 long range supply situation, 360 long-term national energy policy development, 14–15 long-wall mining, 123 Louis-Dreyfus, Julia, 64 Lovins, Amory, 57 Lovins, L Hunter, 57 lower-rank coals, 115–116 LPG, see Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) LS, see Least squares (LS) method luminescent solar concentrators, 194 LWBR, see Light-water breeder reactors (LWBR) LWR, see Light water reactors (LWRs) M magma, 239–240, 249 magnetic energy, 5, 18 magnetic surveys, 140 maintenance, green engineering, 310–311 management national energy policy, 417–419 risk, 321–327 management accountancy, 347 management plan design analytics, 423 critical reviews, 424 goals and objectives, 422–423 implementation strategy, 423–424 overview, 420–421 structural elements, 421 team organization and leadership, 421–422 mandate, technological, 393–394 maps, wind electric potential, 229–230 mass as energy, 447 mass basis, conservation laws, materials green engineering, 308–309 green science/engineering, 61 radioactive warning sign, 210 matrix, see Modern energy matrix maximum individual risk, 323 McCormick, Cyrus, 35 meaningful conservation, 17 mechanical energy, transformation, 18 mercaptan, 151 Mesa Verde cliff dwellings, 186 methane, see also Natural gas biomass, 161, 271 characteristics, 151 properties, 156 micro hydroplants, 223 Mid-course Correction: Toward a Sustainable Enterprise: The Interface Model, 57 Midler, Bette, 64 milling, uranium fuel cycle, 205 millirem unit, 212 mining, coal, 123, see also specific type of mine models energy management, 420 linear, energy demand, 43, 45 parabolic, 43, 45 partnership, 415–417 modern energy matrix energy management plan, 423 energy system components, 90–97 matrix, 97–102, 414 overview, 89–90 production, 91–92 resources, 90–91 transportation/transmission, 92–95 utilization, 95–97 modified in situ processing, 168 mole basis, conservation laws, molten salt reactors/breeder reactors, 207 molten salts, 192 momentum, 7, 51 monetary system, 367 moon effects, 281–282 MSW, see Municipal solid waste (MSW) mufflers, 248 448 multimedia analytical approach, 372 multiplicity of issues, strategy, 419 multiwall nanotubes (MWNTs), 129 municipal solid waste (MSW), 264–265 Murphy’s law, 258 muskeg swamp, 177 MWNT, see Multiwall nanotubes (MWNTs) 354 MW SEGS CSP installation, 186 N NAAQS, see National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) NASA Space Program, 252 NASA wind turbines, 228 National Academy of Sciences, 321 national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS), 72 national debt, 368, 390 national energy plan analytics, 423 critical reviews, 424 design considerations, 420–424 factors, 425–427 goals and objectives, 422–423 implementation strategy, 423–424 management approach, 417–419 management plan design, 420–424 overview, 413–414, 420–421 public vs private control, 414–417 structural elements, 421 tasks at hand, 419–420 team organization and leadership, 421–422 national energy policy development, 13–15 National Energy Policy Plan, 73–74 National Governor’s Association (NGA), 72 National Institute of Occupational Safety & Health (NIOSH), 65 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 57 National Permit Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), 72 National Pollution Prevention Center for Higher Education, 57 Index National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 188, 393 National Solar Radiation Data Base, 187–188 Native Americans, 108 Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution, 57 natural gas availability/distribution, 153–155 characterization, 151, 155–157 consumption, 152 cost data, 343 effect of demand, 38 electric vehicles, 160 energy plan/policy, 406 environmental issues, 159–160 extraction, 38, 157–158 future prospects and concerns, 160–161 historical developments, 152, 290 mercaptan, 151 overview, 151–152 processing, 158 propane, 281 transportation/transmission, 92–93, 95, 158–159 Natural Resource Company, 174 natural resources, see also Resources Canada, 41 human perspective, 33–34, 52 political considerations, 353–355 near term supply situation, 360 