HARDBACK SPINE 39.6MM ‘This very timely book is a welcome addition to the literature on a topic that is rightly occupying centre stage in global discussions Climate change is the biggest challenge our civilization has had to face because it requires the collective response of all peoples and all nations The view of developing countries, contained in this volume, is crucial to negotiations towards defossilizing our economies.’ PROFESSOR SIR DAVID KING, Director of the Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment and Chief Scientific Advisor to the UK Government 2000–2007 ,!7IB8E4-ahheij! ENERGY / DEVELOPMENT ear t hscan publishing for a sustainable future www.earthscan.co.uk Earthscan strives to minimize its impact on the environment ear t hscan ISBN 978-1-84407-748-9 SECOND EDITION JOSÉ GOLDEMBERG OSWALDO LUCON THOMAS B JOHANSSON, International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics, Lund University, Sweden José Goldemberg is Professor and former Rector of the University of São Paulo (USP) in Brazil He contributed to the Nobel-awarded International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and was recognized by Time Magazine as a ‘Hero of the Environment’ In 2008, he won the Blue Planet Prize for contributions to the environment Oswaldo Lucon is Technical Advisor on Energy and Climate Change at the São Paulo State Environmental Secretariat He was lead author of the 2006 IPCC Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventory Guidelines and is lead author of the Panel’s Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation AND ‘Energy systems need to change around the world to help address environment and other sustainable development challenges How energy solutions can be identified, developed, and implemented is of great concern to us all This is recommended reading!’ New coverage is included of today’s pressing issues, including security, environmental impact assessment and future climate change/renewable energy regimes The authors also cover all major new international agreements and technological developments The second edition of Energy, Environment and Development is the result of many years of study and practical experience in policy formulation, discussion and implementation in these fields by the authors Its technical yet accessible style will make it suitable for students on a range of courses, as well as non-energy specialists who desire an overview of recent thought in the area COVER IMAGE: CORNFIELD WITH POWER MAST © MARKUS WACHTER/ISTOCKPHOTO.COM ED MILIBAND, Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change, UK Government e The relationship between energy and the environment has been the basis of many studies over the years, as has the relationship between energy and development, yet both of these approaches may produce distortions In the first edition of this book, José Goldemberg pioneered the study of all three elements in relation to one another With contributions from Oswaldo Lucon, this second edition has been expanded and updated to cover how energy is related to the major challenges of sustainability faced by the world today ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT ‘We won’t be able to address climate change if the world sees it purely as an environmental problem That’s why books like this, which show we can tackle climate change and promote prosperity, are so important By drawing out the links between climate change and economic development it provides the sort of broader framework for thinking that will help us get the big decisions right.’ ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT SECOND EDITION JOSÉ GOLDEMBERG AND OSWALDO LUCON 00_Energy Environ_i-xxviii 28/10/09 12:58 Page i Energy, Environment and Development 00_Energy Environ_i-xxviii 28/10/09 12:58 Page ii 00_Energy Environ_i-xxviii 28/10/09 12:58 Page iii Energy, Environment and Development José Goldemberg and Oswaldo Lucon London • Sterling, VA 00_Energy Environ_i-xxviii 28/10/09 12:58 Page iv First published by Earthscan in the UK and USA in 2010 Copyright © Professor José Goldemberg and Oswaldo Lucon, 2010 First edition published in 1996 All rights reserved ISBN: HB 978-1-84407-748-9 PB 978-1-84407-749-6 Typeset by 4word Ltd, Bristol, UK Cover design by Andrew Corbett