science and scientists, vol.1, abstract algebra - global warming

Science and Scientists MAGILL’S C H O I C E Science and Scientists Volume Abstract Algebra – Global Warming from The Editors of Salem Press Salem Press Inc Pasadena, California Hackensack, New Jersey Cover image: Catalin Stefan/Dreamstime.com Copyright © 2006, by Salem Press, Inc All rights in this book are reserved No part of this work may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical\ articles and reviews For information address the publisher, Salem Press, Inc., P.O Box 50062, Pasadena, California 91115 Some essays originally appeared in Great Events from History: Science and Technology Series (1991), The Twentieth Century: Great Events: 1900-2001 (2002), Great Events from History II: Science & Technology (1991), Great Events from History: The Ancient World, Prehistory-476 c.e (2004), Great Events from History: The Middle Ages, 477-1453 (2005), Great Events from History: The Renaissance & Early Modern Era, 1454-1600 (2005), Great Events from History: The Seventeenth Century, 1601-1700 (2006) New material has been added ∞ The paper used in these volumes conforms to the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, Z39.48-1992 (R1997) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Science and Scientists p cm (Magill's choice) Includes bibliographical references and indexes ISBN-10: 1-58765-302-8 (set : alk paper) ISBN-13: 978-1-58765-302-5 (set : alk paper) ISBN-10: 1-58765-303-6 (v : alk paper) ISBN-13: 978-1-58765-303-2 (v : alk paper) [etc.] Discoveries in science Scientists Biography I Salem Press II Series Q180.55.D57S29 2006 509 dc22 2005030915 First Printing printed in the united states of america Disclaimer: Some images in the printed version of this book are not available for inclusion in the eBook Contents Publisher’s Note ix Contributors xi Alphabetical List of Contents xvii Abstract Algebra AIDS Alpha Decay Amino Acids 14 Anesthesia 18 Antisepsis 23 Artificial Intelligence 27 Aspirin 31 Atmospheric Circulation 35 Atmospheric Pressure 39 Atomic Nucleus 42 Atomic Structure 47 Atomic Theory of Matter 50 Australopithecus 55 Axiom of Choice 59 Ballistics 64 Bell Curve 69 Big Bang 74 Binomial Classification 80 Black Holes 84 Blood Circulation 89 Blood Groups 95 Blue Baby Surgery 99 Boolean Logic 103 Bourbaki Project 108 Boyle’s Law 112 Brahe’s Supernova 118 Buckminsterfullerene 122 Calculus Carbon Dioxide Cassini-Huygens Mission Cell Theory v 126 131 136 141 Science and Scientists Celsius Temperature Scale Cepheid Variables Chandrasekhar Limit Chaotic Systems Chlorofluorocarbons Chromosomes Citric Acid Cycle Cloning Compton Effect Conductivity Contagion Continental Drift Copernican Revolution Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation Cosmic Rays Cro-Magnon Man 146 151 155 160 163 167 171 175 179 183 187 192 196 201 206 209 D’Alembert’s Axioms of Motion Dead Sea Scrolls Decimals and Negative Numbers Definite Proportions Law Diffraction Diphtheria Vaccine DNA Fingerprinting DNA Sequencing Double-Helix Model of DNA 213 217 223 227 232 236 241 248 251 Earth Orbit Earth’s Core Earth’s Structure Electric Charge Electrodynamics Electromagnetism Electron Tunneling Electrons Electroweak Theory Euclidean Geometry Evolution Exclusion Principle Expanding Universe Extrasolar Planets 256 261 265 268 273 277 283 286 292 296 300 306 310 315 vi Contents Fahrenheit Temperature Scale Falling Bodies Fermat’s Last Theorem Fossils Fractals 318 322 327 329 333 Galactic Superclusters Galaxies Galen’s Medicine Galileo Probe Game Theory Gamma-Ray Bursts Gene-Chromosome Theory Genetic Code Geologic Change Geomagnetic Reversals Germ Theory Global Warming 336 340 345 350 355 359 363 368 373 379 382 387 vii Publisher’s Note Lucan’s famous dictum that those standing on the shoulders of giants see farther than the giants themselves applies to no human endeavor more thoroughly than to the “pure” sciences: astronomy, chemistry, biology, geology, mathematics, physics, and the many subdisciplines they have spawned The three volumes of Science and Scientists documents 245 of the most important breakthroughs in the history of science, cross-referenced to link those that built on others, from ancient times to the present day These essays are accompanied by biographical sidebars on