net energy concept analysis, 11–13, 389–390 challenges, future policy makers, 366–367 net metering programs, 193 New England deforestation, 34 New Source Performance Standards (NSPS), 78, 126, 297 New Source Review (NSR), 78 Newton, Sir Isaac, 6, 10 New York state energy forecast plan, 369–370 energy plan (2013), 80–88 energy policy, 394–396 NGA, see National Governor’s Association (NGA) NGO Forum, 51 449 Index Niagara Falls, 9, 217, 223 NIMBY, see Not-in-my-backyard (NIMBY) syndrome NIOSH, see National Institute of Occupational Safety & Health (NIOSH) NIST, see National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Nixon, Richard (President), 309 noise geothermal systems, 248 wind power, 237 Norton, Edward, 64 not-in-my-backyard (NIMBY) syndrome, 265 NPDES, see National Permit Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) NSPS, see New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) NSR, see New Source Review (NSR) nuclear energy accidents, 39, 209 availability/distribution, 202 capacity values, 202 catastrophic accidents, 39 characterization, 203 conversion, 203–207 cost data, 343 decommissioning plants, 212 effect of demand, 39 electricity generated, 202 energy plan/policy, 406 environmental issues, 207–212 extraction, 203–207 future prospects and concerns, 212–213 heat exchangers, 11 historical developments, 199–201 overview, 197–199 peaceful use, 198 plant accidents, 209 present energy state, 361–362 radiation effects, 209–212 radiation protection standards, 78 safety, 209 transportation/transmission, 207 waste disposal, 208–209 nuclear fission, 197, 320 nuclear fuel rod example, 99 nuclear fusion, 185, 197 nuclear heat-steam-coal process, 256 nuclear in situ processing, 168 nuclear power plants accidents, 39, 209 energy supply chain, 99 impacts and considerations, 320 nuclear reactor unit, 205–206 Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 213 Nuclear Waste Fund, 209 Nuclear Waste Policy Act, 209 NUS Corporation, 128 O Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 73, see also Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) Obama/Romney presidential debates, 383 objectives, see Goals Obninsk reactor, 200 Occidental-Tenneco processing, 168 oceans, see also Water oil exploration, 142–143 thermal energy, 282 OCS, see Outer continental shelf (OCS) OECD, see Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) off-grid systems, 193, 236 Office of Atmospheric Programs, 78 Office of Energy Delivery and Energy Reliability, 295 Office of Infrastructure Protection, 415 Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, 63, 64–65 Office of Transportation and Air Quality, 78 offshore location nuclear power plants, 213 wind farms, 234, 238 oil analysis, 137–139 Arctic Ocean, 144 ASTM specifications, 135–136 availability/distribution, 133–134 characterization, 134–140 450 coal comparisons, 131, 132 cost data, 342 crisis (1979-1980), 36 dominant companies, 133 effect of demand, 37–38 energy plan/policy, 406 environmental issues, 148–149 extraction, 37–38, 140–144 future prospects and concerns, 150 grades, 134, 137 historical developments, 132–133 major uses, 132 overview, 131–132 pipelines, 147–148 processing, 144–147 ships, 148 trains, 148 transportation/transmission, 92–94, 147–148 Oil and Gas Sector Program, 79 oilfields beneath the sea, 143 historical developments, 133 natural pressure, 142 oiling and lubrication, 310–311 Oil Program, 79 older coals, 115–116 Old Faithful geyser, 241–242 olefin series, 280 O&M, see Operation and maintenance (O&M) onshore oil production, 37 On Stones, 107 OPEC, see Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) open-loop pathway, 54, see also Closedloop pathways open-pit mining shale oil, 167 uranium, 203 operating costs hydroelectric energy, 215–216 overview, 341–342 sustainability, 56 operation and maintenance (O&M), 345, 402 opposing viewpoints, reconciliation, 387 Index Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 292–293 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) energy cost data, 342 escalating demands, 363 inflation and national debt, 367, 390 recent