For a full list of publications, please contact: Earthscan Dunstan House 14a St Cross Street London EC1N 8XA, UK Tel: +44 (0)20 7841 1930 Fax: +44 (0)20 7242 1474 Email: earthinfo@earthscan.co.uk Web: www.earthscan.co.uk 22883 Quicksilver Drive, Sterling, VA 20166-2012, USA Earthscan publishes in association with the International Institute for Environment and Development A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Goldemberg, José, 1928Energy, environment and development / José Goldemberg and Oswaldo Lucon p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-84407-748-9 (hardback) - ISBN 978-1-84407-749-6 (pbk.) Energy development-Environmental aspects Energy consumption I Lucon, Oswaldo II Title TD195.E49G85 2009 333.79’14-dc22 2009006512 At Earthscan we strive to minimize our environmental impacts and carbon footprint through reducing waste, recycling and offsetting our CO2 emissions, including those created through publication of this book For more details of our environmental policy, see www.earthscan.co.uk This book was printed in the UK by Cromwell Press Group The paper used is FSC certified and the inks are vegetable based 00_Energy Environ_i-xxviii 28/10/09 12:58 Page v Contents List of Figures, Tables and Boxes Foreword to the Second Edition Foreword by Achim Steiner List of Acronyms and Abbreviations vii xxi xxiii xxv Connections Energy Forces Concept of energy The expansion of gases and the evolution of steam engines Power The laws of thermodynamics 3 Energy and Human Activities The energy cost of satisfying basic human needs Energy consumption as a function of income Energy consumption in rural areas and in peri-urban households 35 Energy Sources Classification of the sources of energy Energy balances Energy resources and reserves Energy consumption per inhabitant 45 Energy and Development Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and National Accounting Economic growth Disparities in income distribution Quality of life and the Kuznets curve Human Development Index (HDI) The relationship for energy-development Energy intensity: energy and economic product 65 Energy: The Facts Environmental impacts due to energy production and use Qualification of environmental impacts in function of income Local urban pollution 101 00_Energy Environ_i-xxviii vi 28/10/09 12:58 Page vi Energy, Environment and Development Regional pollution Global aspects: the greenhouse effect Occupational pollution Energy and the Environment: The Causes Indicators Contribution by sources 181 Technical Solutions Energy efficiency Technological advances in power production Renewable energies Transportation Industry and other stationary pollution sources Electricity consumption in residential, commercial and public sectors Combatting deforestation 243 Policies to Reduce Environmental Degradation Geographical scale of impacts Environmental law and energy Environmental support capacity: management by quality Environmental protection costs The cost of climate change Energy policies Integrated resource planning Barriers for emission reduction and overcoming policies Control of deforestation 337 10 World Energy Trends Projections Conclusions from the outlooks Technological change Energy intensity trends 381 11 Energy and Lifestyles Lifestyle and consumption patterns Consumer profiles 403 12 Energy and the Science Academies 413 Annex Energy, Environment and Development Timeline Annex Conversion Units Index 417 429 441 00_Energy Environ_i-xxviii 28/10/09 12:58 Page vii List of Figures, Tables and Boxes Figures 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 3.1 3.2 Potential and kinetic energy Relationship between potential and kinetic energies and work Work does not depend on the pathway Perpetual motion: left, the symbol of a wheel in Indian Sanchi Stupa; above, the principle described by Brahmagupta Robert Fludd’s perpetual motion presented at ‘De Simila Naturae’ Internal energy components Examples of an open (tree) and a closed (Planet Earth) system Expansion of gases and the experiment by Heron of Alexandria Mechanical work conducted by air expansion Newcomen’s engine Evolution in steam engines’ efficiency Energy conversion processes Signal convention for work (W) and heat (Q) Law Zero of Thermodynamics: thermal equilibrium principle