many of the giants behind the discoveries, as well as charts and schematics illustrating many of the basic concepts The disciplines covered here are broad, including Anthropology, Archaeology, Astronomy and Cosmology, Biology, Chemistry, Computer Science, Earth Science, Environmental Science, Evolution, Genetics, Mathematics, Medicine, Meteorology, Methods, Paleontology, Physics, Psychology, and Space Science Arranged alphabetically, these essays address the most important breakthroughs in these fields, ranging from Abstract Algebra to Quantum Mechanics, from the Big Bang to X-Ray Astronomy, from Antisepsis to Viruses Accompanying the essays are 125 sidebars highlighting the scientists and their accomplishments An additional 62 charts, diagrams, and drawings illustrate the scientific concepts presented It is important to note that technological advances and inventions—such as the telephone, the light bulb, and the airplane—are not addressed here but are covered in the companion Magill’s Choice set Inventions and Inventors (2 vols., 2002) However, a few “crossover” achievements—such as the Personal Computer, the Internet, and Vaccination—are included in these pages for having had as great an impact on the “pure” sciences as on everyday life The core achievements in space science also appear here, from the Apollo Moon landing to the International Space Station Each essay opens with a brief definition of the topic and a summary of its significance, followed by a list of the central scientific figures The text of each essay is broken into sections with concise subheads “See also” crossreferences to other essays in these volumes follow, and each essay ends with a listing of core resources for “Further Reading.” All essays were written by scholars of history or the sciences At the end of the third volume students and general readers will find a list of the Nobel Prize winners in science (Chemistry, Medicine, and Physics) and a list of useful Web Sites Indexes arrange the essays by Category, list Personages discussed, and end with a comprehensive Subject Index ix Subject Index Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 641-645, 764, 911 Midgley, Thomas, Jr., 164 Mid-oceanic ridges, 486, 641-645 Mid-oceanic rifts, 195 Milky Way galaxy, 151, 311, 337, 340, 837; gamma rays, 360; mapping of, 843; radio signals, 203, 842, 999 Miller, Stanley, 14, 17, 636 Millikan, Robert Andrews, 206, 684 Milne, John, 261 Milstein, César, 478 Mimas (moon of Saturn), 139, 445 Mind-body connection, 716-720 Miner, Ellis D., 1015 Minimax condition, 357 Minkowski, Rudolf, 671, 839 Minot, George, 515 Mir Space Station, 526 Mirzabekov, Andrei, 248 “Missing link,” 55 Mitchell, Robert, 136 Mitosis, 143, 169, 645-649 Mohorovi5i6, Andrija, 262, 265 Mohorovi5i6 Discontinuity, 267 Moivre, Abraham de, 69, 71 Molina, Mario José, 163, 165 Monists, 717 Monoclonal antibodies, 479-480 Montagnier, Luc, 474 Monte, Guidobaldo Marchese del, 322 Montreal Protocol, 715 Moon landing, 649-654 Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 167, 363 Morgenstern, Oskar, 355 Morse, Samuel, 276 Morton, William Thomas Green, 19-20 / 1175 Moseley, Henry, 1051 Moseley’s law, 1051 Mosquitoes as disease vectors, 1052 Mössbauer, Rudolf Ludwig, 654, 656 Mössbauer effect, 654-658; applications, 656 Motion, laws of, 64-69, 322-326; Jean le Rond d’Alembert, 215; Apollonius, 411; Aristotle, 625; medieval, 625; Sir Isaac Newton, 406; planetary, 550-555, 654, 728; relativity, 861 See also Gravitation Moulton, F R., 757 Mount Vesuvius eruption, 785 Mount Wilson Observatory, 151, 311, 344, 456, 766, 843 Mr Tompkins series (Gamow), 11 Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory, 806 Muller, Hermann Joseph, 363 Müller, Johann, 627 Müller, Johannes, 142 Müller, Karl Alexander, 975 Mullis, Kary B., 241-242 Multiple proportions law (Dalton), 230 Multipotent cells, 951 Musgrave, F Story, 455 Mutations, 364 Myers, Ronald, 936 Mythopoeic cosmologies, 906 Napoleon Bonaparte, 873 NASA See National Aeronautics and Space Administration Nash, John F., 355 Nash equilibrium, 357 1176 / Subject Index National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 257, 360, 526, 610, 922, 1040 National Human Genome Research Initiative, 471 Natural History, General and Particular (Buffon), 374 Natural selection, 303, 789 