developments, 35–36 Orimulsion, 175 outer continental shelf (OCS), 134 output-pulled, 61 overhauling, 306 ozone layer damage, 51 P PA, see Public acceptance (PA) Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E), 241 Pacific Rim, 241 panel approach, 43 parabolic mirrors and mirror troughs, 190 parabolic model, 43, 45 parabolic troughs, 192 paraffin series, 280 Paraho process, 168 parameters, resource comparison, 400–401 partial oxidation, hydrocarbon, 255 partnership model, 415–417 Passamaquoody Bay, 362 passive solar systems, 190–191 path functions, enthalpy, PCDD, see Polychlorinated dibenzo-pdioxin (PCDD) PCDF, see Polychlorinated dibenzofuran (PCDF) PDVSA (Venezuela), 175 peak coal, 109 peak oil, 415 peat, 105 Pelton turbines, 222 pendulum example, penstocks, 222–223 performance standards, coal, 126 perpetual life, 336–337 perturbation study, 345 petroleum vs oil, 131, see also Oil Index PG&E, see Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) photoelectrolysis, 256 photosynthesis, 261 pickling waste, 267 pico hydroplants, 223 “pig” (pipeline inspection gadget), 94 pilot work, 55 piping and pipelines coal transportation, 94, 125 green engineering, 310 hydrogen, 257 natural gas, 94, 154 oil transportation/transmission, 94, 147–148 “pig,” 94, 148 Trans-Alaska Pipeline, 74, 143–144, 147–148 transportation mode, 92 pitchblende, 197 PL 93-577, 366 plans, 67, see also National energy plan plant accidents, see Accidents plates, 239 plate tectonics, 239 plating waste, 267 PNW, see Present net worth (PNW) Po, see Polonium (Po) point functions, 8–9 policy defined, 67 development, 68 priorities, 378–379 suggestions, 363–366 policy challenge solutions analytics, 423 critical reviews, 424 factors, 425–427 goals and objectives, 422–423 implementation strategy, 423–424 management approach, 417–419 management plan design, 420–424 overview, 413–414 public vs private control, 414–417 structural elements, 421 tasks at hand, 419–420 team organization and leadership, 421–422 451 political considerations energy politics, 355–357 natural resources wealth, 353–355 overview, 351–352 pollution, see also Environmental considerations and issues geothermal systems, 249 green chemistry, 60 Polo, Marco, 107 polonium (Po), 211 polychlorinated dibenzofuran (PCDF), 265, 273 polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDD), 265, 273 population growth energy demand, 17 sustainability, 50–51 population risk, 323 positron emissions, 211 potential energy, poultry farmers, 274 pour point, 139 power, power plants accidents, 39, 209 binary cycle, 241, 246 concentrating solar power, 186–187 energy supply chain, 99 environmental issues, 148 fusion, 199 geothermal, 245–247 hydroelectric power plants, 217–218, 223 locations, 125 natural gas-fueled, 160 nuclear, 199–200, 207, 212 oil shale, 164, 168 solar, 186–187, 191 thermal, 191 tidal type, 223, 362 preemption, doctrine of, 72 preoccuptation, budgetary worries, 368 present net worth (PNW), 336 present worth, 333 presidential debates, 383 pressurized fluid bed combustion process, 170 pressurized light-water reactors, 207 452 pressurized water reactor (PWR) designs, 200 prevention green chemistry, 60 green science/engineering, 61 Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD), 78 pricing, 32, see also Costs Priestly, Joseph, 252 prime movers, 154 principles conservation law for energy, 6–8 energy demand, 31–48 energy regulations, 67–88 energy terms, 4–6 enthalpy, 8–10 entropy analysis, 17–30 green science/engineering, 49–50, 58–65 heat transfer, 10–11 issues, 3–15 modern energy matrix, 89–102 national energy policy development, 13–15 net energy analysis, 11–13 overview, 1, 3–4 sustainability, 49–58 private companies/enterprises, 293 private vs public control, 414–417 process evaluations, detailed, 346 processing biomass energy, 271–272 coal, 124 geothermal energy, 245–247 hydroelectric energy, 222–223 hydrogen energy, 254–256 natural gas, 158 oil, 144–147 shale oil, 167–168 solar energy, 192 sustainable development, 54 tar sands, 178–179 wind energy, 234–236 producer gas, 279 production, energy system components, 91–92 