Energy balance in a closed system, without mass flows Energy balance of the Earth Energy balance in an open system Entropy and mixture of two gases: (a) before and (b) after Efficiency of heat engines Sankey Diagram: energy flows and efficiency Examples of stages of the Carnot Cycle Demonstration of the Carnot Cycle, diagram T-S Thermal engine and heat pump Development stages and energy consumption Energy consumption by income class (measured by minimum wages) in Brazil, 1988 6 10 13 16 17 17 18 22 23 23 24 24 25 26 27 28 29 29 30 36 39 00_Energy Environ_i-xxviii viii 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 6.1 6.2 28/10/09 12:58 Page viii Energy, Environment and Development Household energy use by energy commodity Cost of the major inputs in percentual function of the wage unit in Brazil between 1999 and 2003 World energy by primary sources, 2006 Lifecycle of an energy system World primary energy supply by source Total fuel (secondary energy) consumption by region World proved oil reserves in billions of barrels, end of 2007 Long-term historical evolution of industrialized countries’ energy intensity Power consumption (2003) and gross domestic product at the purchasing power parity, 2004 GDP per capita in the world, in 2005 nominal US dollars, and its relation with the GDP measured by the purchasing power parity – PPP Projections for population growth (in billions) of developed and developing regions World income distribution, 1992 Population distribution (area =100 per cent or about six billion people) in function of the world income in 2000 Income distribution among the population in different countries in 2000 Income distribution: graphic representation of the Lorentz curve which allows calculating the Gini index Kuznets curve Kuznets curve and the leapfrogging effect Schematic representation of the effect of introducing environmental protection policies on the income HDI by country over time Energy and the UN priority areas for development Income as a function of commercial energy per capita HDI as a function of energy consumption per capita, by country HDI in function of (direct and indirect) energy consumption per capita, per non-OECD country, 2003 Graphic representation of elasticities Stages of pollutants impact: emissions, atmospheric dispersion, intake by receptors and possible bioaccumulation, pathologies Pollution plume and concentration of a given substance: results of dispersion models 40 43 48 49 50 50 56 66 68 75 76 80 80 81 81 83 84 85 87 89 90 91 92 94 108 109 00_Energy Environ_i-xxviii 28/10/09 12:58 Page ix List of Figures, Tables and Boxes ix 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 6.25 6.26 6.27 6.28 6.29 Contamination of waterbeds (plume representing the increase in pollutant concentration in underground water) by fuel leakages (load caused by emissions) in a vehicle filling station Transition of the environmental impact risks of air pollution in function of income levels SO2 emissions in function of income in Mexico CO2 emissions as a function of income (adjusted by the purchasing power parity – PPP) by country in 2000 Microeconomic representation of the externality concept on the supply and demand curves Pollution in Donora, Pennsylvania, US, 1910 and 1948 The Great London Smog, 1952: photographs and daily sulphur dioxide concentrations and related deaths PM10 concentrations in Asian cities, 2003, and other cities in the world, 1997 Proportion of service life years lost due to diseases attributed to air pollution in 2003 Fine particulates Pathways of pollutants Annual pollutant concentrations in selected Chinese cities Thermal inversion Different effects of pollutant concentration by plume emissions, function of the temperature profile Emission inventory of local pollutants in the US Contribution of key categories to EU-27 emissions of NOx, CO, NMVOCs, SOx, NH3, PM10 and PM2.5 in 2006 Background pollution: particulate matter burnings in the Amazon and its path up to the city of Sao Paulo Annual average of ozone concentrations, parts per billion in volume, 2000 Atmosphere layers: troposphere and stratosphere Hydrogen ion concentration as pH from measurements in the US, 1999 Acidification risks in Europe, 1990 Acid rain cycle Acid rain: emitters and receptors The ‘greenhouse effect’ Changes in the greenhouse effect mechanism Main components of the radiative forcing of climate change between 1750 and 2005 Causes of rise in ocean level 110 111 112 113 114 116 117 120 121 124 125 127 128 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 140 141 142 143 145 97,500 Patent fuel 107,000 80,700 Coke Gas Coal Tar 172,000 145,000 202,000 543,00 73,300 56,100 Blast Furnace Gas, oxygen flow Natural Gas Municipal Solid 91,700 Waste (non-biomass fraction) Industrial Waste 260,000 219,000 308,000 Blast Furnace Gas, air flow 143,000 110,000 183,000 121,000 58,300 55,000 44,700 Coke Oven Gas 37,800 44,700 Industrialized Gas 55,000 95,300 11,9000 11,9000 30 30 1 1 1 1 1 10 10 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 100 100 3 3 3 3 3 CH4 minimum maximum 4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.5 0.1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 default 1.5 1.5 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.5 0.03 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 15 15 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 5 5 N2O minimum maximum 17:36 37,800 68,200 95,700 95,700 109,000 109,000 125,000 default 23/10/09 Bygases 107,000 Blast-Furnace and Lignite Coke Coke 87,300 97,500 Coal Bricks 87,300 90,200 CO2 default minimum maximum 438 Shale Oil and Tar Sand 107,000 Fuel 13_Energy Environ_417-440 Page 438 Energy, Environment and Development Other Liquid Biofuels 79,600 54,600 54,600 Sludge Gas Other Biogases 100,000 84,700 46,200 46,200 117,000 66,000 66,000 66,000 93,300 84,300 84,300 30 1 3 30 30 10 0.3 0.3 0.3 1 10 10 10 100 3 10 10 10 100 100 18 100 100 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.6 0.6 0.6 4 1.5 1.5 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.2 0.2 0.2 1.5 1.5 1.5 0.5 1.5 15 0.3 0.3 0.3 2 15 15 21 15 15 Annex Source: IPCC (2006) Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Volume – Energy, www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/vol2.htm Municipal Wastes (biomass fraction) Other non-fossil biofuels 54,600 Landfill Gas 46,200 67,100 70,800 Biodiesel Gaseous Biomass 59,800 70,800 132,000 117,000 30 0.3 10 17:36 Biogasoline 59,800 95,000 Charcoal Liquid Biofuels 84,700 Other Solid Primary 100,000 Biomass (ex bagasse) 110,000 132,000 30 23/10/09 112,000 80,700 95,300 Black liquor 95,000 112,000 Fuelwood and its wastes Solid biofuels 106,000 104,000 108,000 74,400 Peat 72,200 73,300 Residual Oil 13_Energy Environ_417-440 Page 439 439 13_Energy Environ_417-440 23/10/09 17:36 Page 440 14_Energy Environ_441-452 23/10/09 17:37 Page 441 Index 2, 3, 7, 8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD) 340 accidents 103, 113, 201, 215, 223, 227, 283, 323 acid rain 103, 105, 135, 337–338 acidification 62, 103, 135, 337 adaptatation 104, 159, 174, 356, 428 additionality principle 407 adiabatic process 28 aerosols 141 Africa air quality 107, 118, 124, 126, 174, 226, 286, 302, 368 alcohol 12, 229, 308, 313, 433 Amazon 133, 165, 175, 197, 227, 232, 427 Annex I countries 159, 160, 162, 174, 282, 411, 428 Antarctic 60, 146, 149, 427 Arrhenius, Svente 141, 420 arsenic 118, 169, 224 automobile 65, 84, 93, 129, 219, 222, 282–283, 286, 291, 296–298, 308, 313, 329, 348, 359, 365, 398, 403–404, 419–422 aviation 53, 222, 293, 370, 433, 436 background pollution 133 benzene 341 best available technology 118, 267, 360, 369 Bhopal 224 bioaccumulation 104, 108, 118 biodiesel 47, 54, 260–261, 298–304, 313–314, 439 biodiversity 89, 102–103, 165–166, 181, 194, 233, 299, 307, 314, 322, 327, 339, 342, 345, 347, 376, 424 bioethanol 54, 84, 299, 302, 313 biogas 46, 259, 263, 319, 439 biomagnification 118 biomass 11, 32, 39, 45–49, 54–55, 60–63, 103, 106, 122, 130, 148, 161, 166–167, 181, 189, 194–195, 199, 212, 230, 243, 254, 257, 259–260, 263–270, 296, 300, 308, 313–314, 323, 326–327, 341, 389, 414, 438, 439 modern 46–47, 194 power 260, 262–263, 266, 269 traditional 61, 166, 181, 323 biomonitoring 105 black liquor 266, 435, 439 Boiler 107, 130, 251, 263–266, 318 boundaries 9, 12, 139, 166, 173, 195, 228, 339–340, 343 Brahmagupta British Petroleum 50, 421 British thermal units (Btu) 20 buildings 45, 107, 126, 138, 167, 224, 226, 276, 319 cadmium 102, 118, 182, 224, 281 calories 20, 36 calorific power 41 capital recovery factor 248 carbon balance 148 