Navigation at sea, 591, 725 Neanderthals, 55, 393, 395, 569, 596, 658-661, 809 Nebular hypothesis, 662-664, 757 Needham, John Tuberville, 940 Ne’eman, Yuval, 827 Negative numbers, 223-226, 503 Neptunism, 992 Nernst, Walther, 983 Nernst heat theorem, 981, 983-986 Neumann, John von, 27, 355 Neurons, 605, 664-670, 951 Neurosis, 798 Neurotransmitters, 605 Neutrinos, 294, 308 Neutron stars, 87, 360, 671-675, 807, 846, 949, 1041 Neutrons, 675-679 Neuville, René Victor, 809 New Astronomy (Kepler), 439, 553 New Atlantis, The (Bacon), 903 New Experiments PhysicoMechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air and Its Effects (Boyle), 42, 114 New Math, 107-108 Newlands, John Alexander Reina, 733 Newton, Isaac, 71, 85, 214, 232, 235, 401, 404, 420, 437, 442, 551, 692, 696, 724, 727; calculus, 126, 129 Neyman, Jerzy, 337 Nicholas of Cusa, 627 Nicollier, Claude, 455, 458 Nirenberg, Marshall W., 368, 371 Nisenson, Peter, 315 Nitrogen, 1022 Noble, R G., 682 Noddack, Ida, 680 Noether, Emmy, Nölke, Friedrich, 760 Nollet, Jean-Antoine, 700, 703 Nonlinear phenomena, 335 Normal curve, 69-74 Nousek, John, 359 Novae, 152, 671 Novum Organum (Francis Bacon), 900, 903 NSFnet, 531 Nuclear chain reaction, 681 Nuclear fission, 678-683, 770, 849 Nuclear fusion, 948 Nuclear transfer, 177 Nucleolus of the cell, 142 Nucleons, 678 Nucleotides, 248 Nucleus, atomic, 10, 42-47 Number, concept of, 223 Number theory, 327, 503 Numbers, 503 Nutation of Earth’s axis, 934 Nutcracker man, 596, 1056 Nuttall, George, 95 Oakley, Kenneth Page, 58 Oberon (moon of Uranus), 445 Oberth, Hermann, 455-456 Obstetrics, 496-499, 704-707 Ocean basins, 910 Oceanic hot springs, 485-490 O’Connor, Bryan D., 525 Odierna, Giovanni Battista, 884 Subject Index Odysseus, 987 Oedipus complex, 798 Ohm, E A., 203 Oil-drop experiment, 683-687 Old Testament, 221 Oldenburg, Henry, 637-638 Oldham, Richard Dixon, 265 Oldowan tool tradition, 1056 Olduvai Gorge, 596, 1056 On Divisions of Figures (Euclid), 298 On Floating Bodies (Archimedes), 484 On Motion (Galileo), 323 On the Natural Faculties (Galen), 346 On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (Darwin), 304, 465, 646 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres See De revolutionibus On the Size and Distance of the Sun and the Moon (Aristarchus of Samos), 410 On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body (Galen), 346 Oncogenes, 687-691 O’Neil, William J., 351 Oneirocritica See Interpretation of Dreams, The (Artemidorus) Oort, Jan Hendrik, 691, 845 Oort Cloud, 691-696 Oparin, Aleksandr Ivanovich, 17, 867 Opera geometrica (Torricelli), 40 Oppenheimer, J Robert, 88 Opportunity (Mars Exploration Rover), 608 Optics, 696-700 Optics (Newton), 698 Oresme, Nicholas, 625 / 1177 Organ transplantation See Hand transplantation; Heart transplantation Ørsted, Hans Christian, 273, 277 Orthogonal Polynomials, 782 Osborne, Thomas Burr, 1009 Osiander, Andreas, 196, 198 Osmosis, 700-704 Ova transfer, 704-707 Oxygen, 707-711, 942, 1020; in combustion, 115; photosynthesis, 753 Oxygen cycle, 753 Ozone, 163, 165, 712 Ozone hole, 166, 711-716 Ozone layer, 712, 1039 P-n junctions, 284 Pacal (Mayan ruler), 621 Pacini, Franco, 807 Palenque, 620 Paleomagnetism, 379 Palitzsch, Johann Georg, 420 Palomar Observatory, 338, 833, 842 Pancreas, 451, 453, 513 Pangaea, 194, 910 Parallax method of measuring stellar distances, 151-152, 934 Parallel Postulate, 297 Parker, Eugene N., 919 Parkes Radio Telescope, 833 Parmenides, 905, 909 Parsons, William, 445 Partial pressures law (Dalton), 53 Particle accelerators, 292, 400, 819, 831 Particle nature of light, 232, 697 Particle physics, 292-296, 819, 827-832; birth of, 289 Partition principle (Bernstein), 63 1178 / Subject Index Pascal, Blaise, 39, 126-127, 793 Pascal’s triangle, 794 Passive immunity, 240 Pasteur, Louis, 23, 191, 382, 384, 942 Pasteurization, 383 Pati, Jogesh, 397 Pauli, Wolfgang, 306, 308 Pauling, Linus, 252, 1008 Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich, 349, 451, 716, 718 Pavlovian reinforcement, 716-720 Pawsey, J L., 839 PCR See Polymerase chain reaction Peano, Giuseppe, 59, 62, 616 Pearson, George, 914 Peebles, P J., 202, 204 Peking man, 596, 720-724 Pendulum Clock, The (Huygens), 724 Pendulum clocks, 592, 725, 933 Pendulums, 724-728 Penicillin, 729-733 Penzias, Arno, 77, 201-202, 