profit, 347 projects Cape Wind Energy Project, 234 Index domestic refinery, 364–365 evaluation and optimization, 345 financing, 364–365, 368–369 Horizon Project, 174 hydroelectric power, 218, 220 shale oil, 165, 166 sustainability, 55 propane, 158, 281 properties of coal, 120–122 proximate analysis, 118 Prudhoe Bay, 143, 147, see also TransAlaska Pipeline PSD, see Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) public acceptance (PA), 402 public transportation, 95, 363 Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA), 235 public vs private control, 414–417 pulverized combustion, 168 pumped storage, 223 pumping stations, 94 PURPA, see Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) Q quadratic model, 45 quad unit, 96, 202 quality energy, see also Energy quality (EQ) cost requirement, 28–29 exergy, 29 heat exchanger dilemma, 22–26 key equations, 19–22 second law of thermodynamics, 18–19 quantitative analysis developed nations comparative analysis, 407–408 energy management plan, 423 entropy application, 26–29 overview, 399 resource comparison procedure, 400–404 Skipka and Theodore chart (SAT), 402–410 underdeveloped nations comparative analysis, 409–410 Index United States comparative analysis, 404–406 quarrying coal, 123 R RA, see Resource availability (RA) radiation characteristics, 189–190 nuclear energy environmental issues, 209–212 protection standards, 78 solar energy, 185–186 radical management, 417–420, 424 railroads, 92, see also Transportation/ transmission ranchers, 274 rate of return, 337 raw natural gas, 281 RCRA, see Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) reaction enthalpy, reaction turbines, 221 reactive metals, 267 reactor types, nuclear, 207 real-time analysis, 60 reboilers, 145 rechargeable batteries, 193 reciprocating compressors, 154–155 reciprocating prime movers, 154 reconciliation, opposing viewpoints, 387 recovering energy resources, 91 rectification section, 145 recycling/reuse changes, 363 grease and oils, 269 green science/engineering, 61 residential level, 305 rubber, 61 Redford, Robert, 64 reduced loads, green engineering, 311 refined residual oil, 37 refinery gas, 279 reflecting surfaces, 190 refuse, 264–265, see also Municipal solid waste (MSW) regression analysis, 43–47 regulations, see Laws, regulations, and policies 453 regulatory creep, 369 regulatory issues (RI), 402 regulatory system, 68–69 remanufacturing, 306 rem unit, 212 renewables cost data, 343 green chemistry, 60 present energy state, 361–362 repairing, 306 reprocessing, uranium fuel cycle, 206 reserves, untouched, 98 residential applications, see also Humans biomass, 261 conservation, 300–304, 312 residual fuel oils, 134, see also Oil residual moisture, coal, 116 resource availability (RA), 401 resource comparison, 400–404 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 70, 71 Resource Conservation Challenge, 79 “resource curse,” 355 resource quantity (RQ), 401 resources, see also Natural resources Canada, 41–42 categories, 400 comparison procedure, 400–404 energy system components, 90–91 focus on United States, 90 green, Internet sources, 64–65 location of, 90–91 management complexity, 295 political considerations, 353–355 sustainability, 51–53, 57 responsibility of government, 381–383 Responsible Appliance Disposal Program, 79 restoration, natural systems, 99 retorting processes, 165, 168 revenue, 347 RI, see Regulatory issues (RI) ride sharing, 95, 363 “Ring of Fire,” 241 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 51 risk assessment and management, 321–327 risk characterization, 321, 322 454 rock-catchers, 246 Rockefeller, John D., 133 role of states, 71–73 room-and-pillar mining, 123 Roscoe Wind Farm, 229 rotary compressors, 154–155 rotary prime movers, 154 RQ, see Resource quantity (RQ) rubber recycling, 61 runner stamina example, 96 run-of-the-river hydroelectric stations, 223 Rutherford, Ernest, 199 S safety chemicals, 60 nuclear energy environmental issues, 209 toxicologists, 324 SAGD, see Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) salts, 192, 267 Samborn, Steketee, Otis and Evans, 308 sample