capture and storage 259, 414 dioxide (CO2) 11, 103–105, 139, 142, 146, 151, 154, 161, 183, 195, 222, 406, 408, 410, 414, 427, 431 equivalent 154, 327, 376–377 monoxide (CO) 102, 122, 166, 168, 226, 254, 283, 302, 425 storage 256, 326 14_Energy Environ_441-452 23/10/09 17:37 Page 442 442 Energy, Environment and Development Carnot cycle 28–30 Carnot, Sadi 28, 418 carrying capacity 181, 348 catalysis 299 Celsius 4, 32–33, 277, 431 CFCs 135, 150–151, 160, 174, 339, 424 charcoal 4, 46, 13, 170, 230, 323, 327, 433–434, 439 Chernobyl 201, 204, 215, 241, 423 Clean Air Act 118, 173, 342, 422 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) 160, 309, 347, 376–377 Climate change 101–102, 110, 113, 142–143, 146, 159–160, 174, 293, 305, 327, 329–330, 339, 345, 355–359, 365, 371, 376, 381, 385, 408, 413–414, 424, 428 coal 11–12, 16, 18, 20–21, 32, 35, 40–41, 45–52, 56–58, 61, 63, 102–103, 106–107, 115, 119, 121–123, 129–130, 139, 155, 160, 166, 168–170, 183, 189, 199, 212–213, 216, 224, 230, 239, 244, 251, 253–257, 264, 276, 285, 296, 299, 302, 315, 327–328, 341–342, 351, 355, 357, 362, 387–389, 392–393, 406, 413–414, 417–420, 426–427, 432–434, 437–439 coefficient of performance 30 combined cycle 18, 251, 254, 256, 269, 328 common but differentiated responsibilities 159, 342–343, 371 compressed natural gas (CNG) 288, 296, 368 cooking 38–41, 70, 95, 103, 166–169, 230, 251, 272, 299, 322–323, 405 oil 169, 299, 300 cookstoves 170, 323–324 Corporate Average Fuel Economy Program (CAFE) 292, 328, 360, 404 cost of energy 173, 243, 245, 249–250, 351, 365 living 42, 69 credits 118, 184, 300, 328, 338, 338, 406–411 cyclone 107, 144, 266, 316–317 DALYs 167 damage function 113 decarbonization 257, 261, 397–400 decomissioning 47, 103, 197, 204, 210, 215, 423 deforestation 12, 46–47, 103, 150–151, 154, 161, 165–166, 173, 183, 185, 194, 224, 227–233, 243, 322, 326–327, 341, 357, 371, 376, 407, 426, 428 dematerialization 395, 397–398 desertification 1, 103, 160, 181, 227, 231, 339, 345 development stages 35–36, 83 dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) 340 diesel cycle 18, 36, 283, 298 oil 4, 42, 84, 107, 121, 129, 168, 224, 288–293, 298–301, 310, 341, 407, 425, 433, 436 Diesel, Rudolf 299, 420 dioxins 102, 224, 340–341 diseases 39, 102, 105, 107, 109, 115, 121–123, 166–168, 172, 340, 413 ecological footprint 181, 184–187 economic growth 65, 77, 79, 160, 307, 343, 361, 385, 388, 391, 392–394, 422 work 70, 72, 114, 226, 384 efficient energy technology 60, 65, 129, 204, 243, 245, 251, 254, 269, 279, 293, 297–300, 318–319, 348–349, 357, 363, 367, 370, 377, 385, 392–394, 403, 405, 408, 413 Einstein, Albert 4, 420 elasticity 94–98, 392 emission factors 54, 106–107, 146, 189, 328, 338, 406–407, 436 plumes 126, 129 14_Energy Environ_441-452 23/10/09 17:37 Page 443 Index 443 inventory 129, 131, 159, 165, 175, 215, 299, 348, 406 endothermic reaction 10–15, 22 energy balances 14, 24–25, 32, 47–50, 54–55, 93, 106, 141, 144, 210, 278, 310, 431 conservation 5, 8, 23–24, 31, 243, 246, 311, 317, 322, 362–363, 367, 418 principle consumption 2, 30, 35–36, 38–42, 50, 54, 60, 65–66, 77–79, 85, 90–98, 102, 119, 189, 219, 222, 226, 244, 282, 287, 296, 307, 321–322, 359, 381, 392–393, 398, 409–411 efficiency 160, 243–250, 286, 291–292, 320–321, 357–360, 363, 365, 377, 403–404, 406, 414, 427–428 farms 267, 269 intensity 65, 66, 93–97, 221, 283, 318, 395–399 matrix 45, 47, 51, 54–55, 60, 267, 307, 394 needs 8, 35–37, 227 outlook 385–386 resources 55 security 54, 60, 243, 414 storage 103, 266, 296, 314, 329, 414 system 7, 27, 47, 49, 66–67, 129, 181, 279, 362, 365 enthalpy 9, 14–15, 21, 31–33 entropy 25–30 environmental accounting 361 hotspots 173 impacts 1, 62, 101–102, 109, 111, 115, 129, 189, 194, 226, 243, 245, 251, 276, 314, 339, 344, 348, 378 law 342, 344, 425 ESCOs 246 ethanol 15, 47, 54, 84, 95, 175, 196, 260–261, 266, 297, 299, 302–304, 306–314, 328–329, 350, 376, 414, 427, 433, 436 exothermic reaction 4, 10–15, 22 exponential growth 77 externalities 113–114, 173, 204, 245, 283, 344, 351, 360 Fahrenheit 4, 32, 431 feed-in tariffs 349 Fermi 31, 201, 420 fertilizers 103, 151, 182–183, 194, 307, 314 filter 107, 124, 317, 348 Fischer–Tropsch 299, 300, 302, 313 flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs) 84 Fludd, Robert fluidized bed 254, 266, 315 food 