1031 Peregrinus, Peter, 600 Period-luminosity scale, 152, 311-312 Periodic table of elements, 48, 52, 75, 733-738; Moseley’s law, 1051 Perrin, Jean-Baptiste, 288 Personal computers, 531, 738-742 Pesticide toxicity, 742-746 Pfeffer, Wilhelm, 701, 702 Phagocytosis, 490-496 Phase stability, 771 Phase switching, 840 Phillips, Robert, 525 Philoponus, John, 625 Phipps, James, 914 Phlogiston theory, 134, 709-710, 1020 Phoebe (moon of Saturn), 138 Phosphorus 30, 848 Photoelectric effect, 180, 747-750, 826, 1025 Photons, 180, 749, 825, 1025 Photosynthesis, 751-756 Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus, et iride (Grimaldi), 235 Physics; Middle Ages, 624-628 Physics (Aristotle), 625 Pi-meson, 830 Pickering, William, 766 Piltdown man, 56, 58 Place-value numeral systems, 223 Planck, Max, 48, 179, 306, 547, 747, 821, 824, 891, 1024 Planck’s constant, 48, 824-825, 1026 Planet (definition), 694 Planet X, 766 Planetary formation, 756-761 Planetary motion; Apollonius, 411; Kepler’s laws, 550-555, 728 Planetesimals, 759 Planets, extrasolar, 315-318 Plants, photosynthesis, 751-756 Plasmids, 855 Plate boundaries, 762 Plate tectonics, 192-196, 486, 761-765; magnetic reversals, 379; Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 641-645; seafloor spreading, 910-914 Platinum resistance thermometer, 549 Plato, 895; on Hippocrates, 416 Subject Index Playfair, John, 991 Pleistocene epoch, 58, 194 Plum pudding model of the atom, 43 Pluripotent cells, 951 Pluto, 694, 765-769; discovery, 767 Plutonism, 992 Plutonium, 683, 769-773 Pneuma, theory of, 347 Pneumatic chemistry, 710 Pneumocystis carinii, Poincaré, Henri, 522 Poisson, Siméon-Denis, 275, 979 Polarization, 1049 Polio vaccine; Sabin, 773-777; Salk, 777-780 Poliomyelitis, 773-780 Polymerase chain reaction, 242, 244 Polymers, 368, 867 Polynomials, 781-784 Polynucleotides, 868 Pompeii excavation, 784-789 Population genetics, 789-792 Population growth, 303 Porisms (Euclid), 299 Positive numbers, 503 Positrons, 847 Possel, René de, 108 Posterior Analytics (Aristotle), 896-897 Postulates (Koch), 385, 1002 Potential infinity, 60 Pound, Robert Vivian, 654 Precambrian era, 14 Precambrian life, 635 Pressure See Atmospheric pressure; Gas pressure Priam’s treasure, 989 Priestley, Joseph, 135, 707, 709, 751, 942, 1019 / 1179 Primordial soup, 17, 636, 867 Principia (Newton), 130, 405, 421, 698; influence on Jean le Rond d’Alembert, 215 Principia Mathematica (Russell and Whitehead), 501, 619, 880 “Principle of Equivalence” (Einstein), 862 Principles of Chemistry (Mendeleyev), 734 Principles of Geology (Lyell), 375 Prior Analytics (Aristotle), 898 Prisms, 697 Probability theory, 69, 356, 581, 793-796 Proconsul, 1056 Project Mercury, 256-261 Projectile motion, 66, 324 Prokaryotes, 636 Protein metabolism, 171 Proteins, 368, 871; amino acids, 867 Proterozoic era, 14 Protons, 272, 289, 399, 541, 677, 847 Protozoa, 638 Proust, Joseph-Louis, 51, 227, 230 Proust-Berthollet debate, 229 Pseudaria (Euclid), 299 Psychoanalysis, 796-801 Ptolemaic model of the universe, 197, 438, 551 Ptolemy (astronomer), 66, 197, 409, 413, 437 Ptolemy V Ephiphanes, 876 Pulmonary circulation, 801-805 Pulsars, 674, 805-808, 846 Punctuated equilibrium, 305 Punnett, Reginald Crundall, 628 Punnett squares, 630 Purcell, Edward Mills, 845 1180 / Subject Index Purdy, Jean M., 496 Purkyne, Jan Evangelista, 142 Pyrometer, 840 Pythagoras, 520, 905, 908 Pythagorean theorem, 327 Quantized Hall effect, 813-818 Quantum chromodynamics, 398, 818-821 Quantum electronics, 436 Quantum mechanics, 12, 434, 819, 821-827, 892; probability, 893; quantized Hall effect, 814; superconductivity, 973 Quantum theory, 48, 180, 291, 306, 433-437, 749, 823-824, 1027, 1051; Schrödinger’s wave equation, 890-894 See also Quantum mechanics Quarks, 819, 827-832 Quasars, 806, 832-835, 845, 1001 Qumran caves, 218 Rabies vaccine, 384 Rabinowitz, David, 694 Radar, 537 Radiation, atmospheric, 206 See also specific types Radiation belts (Earth’s), 995-998 Radio astronomy, 203, 806, 832, 836-838, 999; galactic sources, 839-843 Radio galaxies, 839-843 Radio maps of the universe, 843-846, 1031-1034 Radio telescopes, 806, 833, 836, 839, 841, 844, 999 Radio waves, 534, 999; ionospheric, 536 Radioactive clocks, 851 Radioactive elements, 846-850 Radioactivity, 539, 850 Radiocarbon dating, 811 