collection/handling, biomass, 267 Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant, 187 SAT, see Skipka and Theodore chart (SAT) saturated liquids, 10 SBSP, see Space-based solar power (SBSP) “Scala Graduum Caloris,” 10 scatter diagrams, 43–45 SCC, see Sector coordinating councils (SCCs) Schoelkopf power station, 217 scrubbers, 126, 158 sea coles, 107 second law of thermodynamics classical approach, 17 overview, 17–18 qualitative review, 18–19 second order model, 43, 45 sector coordinating councils (SCCs), 416, 417 sediment, 139 seismically active hotspots, 241–242 Index seismic surveying, 140 self-sufficiency, 363–364 semisubmersible rig, 143 sensible enthalpy, separation, design for, 61 sequestered energy carbon, 392 coal liquefaction, 129 net energy analysis, 13 series of payments, 334 shale, tar sand classification, 176 shale gas, 153–154, see also Natural gas shale oil availability/distribution, 165–166 characterization, 165–166 DOE support, 74 effect of demand, 38–39 environmental issues, 168–170 extraction, 38–39, 166–167 future prospects and concerns, 170–171 historical developments, 164 overview, 163 processing, 167–168 projects, 165, 166 transportation/transmission, 168 Shell, 57, 307 Shell Canada, 174 ships, see also Transportation/ transmission coal transportation, 93, 125 oil transportation/transmission, 148 shortages, 360 short term national energy policy development, 14 Siberian-Western Europe gas pipeline, 95, 158 silicon metal, 129 simple interest, 332 single-wall nanotubes (SWNTs), 129 sinking fund methods, 334 SIP, see State implementation plans (SIPs) siting, wind farms, 234 Skipka and Theodore chart (SAT) developed nations, 407–408 sample outline, 402–404 underdeveloped nations, 409–410 Index SLTTGCC, see State, local, tribal, and territorial government coordinating council (SLTTGCC) small hydroplants, 223 small-scale wind power, 236 Smart Growth Program, 79 SmartWay Transport Partnership, 78, 80 SM-1 Nuclear Power Plant, 200 social considerations challenges, future policy makers, 367–369 energy demand, net energy analysis, 12 vs sustainability, 50 Social Security program example, 90 solar concentrators, 190 solar energy availability/distribution, 187–189 characterization, 189–190 effect of demand, 39–40 energy plan/policy, 406 environmental issues, 193–194 extraction, 190–192 future prospects and concerns, 194–195 historical developments, 186–187 hot water production, 312 overview, 185–186 processing, 192 transportation/transmission, 192–193 solar power satellites (SPS), 191–192, 194–195 solar power tower, 192 solar thermal devices, 190 solar thermal power, 187 Solar Two, 192 solid biofuels, 270 solution enthalpy, solvent refined coal (SRC), 128 solvents, 60, 61 sound, as energy, “source of the resource curse,” 355 sour oil, 145, 342 soybean oil, 269 space-based solar power (SBSP), 194–195 space satellite solar power systems, 191–192 spillway gates, 223 455 SRC, see Solvent refined coal (SRC) stakeholders Clean Energy Programs, 80 energy management plan, 420–426 energy supply chain, 286 engagement of, 62 overview, 291–294 partnership framework, 417 perspectives, 287 Standard Oil Company, 133 Star Rankine-cycle conversion, 190 state, energies, 6–7 state, local, tribal, and territorial government coordinating council (SLTTGCC), 416 state functions, enthalpy, 8–9 state implementation plans (SIPs), 72 states, see also United States geothermal resources, 243 hydroelectricity production, 218, 220 natural gas production, 153 oil production, 133–134 role, energy regulations, 71–73 wind, electricity generated, 230 stationary sources, 78 steady-state equations, 7–8 steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD), 178 steam boilers and engines, 186, see also Boilers steam drum, biomass, 271 steam-iron process, 255–256 steam reforming, 254–255 steel mill locations, 125 Stirling dish, 192 storage, see also Transportation/ transmission natural gas, 155 reactor rods, 204 solar energy, 192–193 underground tank regulation, 79 straight-line depreciation, 332–333 strategy, multiplicity of issues, 419 strip mining coal, 123 shale oil, 167 tar