11, 30, 35–38, 42, 45, 52, 103, 118, 138, 161, 173–174, 231, 281, 299, 303, 305–307, 314 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 161, 174 food securiity 307 force 3–5, 7, 9, 16–17, 28–32, 46, 102, 189, 231, 287–288, 306, 346–347, 360, 403, 411, 418, 421, 424, 427, 430 fuel cells 254, 263, 296–729, 418–420 oil 45, 107, 213 principles 368 fuelwood 1, 38–42, 434, 439 furans 102, 340–341 gasification 244, 254–256, 266–267, 270, 300, 313 gasoline 4, 42, 45, 79, 95, 133, 182, 222, 288–293, 296, 298, 302–303, 308–315, 328–329, 341, 368–369, 404, 407, 419, 423, 425, 433, 436, 439 geothermal 32, 45–47, 49, 55, 63, 259–260, 263, 392 power 55, 259, 260, 262 Gibbs equation 25 Gini index 79, 81–82, 88 Global Warming Potential (GWP) 150–151, 154, 174 gravity 3–9, 32, 46, 55 14_Energy Environ_441-452 23/10/09 17:37 Page 444 444 Energy, Environment and Development greenhouse effect 103–104, 139, 141–142, 148, 150, 174, 189, 222, 256, 297, 418, 420, 424 gas (GHG) 139, 146, 151, 154, 156, 160, 163, 175, 293, 346, 406 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 1, 66, 67, 69–75, 77, 78, 82, 85–88, 93–98, 119, 158, 230, 233, 327, 352, 356–362, 377, 386–388, 395–399, 427 Gross National Product (GNP) 38, 71–74, 77, 79, 85, 93, 98, 361, 395 heat pump 30 heating 15, 27, 35, 45–46, 103, 139, 166, 224–226, 231, 251, 254, 261, 264–265, 271–272, 276, 318–322, 327, 362, 404–406 value 11, 31, 33, 291, 310 heavy metals 102–103, 121, 130, 216, 224, 281, 315, 338 Heron of Alexandria 16, 417 HFC 159, 162, 339 Himan Development Index (HDI) 82, 85–88, 90–93 horse-power 19, 20, 32, 432 human disruption index 181–182 needs 37–38 Hurricane Katrina 357 hybrid 288, 291–292, 298 hydraulic potential 32, 45–47, 55 hydro power 19, 46–47, 54, 103, 105,195, 197, 216, 224, 243, 259–263, 269, 276, 362, 392, 419–424 hydrocarbons (HCs) 102, 123, 129, 133, 168, 189, 194, 283 hydrolysis 310, 313 incineration 182, 341 Industrial Revolution 18, 101–102, 115 industry 52–54, 65–66, 83–84, 96, 98, 103–106, 115, 118–119, 122, 126, 130, 133, 139, 141, 159, 162, 182–183, 195, 218–219, 223–233, 243, 250, 257, 259, 266, 276, 279, 282, 287, 289, 298–299, 306–307, 314, 319, 337–341, 349, 360, 362, 365, 367–368, 395, 419, 424, 426 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 144, 146, 159, 327, 360, 385, 406, 424, 427 internal energy 9, 10, 15, 25, 32–33 rate of return 247, 249 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 216–217, 421 International Energy Agency (IEA) 47, 49, 50, 422 isothermal process 28–29 Jiko cookstoves 323 Joule 4, 5, 19, 20, 33 Joule, James P 4, 9, 418, 430, 432 Kilimanjaro 144 kinetic energy 4–7, 15, 198, 298 Kuznets 82–84, 110 Kyoto Protocol 62, 159, 160, 282, 293, 309, 345–347, 357, 373, 376, 407, 410, 425–428 labeling 282, 295, 367 land use 118, 141–142, 154–156, 160–166, 174–175, 182–185, 226–227, 230, 282, 286, 288, 299, 307, 314, 327, 377 Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) 175, 327 Law of Gases 32 lead 102, 115, 118, 123, 129, 169, 182, 194, 222, 278, 281, 298, 302, 308, 315, 341, 368, 369 leapfrogging 84–85, 392, 414 learning curve 204, 209, 311–312, 342, 349–350 life cycle 46, 181, 194–195, 197, 199, 200, 210–212, 247, 250, 306, 314, 363, 368, 370 lighting 42, 195, 224, 250, 279, 281, 321–322, 404–406, 417–418 14_Energy Environ_441-452 23/10/09 17:37 Page 445 Index 445 limits 1, 12, 26–27, 37, 47, 71, 101, 118, 124, 126, 167, 170, 184, 29, 384, 397, 422 liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) 39, 40–42, 216, 296, 323, 368, 406, 433–434 livestock 151, 182, 228, 257, 426 Lorentz 81–82 marine energy 46 Marpol 238, 293 Mauna Loa 146, 150 mechanical efficiency 288 energy 4–9, 16–22, 27–28, 30–31, 33, 35, 288 mercury (Hg) 8, 102–103, 118, 123, 10, 166, 183, 224, 426–427 methane (CH4) 11–12, 103, 123, 139, 147, 151, 154, 182–183, 189, 216, 222, 328 methyltributylether (MTBE) 425 Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) 86–88, 237–238, 425 Minamata 224 mitigation 114, 159, 174, 195, 293, 355, 358, 378, 392, 427 mobile sources 286 modeling 37–38, 105, 107–109, 121, 129, 144, 245, 307, 359, 385, 411, 422 motorcycles 282–283, 288, 407, 419 multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) 344–347, 373 natural gas 12, 20, 32–33, 45–49, 56–62, 77, 106–107, 130, 189, 194, 216, 224, 