Radiometric dating, 850-854 Radiosondes, 38 Ramón y Cajal, Santiago, 665, 669 Ramsay, William, 737 Rapid eye movements, 863-866 Rasio, Frederic A., 317 Rask, Grete, Raspail, Franỗois Vincent, 144 Rational mechanics, 214 Rational numbers, 503 Raup, David Malcolm, 612 Ravidat, Marcel, 569 Ray, John, 80 Rayleigh, Lord, 737 Rayleigh-Jeans expression, 823 Real numbers, 503 Réaumur, René-Antoine Ferchault de, 319 Reber, Grote, 836, 839, 843 Rebka, Glen A., 654 Recombinant DNA technology, 854-859 Recursion, 794 Red stars, 948 Redi, Francesco, 940 Redshifts, 311, 343, 655, 834, 931; galaxies, 151; Sirius B, 156 See also Doppler shifts Reed, Walter, 1052 Reflection, 235 Refraction, 232, 235, 697 Regiomontanus, 627 Reinforcement, Pavlovian, 716-720 Relativity, 180, 859-863, 936; general, 85, 284, 402, 654, 860; Christiaan Huygens, 727; special, 748, 860 Subject Index Religious persecution, 68, 198, 802 See also Inquisition REM sleep, 863-866 Remak, Robert, 142 Renaissance science, 900 Reproductive medicine, 496-499, 704-707 Respiration, 753 Reticular theory of the nervous system, 665 Retroviruses, 474, 690 Rheticus, 196, 198 Ribonucleic acid See RNA Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 868 Ribozymes, 866-872 Riccioli, Giambattista, 233 Rickets, 1010; and breast-feeding, 1011 Riemann, Bernhard, 449 Riemann, Georg, 500, 521 Right brain, 938 Rings of Saturn, 139, 881-887 Riolan, Jean, 89, 93 Ritchie, W A., 175 RNA (ribonucleic acid), 248, 370, 857, 867, 871 RNA genes, 869 RNA world, 870-871 RNase P, 871-872 Roberts, David, 566 Roberval, Gilles Personne de, 884 Rockets, 995, 1040 Roman Catholic Church, 200 Roman civilization, 786; medicine, 345-350 Rømer, Ole, 148, 319, 932, 935 Roming, Pete, 359 Röntgen, Wilhelm Conrad, 287, 1035, 1044, 1047 Röntgen X-Ray Satellite, 1041 / 1181 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 780 Rosas, Antonio, 393 Roscoe, Henry, 51 Rosetta stone, 872-878; text, 876 Roslin Institute, 175 Rossby, Carl-Gustav, 35, 38, 1028 Rothé, Jean P., 911 Rous sarcoma, 689 Rous, Peyton, 688 Roux, Pierre-Paul-Émile, 236, 887 Roux, Wilhelm, 645 Rowland, F Sherwood, 163 Royal Institution, 279 Royal Society, 638 Rubbia, Carlo, 292 Rudolf II, 120, 551 Ruelle, David, 162 Runcorn, Keith, 912 Russell, Bertrand, 106, 499, 616, 878 Russell, Henry Norris, 944 Russell’s paradox, 618, 878-881 Rutherford, Daniel, 131 Rutherford, Ernest, 10, 43, 45, 47, 306, 539, 675-676, 850 Ryle, Martin, 808, 839, 841, 999 Sabin, Albert Bruce, 774 Sagnac, Georges, 1048 Saint-Vincent, Jean-Baptiste Bory de, 561 Salam, Abdus, 292, 397 Salicylic acid, 32 Salk, Jonas Edward, 474, 774, 777 Salvarsan, 495 Salyut 1, 526 Sandage, Allan, 832, 841 Sanger, Frederick, 248 Santorio, Santorio, 322 Sarcomas, 7, 689 Sarpi, Paolo, 323 1182 / Subject Index Saturn (planet), 445, 1017; rings, 139, 881-887 Saussure, Nicolas de, 751 Savart, Felix, 273 Savitch, Paul, 680 Sawyer, Wilbur Augustus, 1052 Scattering theory, 291 Sceptical Chymist, The (Boyle), 114 Schawlow, Arthur L., 572 Scheele, Carl Wilhelm, 707 Schiaparelli, Giovanni, 765 Schick, Béla, 887 Schick test, 887-890 Schirra, Walter M (Wally), 257 Schleiden, Matthias, 142 Schliemann, Heinrich, 986 Schlosser, Max, 721 Schmidt, Maarten, 832 Schneider, Stephen Henry, 387 Schopf, J William, 14-15 Schreier, Otto, Schrieffer, J Robert, 972, 976 Schrödinger, Erwin, 309, 434, 890, 893, 1024 Schrödinger’s cat, 893 Schrödinger’s wave equation, 890-894, 1027 Schurmeier, Harris M., 1015 Schwann, Theodor, 142 Schwarzschild, Karl, 85-86 Schwarzschild radius, 86, 88 Schwarzschild singularity, 88 Scientific method; Aristotle, 894-899; Francis Bacon, 899-905; Greece, 905-910 Scopes trial, 469 Scorpius X-1, 1040 Scott, Elizabeth Leonard, 337 Scurvy, 1006 Seaborg, Glenn Theodore, 769 Seafloor spreading, 195, 486, 764, 910-914 Secchi, Angelo, 945 Sedna (Oort Cloud object), 694 Seebeck, Thomas Johann, 547 Segregation of alleles, 169 Seismic waves, 261, 266 Seismology, 261, 266 Selective breeding, 303 Semiconductors, 283, 813 Semmelweiss, Ignaz Philipp, 23 Senebier, Jean, 751 Sepkoski, John, 612 Sequencing DNA See DNA sequencing Sergeyevsky, Andrei B., 1015 Serotherapy, 240 Servetus, Michael, 801-802 Set theory, 60, 108, 504, 522, 618, 878 Sewall, Henry, 236 Sex-linked heredity, 365 Sexual selection, 469 Seysenegg, Erich Tschermak von, 629 