sands, 177–178 stripping section, 145 structural elements, 421 456 sub-bituminous coals, 106 submarines, nuclear, 200, 209 submergible turbines, 278 sugar cane, 265 sulfur, 112 sulfur dioxide emissions, 126–127 sulfur forms test, 118–119 sums of money, 333–334 sun effects, 282 superheated water, see Geothermal energy superheater, biomass, 271 supply chain, energy, 97–102, 293–294 surface mining coal, 123 effects of demand, 37 incentives, 364 shale oil, 167 tar sands, 177 surface moisture, coal, 116 surface retorting processes, 165, 168 surge drums, biomass, 272 sustainability, see also Green science/ engineering benefits documentation, 56 domestic level, 305–307 future trends, 57–58 historical perspective, 50–51 indices, 56 limitations of resources, 51–53 overview, 49–50, 298, 312 resources, 51–53, 57 sustainable development, 53–57 Sustainable Development Report, 51 Sustainable Infrastructure for Water and Wastewater, 79 sweet oil, 145, 342 SWNT, see Single-wall nanotubes (SWNTs) syngas, 128, 255, 270 Synthetic Fuels Corporation, 128 synthetic organics, 267 T TAC, see Total annualized cost (TAC) Tallinn Power Plant, 164 tar sands availability/distribution, 175 Index Canada, 42 characterization, 176 environmental issues, 179–180 extraction, 176–178 future prospects and concerns, 180 historical developments, 174 overview, 173–174 processing, 178–179 shale oil extraction, 165 transportation/transmission, 179 tasks at hand, 419–420 tax credits, 237 TCC, see Total capital cost (TCC) team organization and leadership, 421–422 technological growth production impact, 53 sustainability, 51 untouched reserves, 98 technological mandate, 393–394 temperatures biomass, 272 driving force/approach, 22 geothermal energy, 239 hydrogen energy, 252, 253 transformation impact, 18 Tennessee Valley Authority, 218 Tenth Amendment to the Constitution, 72 terminology, 4–6 Terminology Reference System (TRS), 65 territorial council, see State, local, tribal, and territorial government coordinating council (SLTTGCC) THAI, see Toe-to-heel air injection (THAI) The Ecology of Commerce: A Declaration of Sustainability, 57 The Mysterious Island, 252 “The next bottom line: Making sustainable development tangible,” 57 “The NEXT Industrial Revolution,” 57 Theodore, see also Skipka and Theodore chart (SAT) law, 258 panel approach, 43 Theophrastus (scientist), 107 457 Index thermal energy, transformation, 18 thermal power, solar, 187 thermodynamic principles applications, 26–29 describing equations, 19–20 heat exchanger dilemma, 22–26 overview, 10, 17–18 second law, qualitative review, 18–19 summary, 29–30 vs sustainability, 50 thermoelectric devices, 194 thermovoltaic devices, 194 “the source of the resource curse,” 355 thinned crust, 239 third order model, 45 Thompson, Benjamin, 10 Three Gorges Dam, 218, 362 Three Mile Island nuclear plant, 201, 209, 325 threshold, dose-response, 324 tidal energy overview, 281–282 power plants, 223, 362 toe-to-heel air injection (THAI), 178 Toledo Edison Building, 308 Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other Environmental Impacts (TRACI), 57 Tosco II process, 167–168 total annualized cost (TAC), 335, 345 total capital cost (TCC), 339–340, 341, 345 total moisture, coal, 116 total operating cost, 342 toxicology, 321–324 toxic wastes, 267 TR, see Transportation requirements (TR) TRACI, see Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other Environmental Impacts (TRACI) trade-offs, energy policy, 378, 394 training, energy conservation, 299–300 trains, see also Transportation/ transmission coal transportation, 93–94, 125 oil transportation/transmission, 148 Trans-Alaska Pipeline, 74, 143–144, 147–148 transformation of energy, 18 transportation requirements (TR), 402 transportation sector, see also Automobiles biomass, 261 electric vehicles, 372 energy related regulations, 78 fuel cells, 252–253 public transportation, 95, 363 utilization, 95 transportation/transmission biomass energy, 272 coal, 93–94, 125 energy supply chain, 99 energy system components, 92–95 geothermal energy, 245–247 hydroelectric energy, 223–224 hydrogen energy, 256–257 