254, 256–257, 269, 272, 285, 288, 293, 296–298, 328, 338, 362, 368, 387, 392, 407, 417, 427–428, 433–434, 436, 438 Newcomen, Thomas 16–18, 21, 418 Newton, Isaac 4, 5, 418 nitrogen oxides (NOx) 102, 118, 123, 133, 168, 189, 283, 299, 425 nitrous oxide 143, 151, 183 non-commercial energy 38, 45, 60, 66, 182, 324, 387 non-renewable sources 12, 46–47, 60, 63, 307, 361 nuclear accidents 103, 215–216, 423 energy 3–4, 21–22, 36, 45, 47, 51–52, 61, 63, 199, 212, 243, 338, 342, 351, 388–389, 414, 420, 424 power 45–6, 54–55, 60, 115, 197–213, 215, 224, 269, 328, 392, 420–421, 423 proliferation 216–217, 421 reactor 20–21, 202 waste 185, 213–214, 426 objective responsibility principle 115 occupational 103, 114, 122, 166–168, 171, 226 ocean 46, 103–104, 142–147, 150, 163, 165, 182, 226, 256, 2592–60, 337, 417, 425–427 offsetting 348, 404–408 oil 11–12, 42, 45–47, 49, 51–52, 54, 56, 63, 77, 93, 102, 139, 168, 182, 184, 189, 199, 212, 224, 238, 256–257, 276, 286, 328–329, 342, 355, 387–389, 392–393, 395, 413, 417–427, 436 accidents 102–103, 105, 182, 189, 216, 226–227, 229, 238, 420–426 crisis 201, 226, 244, 308, 362, 422–423 equivalent 20, 36, 41, 60, 90, 93, 233, 432 industry 223, 246, 419 products 39, 45, 47, 51–52, 55, 63, 119, 121–123, 129, 155, 217, 224, 285, 288–289, 293, 303, 314, 368, 407, 419–420, 433–439 refining 50, 189, 318, 341, 419 Organization of Petroleum Export Countries (OPEC) 56, 246, 421–422, 425, 427 Otto cycle 18, 36, 263, 283, 288–289, 298, 302, 308 oxidation 10–11, 123, 328 14_Energy Environ_441-452 23/10/09 17:37 Page 446 446 Energy, Environment and Development ozone 102, 105, 121, 123–412, 126, 133–135, 141, 168, 173–174, 189, 283, 296, 329, 337–339, 345, 347, 424 palm oil 299, 306 particulate 102, 105, 108, 119, 121–126, 129–130, 133, 166, 168, 170, 183, 189, 222, 224, 283, 289, 296, 300, 302, 315–317, 369, 420 Pauli 31 peat 46, 51, 52, 63, 414 perfluorcarbons (PFCs) 159, 162, 174, 339 perfluoromethane (CF4) 151 perpetual motion 8, 9, 26 persistant organic pollutants (POPs) 103, 338–341, 345, 347, 426 phenols 341 photosynthesis 11, 19, 22, 55, 165, 195, 417 Planck, Max plutonium 201, 214–217, 421 poli-chlorinated bihenyls 103, 118, 340, 420 polluter-pays principle 114, 342, 371 pollution 60, 77, 83, 85, 102–5, 108–121, 126, 129, 133, 135, 139, 166–171, 181, 184, 189, 194, 222–223, 226–227, 238, 243, 254, 283, 286, 289, 292–293, 296, 298, 314–315, 319, 337–345, 348–349, 352, 357, 361–362, 365, 368, 376, 397, 413, 419, 422, 426–427 reduction technology 315–317, 329, 365, 367, 376, 427 population growth 76–77, 119, 228, 381, 384, 399 poverty 79, 86, 88, 90, 337, 343, 422, 425–426, 428 power 4, 16, 19–21, 25, 27–28, 31–33, 36, 45–47, 55, 67, 184, 189, 224, 233, 243, 245–246, 250–251, 256–257, 259–262, 287–289, 293, 298, 308–309, 370, 387, 392, 395, 403, 419, 430 consumption 67–68, 93, 98, 224, 317 plants 19, 32, 45, 50–51, 54–55, 60, 103, 105–106, 108, 129–130, 133, 189, 213, 250–254, 256, 260, 262, 314–315, 319, 328, 337, 344, 348–349, 393, 406, 426 precautionary principle 115, 342–343 precipitator 107, 254, 316–317 primary energy 38, 45, 47, 49, 50–51, 54, 60, 62–63, 66, 84, 90, 93, 97–98, 189, 357, 382, 392–393, 396 pollutants 108, 209 production technology 55, 84, 189, 251–252, 257–259, 264, 269, 277, 286, 288, 291–293, 307–309, 314, 357, 359 progress ratio 310 pulp 52, 159, 310, 317, 320, 349 purchasing parity power 38, 66, 68–69, 74–75, 86, 95, 97, 113, 158 radiative forcing 141, 143 Rankine 254, 328 rebound effect 286, 259, 404 reforestation 160, 165, 322, 324, 326–327, 358, 365, 411 refrigeration 28–30, 151, 174, 224, 251, 272, 281, 318, 320–322, 339, 362, 365, 419, 432 renewability 46 renewable energies 11–12, 46–74, 49, 51–52, 54, 60–61, 63, 107, 173, 194–195, 243, 257, 259–263, 276, 298–299, 302, 307, 309, 328, 338, 348–349, 351, 357, 360–361, 377, 388–389, 392, 394, 403, 406, 414, 426–427 Renewable Portfolio Standards 349 reprocessing 214–215 research and development 98, 254, 269, 277, 296, 349, 367 reserves 55–57, 59–62, 184, 230, 361–362, 403, 413, 423, 427 retrofit 254, 276, 309, 319, 362, 369 return 243, 247–279, 276 Risk 42, 111, 115, 128, 137, 167, 171, 195, 204, 213, 215, 217, 223, 247, 257, 342, 355–356, 360 14_Energy Environ_441-452 23/10/09 17:37 Page 447 Index 447 Sankey diagram 28 savannization 166 scenarios 