Shane, Charles Donald, 337 Shanklin, Jonathan, 712 Shapley, Harlow, 151-152, 313, 337, 340, 843 Shattock, Samuel, 96 Sheep cloning, 175 Shelburne, Lord, 708 Shepard, Alan B., 256 Shockley, William, 283 Shoemaker, Carolyn, 351 Shoemaker, Eugene M., 351, 612 Shoemaker-Levy (comet), 352 Shoenberg, David, 973 Sidereal Messenger, The (Galileo), 440 Subject Index Siegbahn, Karl Manne Georg, 1051 Sierpi½ski, Vacυaw, 63 Silent Spring (Carson), 743, 745 Silicon, 813 Silicon chips, 284 Sima de los Huesos, 393 Simpson, James Young, 23, 25-26 Single-fluid theory of electricity, 187, 269, 577 Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 473 Sirius B (star), 156 Skellett, Albert Melvin, 836 Skhul cave, 810 Slayton, Donald K., 257 Sleep, 863-866 Sleep deprivation, 866 Slipher, Vesto Melvin, 151, 310, 340 Small Astronomy Satellites, 1040 Smalley, Richard E., 122 Smallpox vaccine, 237, 490, 914-918 Smith, Adam, 408 Smith, Bradford A., 1015 Smith, Francis Graham, 839 Smith, Hugh, 854, 1052 Smith, Marcia, 351 Snyder, Hartland, 88 Social Darwinism, 468 Soddy, Frederick, 45, 538, 851 Soderblom, Laurence, 1015 Soil microbes, 965 Solar corona, 920 Solar flares, 920 Solar spectrum, 927-932 Solar system; origins, 662-664 Solar wind, 918-922, 996 Sommerfeld, Arnold, 433 / 1183 Sony Corporation, 284 Space shuttle, 922-926 Space shuttle mission STS 1, 924 Space shuttle mission STS 2, 924 Space shuttle mission STS 61, 458 Space shuttle mission STS 114, 925 Space-time, 85, 402, 654, 748, 862, 970 Space travel and aging, 259 Spaeth, Mary, 572 Spallanzani, Lazzaro, 190, 940 Special theory of relativity, 748, 860 Species, theories of, 80, 561 Spectra; blackbody, 822; infrared, 931; optical light, 699; quasars, 833; stellar, 947; Sun, 928 Spectral emissions, 49, 929 Spectral lines, 307, 930 Spectroscopy, 927-932 Speed of light, 932-936; under water, 236 Spencer, Herbert, 468 Sperry, Roger W., 936 Spilker, Linda J., 136 Spiral nebulae, 151, 337, 340 Spirit (Mars Exploration Rover), 608 Spitzer space telescope, 694 Split-brain experiments, 936-939 Spontaneous generation, 144, 190, 386, 561, 639, 940-944 Sputnik 1, 530, 996 Squyres, Steve, 608 Stabiae, 785 Stability theorem, 358 Stahl, Georg, 709 Staining techniques, 640, 666 Star catalogs, 421 1184 / Subject Index Star maps, 421, 725 Stark, Benjamin, 871 Starling, Ernest Henry, 451 Stars; life cycles, 671, 944-950; types, 947 See also Stellar Statistics, 560, 581 Steady-state universe, 77 Steam engines, 980 Steinhardt, Paul J., 506 Steinitz, Ernst, 1, 63 Stellaburg, 120 Stellar aberration, 934 Stellar death, 87 Stellar evolution, 671, 944-950 Stellar formation, 970 Stellar interiors, 156 Stelluti, Francesco, 637 Stem cells, 28, 950-955 Steno, Nicholas, 330, 332 Steptoe, Patrick Christopher, 496 Stewart, Balfour, 534 Stirling, James, 72 Stochastic cooling, 294 Stoicheia See Elements Stokes, George Gabriel, 614, 1047-1048 Stokes’s law, 1050 Stone, Edward, 31 Stone, Edward C., Jr., 1015 Stonehenge, 955-959 Storms, 1029; Jupiter, 542-547 Strangeness, 830 Strasburger, Éduard, 645 Strassmann, Fritz, 680, 770 Stratigraphy, 331, 376, 992; Nicholas Steno’s principles, 332 Stratosphere, 960-965 Streptomycin, 965-968 String theory, 969-972 Strong force, 292, 294, 398, 820, 831 Strugnell, John, 218 STS See Space shuttle Stukeley, William, 955 Sturgeon, William, 276 Sturtevant, Alfred Henry, 363 Subatomic particles, 828 Subjectivists, 717 Sukenik, Eliezer, 217 Sun; mass of, 412 See also Solar Superclusters of galaxies, 336-339, 842 Superconductivity, 286, 588, 817, 971-975, 985; hightemperature, 975-978 Superego (Freud), 798 Superfluidity, 590, 986 Supernovae, 87, 671; in 1572, 118-122; and neutron stars, 671 Surface-Loci (Euclid), 299 Surgery; hand, 425-429; heart, 429-433; pre-Listerian, 23 Sutton, Walter S., 167 Svirbely, Joseph L., 1006 Swammerdam, Jan, 637-638 Swift Gamma Ray Observatory, 361 Swineshead, Richard, 625 Switching devices, 283 Syllogisms, 104, 898 Syphilis, 188-189, 493, 730, 732 Syphilis (Fracastoro), 188-189 System of the World (Laplace), 662 Systema Saturnium (Huygens), 884 Szent-Györgyi, Albert, 171, 1006 Szilard, Leo, 680 Tabe, Isshi, 546 Tabun cave, 810 Subject Index Taieb, Maurice, 596 Takens, Floris, 162 Taniyama-Shimura conjecture, 328 Tartaglia, Niccolò Fontana, 64, 67 Taung child, 56-57, 596, 723 Taussig, Helen Brooke, 