natural gas, 95, 158–159 nuclear energy, 207 oil, 94 overview, 92–93 refined residual oil, 37 shale oil, 168 solar energy, 192–193 tar sands, 179 wind energy, 236 trial balance, 347 tribal council, see State, local, tribal, and territorial government coordinating council (SLTTGCC) tritium, 203–204 trucks, 92, see also Automobiles turbines hydroelectricity, 221–222 submergible, 278 wind, 228, 233–234 U ultimate analysis, 118, 137 ultraviolet spectrum, 189 uncertainties, risk, 322 underdeveloped nations, 409–410 underground injection control, 78 underground mining 458 coal, 123 effects of demand, 37 uranium, 203 underground nuclear power plants, 213 underground power stations, 223 Underground Storage Tank Program, 79 underwater canyons, 278 underwater pipelines, 94 unforeseen events, 415 uniform series of payments, 334 Union Oil Co process, 167 United Nations, 49, 51 United States, see also States coal, 119–120, 130 debt crisis example, 90 energy consumption, 289 energy demand, 47 energy-environmental interactions, 387–388 energy resources uses, 361 focus on resources of, 90 geothermal resources, 243 hydroelectric energy producers, 218, 220 per individual energy demand, 290 reconciliation, opposing viewpoints, 387 resource comparative analysis, 404–406 self-sufficiency, 363–364 Social Security program example, 90 solar energy, 185 tidal energy, 282 wave energy, 283 wind energy producers, 230 wind velocities, 231 University of Michigan, 57 unnecessary use of energy, 311, 364, 365 untouched reserves, 98 uranium example, 91 fuel cycle, 203–206 limited supplies, 343 nuclear energy, 197 potential impacts, 320 U.S Geological Survey, 342 “use and generation,” green chemistry, 58 Index U.S EPA, see Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) USS Nautilus, 200 USS Scorpion, 200 USS Thresher, 200 utility scale, turbines, 234 utilization, energy system components, 95–97 V Valdez, 147–148 VAPEX, see Vapor extraction process (VAPEX) vapor extraction process (VAPEX), 178 vapors, 10 vegetable oils, 269–270 velocity, 9–10, 230–232 Venezuela, 175 VEPCO, 200 Verne, Jules, 252 vertical ground movement, 248 vested interests, see Stakeholders viscosity, 139 visible spectrum, 189 visual impact, 193, 237 volatile organic solvents, 61, 63 von Fredonia Gas Light Company, 152 vulcanization, 61 Vulcan Street Plant, 217 W Wairakei station, 241 waste better utilization, 32 hazardous, 267 hierarchy, 298 individual efforts, 305 nuclear energy environmental issues, 208–209 resources, 79 uranium fuel cycle, 206 wasteful practices, 3–4 water, see also Hydroelectric energy; Oceans cycle, 215 flow rate, 216 geothermal energy, 248 459 Index hot, conservation, 302–303 oil, 139 pollution, solar energy, 193 resources, 79 transportation mode, 92 underwater pipelines, 94 water, superheated, see Geothermal energy water gas, 279 water-tube boilers, 272 Watt, James, 96 wave energy, 283 WCED, see World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) Weibull probability, 209 weighting factors, 400–404 Western Oil Sands Inc., 174 whale oil, 132 “What is the Problem with Natural Resource Wealth?”, 353–355 Whitney, Eli, 35 wind energy availability/distribution, 229–230 characterization, 230, 232–233 environmental issues, 236–237 extraction, 233–234 future prospects and concerns, 237–238 historical developments, 228–229 maps, electric potential, 229–230 overview, 227–228 ownership of plants, 234–235 processing, 234–236 state production, 230 transportation/transmission, 236 velocity, 230–232 Wind Energy Resource Atlas of the United States, 229 wind farms, 229, 234, see also Wind energy windmills, see Wind energy windsurfer example, 96 wood biomass energy, 265, 266 historical developments, 290 work (energy), World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) sustainability, 51 World Resources Institute, 57 World Wide Web (WWW) Gas Buddy, 425 green resources, 64–65 Y Yangtze River (China), see Three Gorges Dam yellowcake, 204 yellow Energy Guide label, 304 Yellowstone National Park, 242 Young, James (“Paraffin”), 164 younger coals, 115–116 Yucca Mountain, 209 Z zeolites, 61 zero discharge, 54