245, 289, 307, 385–394, 407, 427 scrubbers 107, 315–317 secondary energy 45, 47, 50 Seveso 224, 340 sick building syndrome 166, 226 slaves 8, 36–37, 413 Smeaton smog 115–116, 118, 135, 329, 420 social security 70, 96 soft loans 360 solar architecture 259, 322 energy 19, 22, 32, 46–47, 49, 51–52, 55, 63, 243, 271–272, 275–280, 318, 392, 394, 417, 421 impacts 194 photovoltaic (PV) 209, 212, 259, 261, 263, 278–280, 421 power 55, 259–260, 262, 272, 277–281, 421 radiation 102, 123, 126, 129, 139, 168, 271, 277 roofs 279 stoves 272, 323 thermal 259, 261, 263, 271, 272, 275–278, 318, 322 soybean 170, 250, 298–299, 300 oil 306 stabilization 15, 159, 201, 356, 359, 376, 391 stationary sources 118, 314–315 steam 5, 16–18, 21, 24, 28, 31, 36, 45, 251, 254, 263, 266, 277, 318, 387, 417–419 steel 52, 54, 219, 224, 230, 244, 254, 317–318, 320, 341, 349, 395, 398, 417 Stern Report 355–356, 385, 427 Stockholm Convention 340, 345, 422, 424 subsidies 41, 70–73, 95, 98, 115, 128, 204, 230, 246, 272, 298, 309, 313, 323, 328, 346, 349, 351, 355, 360, 367, 385, 411 sugar cane 33, 47, 189, 239, 257, 266–267, 299, 302–303, 308–310, 313, 328, 350, 414, 435 sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) 151 sulphur 122, 138, 182, 285–286, 302, 426 composites 121, 151 content 102, 121–122, 129, 130, 189, 285–286, 289–290, 292–293, 298–299, 368–369, 425 oxides (SOx) 102, 110, 116, 122, 126, 168, 222, 344 removal 189, 264, 285–286, 289, 338 sulphuric acid (H2SO4) 103, 139, 299 supply curve 363–364 sustainability 2, 46–47, 88–89, 173, 184, 217, 231, 281, 303, 306–307, 328, 342–345, 349, 361, 365, 370–371, 373, 376, 392–394, 403, 408, 413–414, 420, 426 syngas 254, 256, 313 taxes 70–73, 95, 98, 118, 403 technological man 36 technology barriers 285, 357, 365, 377–378, 411 transfer 343, 346, 357, 376, 422, 426, 428 thermal efficiency 27, 288 energy 19, 21–22, 139, 340, 417 engine 26–27, 30 equilibrium 23 principle 23 inversions 126, 128–129 NOx 129 pollution 189 thermodynamics 21, 23, 25–28, 33, 47, 245, 254, 283, 288, 418, 420 Thompson Three Mile Island 201 tidal energy 46 ton of oil equivalent (toe) 20, 33, 36, 60, 90 trade 70, 73, 98, 328, 343–347 traditional biomass 61, 166, 181, 323 transboundary pollution 103, 133, 135, 342, 344–345 14_Energy Environ_441-452 23/10/09 17:37 Page 448 448 Energy, Environment and Development transesterification 299 transportation 37, 39, 47, 50, 52–56, 84, 93, 104, 106, 110, 119, 182, 184–185, 195, 217–227, 243, 250, 256–257, 263, 269, 281–283, 286–288, 292–293, 298, 314, 339, 357, 365, 368, 370, 388–389, 398, 403–404, 417 trigger mechanisms 107, 138 turbine 4, 5, 18, 21, 24–25, 31, 105, 107, 189, 195, 199, 251, 254, 256, 263, 266, 269–271, 277, 289, 298, 350, 362, 376, 419 U.S Department of Energy (DoE) 50, 174, 385 ultraviolet 135, 173–174 UNCED principles 342–345 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, Earth Summit, Rio-92) 159, 342–343, 345, 424 United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) 174, 340, 346, 422 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 159, 160, 162, 345, 428 United States Geological Survey (USGS) 60 uranium 4, 45–46, 62, 198–201, 204, 210–217, 420 vegetable oil 47, 299–300 vehicle efficiency 283, 288, 291–293, 367 principles 367–730 Vernadsky, Vladimir 102, 173 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 102, 132, 169 wage 39, 42–43, 96 waste storage 46, 103, 424 wastes 11, 38, 39, 42, 46, 49, 51–52, 54, 101, 103, 130, 138, 151, 162, 166, 181–185, 189, 194, 197–198, 204, 212–217, 224, 226–227, 230, 259, 265–266, 308, 314, 323, 337, 339, 341, 345, 348, 361, 389, 404, 414, 423–424, 438–439 watt 19–21, 36–37, 430, 432 Watt, James 18, 21, 418 WEHAB 39 wind effects 107–108, 126, 129, 133, 139, 144 energy 4, 21, 35, 45–47, 54–55, 102, 212, 259, 260–263, 269–274, 350, 376, 392, 414, 417, 426 impacts 194, 231 power 260, 262, 269–274 work 4–9, 16–20, 23–33, 35–36, 283, 288 World Health Organization (WHO) 121, 126, 167, 170 World Metereological Organization (WMO) 159, 174 World Trade Organization (WTO) 73, 347, 373, 376, 428 Young, Thomas Yucca Mountain 215, 424, 426 14_Energy Environ_441-452 23/10/09 17:37 Page 449 14_Energy Environ_441-452 23/10/09 17:37 Page 450 14_Energy Environ_441-452 23/10/09 17:37 Page 451 14_Energy Environ_441-452 23/10/09 17:37 Page 452