100-101 Taxonomy, 80-84 Taylor, Frank Bursley, 192 Taylor, Richard L., 327 Telegraph, 276 Telemedicine, 529 Telescopes, 440; Giuseppe Campani, 543; Galileo, 440, 882; William Herschel, 443-447; Christiaan Huygens, 882; Isaac Newton, 698; William Parsons, 445; radio, 806, 833, 839, 844, 999; space, 455-461; X-ray, 1040 Teller, Edward, 11 Telomeres, 176 Telstar (communications satellite), 203 Temin, Howard M., 688 Temperature scales; Celsius, 146-150, 320; Fahrenheit, 318-322; Kelvin, 321, 547-550 Temple of the Inscriptions (Palenque), 621 Ter Haar, D., 760 Test-tube babies, 496-499 Tetanus, 239 Thales of Miletus, 905-906 Theiler, Max, 1052 Theogony (Hesiod), 906 Theophrastus, 80 Theory of Games and Economic Behavior (von Neumann and Morgenstern), 357 Theory of the Earth (Hutton), 374 / 1185 Thermodynamics, 979-983; first law, 979, 981, 984, 1162; second law, 980-981; third law, 981, 983-986 Thermoluminescence, 811 Thermometers; Celsius, 146-150, 320; Fahrenheit, 147, 318-322; Kelvin, 321, 547-550; Rømer, 319, 935 Thomas, Vivien, 100-101 Thomson, James, 950 Thomson, Joseph John, 43, 47, 272, 287, 289, 403, 538, 540, 747, 1047-1048 Thomson, Thomas, 51 Thomson, William See Kelvin, Lord Thornton, Kathryn C., 455 Till, James Edgar, 950 Titan (moon of Saturn), 138, 883 Titania (moon of Uranus), 445 Titanic recovery, 487 Tobacco mosaic virus, 1003, 1004 Todd, Alexander, 252 Tolstoy, Ivan, 912 Tombaugh, Clyde William, 765, 767 Torricelli, Evangelista, 39 Torricellian vacuum, 40 Totipotent cells, 951 Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de, 80 Townes, Charles Hard, 202, 572, 574 Toxins, 492; as disease-causing agents, 236-241, 887 Tractatus de quadratura curvarum (Newton), 129 Trade winds, 35 Trafton, Wilber, 525 Traité du dynamique (d’Alembert), 215 1186 / Subject Index Trajectory motion, 66, 324 Transfinite numbers, 61 Transfusions, 96 Transistors, 283, 436, 973 Transmission by contact law, 666 Transplantation; embryo, 704; hand, 425-429; heart, 429-433 Transuranic elements, 679, 770 Treatise on Proportions (Bradwardine), 625 Trigonometric functions, 782 Trigonometric series, 521 Trilithons, 957 Triton (moon of Neptune), 1018 Trojan War, 990 Troposphere, 960-965 Troy, excavation of, 986-990 Trujillo, Chad, 694 Truly, Richard H., 922 Tuberculosis, 966 Tuberville, John, 941 Tumor cells, 479 Tumors, viral, 687-691 Tunnel diodes, 285 Tunneling, alpha, 12 Tunneling of electrons, 283-286 Turing, Alan M., 27-28 Turing machine, 28-29 Turing test, 30 Turok, Neil, 969 Twenty-three problems (Hilbert), 447-450 Two-fluid theory of electricity, 187, 269, 577 Twort, Frederick, 1005 Tychonic model of the universe, 439 Tyler, G Leonard, 1015 Tyler, Stanley Allen, 634 Tylor, Edward B., 465 Uhlenbeck, George, 306 Uhuru satellite, 1040 Ultraviolet radiation, 712 Uncertainty principle, 433-437 Unconditioned reflexes, 719 Unconscious (Freud), 797 Undetermined coefficients principle, 781 Unified field theory See Grand unified theory Uniformitarianism; James Hutton, 991-995; Charles Lyell, 373-379 Universal gravitation See Gravitation Universal Turing machine See Turing machine Upsilon Andromedae, 316 Uqltdist, al-, 225 Uraniborg, 120 Uranium, 681, 770, 851, 1048 Uranus (planet), 445 Urban VIII, 440 Urey, Harold C., 17, 636 V-2 rockets, 995, 1040 Vaccination, 237 Vaccines, 1002; anthrax, 385; diphtheria antitoxin, 236-241, 888; polio, 773-780; smallpox, 490, 914-918; yellow fever, 1052-1055 Vacuums; Aristotle on, 625; Boylean, 113; Philoponus on, 625; Torricellian, 40 Valentin, Gabriel Gustav, 142 Valladas, Helène, 809 Value of All Chances in Games of Fortune, The (Huygens), 795 Van Allen, James, 995 Subject Index Van Allen radiation belts, 995-998 Van Calcar, Jan Steven, 463 Van der Meer, Simon, 292 Vandermeersch, Bernard, 809 Van der Waals, Johannes, 555 Vane, John Robert, 31 Van Helmont, Jan, 751 Van Maanen, Adriaan, 151 Van’t Hoff, Jacobus, 701 Variable number tandem repeats, 244 Variable stars, 152 Variolation, 914 Varmus, Harold E., 688 Vaucouleurs, Gérard Henri de, 337 Vaux, Roland De, 217 Vela satellites, 359 Venous valves, 92 Venter, J Craig, 471 Venus (planet), 351 Very long baseline interferometry, 998-1001 Vesalius, Andreas, 90, 462 Vesuvius eruption, 785 Vexler, Vladimir I., 771 Vine-Matthews hypothesis, 381 Virchow, Rudolf, 142, 145, 658 Viruses, 474-477, 1002-1005; and antibodies, 481; oncogenes, 687-691; polio, 774, 778; smallpox, 915; yellow fever, 1052-1055 Vitalism, 145, 940 Vitamin C, 1005-1009 Vitamin D, 1009-1015 Vitruvius, 482 Viviani, Vincenzio, 323 VNTRs See Variable number tandem repeats / 1187 Vogel, Hermann Karl, 945 Volcanoes; Krakatoa, 960; at plate boundaries, 486; shapers of Earth, 374; Vesuvius, 785 Voltaire, 408 Voyager missions, 1015-1019; Voyager 1, 1016; Voyager 2, 1016 Vries, Hugo de, 364, 628 W particles, 293 Wagner, Rudolf, 142 Waksman, Selman Abraham, 965 Walcott, Charles Doolittle, 634 Waldeyer, Wilhelm, 645, 665 Wallace, Alfred Russel, 301, 465 Wallis, John, 126 Walvis Ridge, 643 Warrawoona group, 15 Washkansky, Louis, 429 Wassermann test, 493 Watanabe, Junichi, 546 Water; composition of, 1019-1024; electricity and, 701; on Mars, 610 Water displacement, 481-485 Watson, James D., 252 Watt, James, 132, 1019 Wattenberg, Hermann, 642 Wave equation (Schrödinger), 890-894 Wave mechanics, 308, 825 Wave nature of light, 179, 699 Wave-particle debate, 181, 287 Wave-particle duality of light, 1024-1027 Weak force, 292, 294, 398 Weather balloons, 38 Weather fronts, 1027-1030 Weather patterns, 160-163 Webb Space Telescope, 459-460 1188 / Subject Index Weber, Carl Jacob, 784 Weber, Heinrich, Wedderburn, Joseph, Wegener, Alfred Lothar, 192-193, 266, 644, 761, 910 Weidenreich, Franz, 721 Weierstrass, Karl, 1, 521 Weil, André, 108, 110 Weil, Richard, 98 Weinberg, Steven, 292, 397 Weinberg, Wilhelm, 789 Weiner, Alexander S., 95 Weisman, Joel, Weismann, August, 645 Weizsäcker, Carl Friedrich von, 757 Well-ordering principle, 63 Wells, Horace, 19-20 Weng Zhong Bei, 721 Werner, Abraham Gottlob, 374, 991 Wetherald, Richard, 387 Wheels Of Zeus (WOZ), 741 Whipple, Fred, 691 White dwarf stars, 87, 155-160, 949 White, Nicholas, 359 White, Tim, 595, 1057 Whitehead, Alfred North, 501, 616, 880 Wiechert, Emil, 266 Wien, Wilhelm, 289, 821 Wigginton, Randy, 738 Wilberforce, Samuel, 304 Wiles, Andrew J., 327 Wilkins, Maurice H F., 252-253 Wilkinson, David T., 1031 Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, 1031-1034 Williams, Donald E., 351 Willow bark, 32 Wilmut, Ian, 175 Wilson, Charles Thomson Rees, 287, 290 Wilson, Robert, 77, 201, 202, 1031 Wilson cloud chamber, 290 Wiltshire prehistoric sites, 955 Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, 784 Wirtanen, Carl Alvar, 337 Witten, Edward, 969 WMAP See Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe Wollaston, William H., 927 Wolpoff, Milford, 660, 812 Wonder drugs; aspirin, 34; penicillin, 731-732; streptomycin, 965-968 Woodborne, Stephan, 566 Woodville, William, 914 World Health Organization, Wormholes, 863 WOZ See Wozniak, Stephen; Wheels Of Zeus Wozniak, Stephen, 738, 741 Wren, Christopher, 406, 420 Wright, Almroth Edward, 494 Wright, Edward, 600 Wüst, Georg, 642 X radiation; Compton effect, 179-183; discovery, 288, 1035-1039 X-ray astronomy, 1039-1043 X-ray crystallography, 1043-1047, 1051 X ray diffraction, 1044 X-ray fluorescence, 1047-1052 X-ray images, 1036 X-ray scattering, 180-181, 1048-1049 Xenophanes, 905, 907 XMM-Newton (satellite), 1041 Subject Index Yellow fever vaccine, 1052-1055 Yersin, Alexandre, 236, 887 Young, John W., 922 Young, Richard E., 351 Young, Thomas, 236, 872, 927 Young, William Henry, 520 Z particles, 293 Zaug, Arthur J., 866 Zdansky, Otto, 721 Zeeman, Pieter, 290, 307 Zeeman effect, 307 / 1189 Zehnder, Ludwig, 1035 Zeno’s paradoxes of motion, 61 Zermelo, Ernst, 63, 355 Zero, concept of, 224 Zero-sum theory, 356 Zhoukoudian excavations, 722 Zinjanthropus boisei, 596, 1055-1059 Zinn, Walter Henry, 679, 682 Zoological Philosophy (Lamarck), 560, 563 Zweig, George, 827 Zwicky, Fritz, 671 ... Cataloging-in-Publication Data Science and Scientists p cm (Magill''s choice) Includes bibliographical references and indexes ISBN-10: 1-5 876 5-3 0 2-8 (set : alk paper) ISBN-13: 97 8-1 -5 876 5-3 0 2-5 (set... ISBN-13: 97 8-1 -5 876 5-3 0 2-5 (set : alk paper) ISBN-10: 1-5 876 5-3 0 3-6 (v : alk paper) ISBN-13: 97 8-1 -5 876 5-3 0 3-2 (v : alk paper) [etc.] Discoveries in science Scientists Biography I Salem Press II... Index, 1139 Subject Index, 1153 xx Science and Scientists Abstract Algebra / Abstract Algebra Abstract Algebra The Science: Ernst Steinitz’s studies of the algebraic theory of mathematics provided