laughton, m. a. (2002). electrical engineer's reference book (16th ed.)

//integras/b&h/Eer/Final_06-09-02/prelims Electrical Engineer's Reference Book //integras/b&h/Eer/Final_06-09-02/prelims Important notice Many practical techniques described in this book involve potentially dangerous applications of electricity and engineering equipment. The authors, editors and publishers cannot take responsibility for any personal, professional or financial risk involved in carrying out these techniques, or any resulting injury, accident or loss. The techniques described in this book should only be implemented by professional and fully qualified electrical engineers using their own professional judgement and due regard to health and safety issues. //integras/b&h/Eer/Final_06-09-02/prelims Electrical Engineer's Reference Book Sixteenth edition M. A. Laughton CEng., FIEE D. J. Warne CEng., FIEE OXFORD AMSTERDAM BOSTON NEW YORK LONDON PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO //integras/b&h/Eer/Final_06-09-02/prelims Newnes An imprint of Elsevier Science Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 200 Wheeler Road, Burlington, MA 01803 A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd A member of the Reed Elsevier plc group First published in 1945 by George Newnes Ltd Fifteenth edition 1993 Sixteenth edition 2003 Copyright # Elsevier Science, 2003. All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1T 4LP. Applications for the copyright holder's written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0 7506 46373 For information on all Newnes publications visit our website at www.newnespress.com Typeset in India by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry 605 005, India. www.integra-india.com Printed and bound in Great Britain //integras/b&h/Eer/Final_06-09-02/prelims Contents Preface Section A ± General Principles 1 Units, Mathematics and Physical Quantities International unit system . Mathematics . Physical quantities . Physical properties . Electricity 2 Electrotechnology Nomenclature . Thermal effects . Electrochemical effects . Magnetic field effects . Electric field effects . Electromagnetic field effects . Electrical discharges 3 Network Analysis Introduction . Basic network analysis . Power-system network analysis Section B ± Materials & Processes 4 Fundamental Properties of Materials Introduction . Mechanical properties . Thermal properties . Electrically conducting materials . Magnetic materials . Dielectric materials . Optical materials . The plasma state 5 Conductors and Superconductors Conducting materials . Superconductors 6 Semiconductors, Thick and Thin-Film Microcircuits Silicon, silicon dioxide, thick- and thin-film technology . Thick- and thin-film microcircuits 7 Insulation Insulating materials . Properties and testing . Gaseous dielectrics . Liquid dielectrics . Semi-fluid and fusible materials . Varnishes, enamels, paints and lacquers . Solid dielectrics . Composite solid/liquid dielectrics . Irradiation effects . Fundamentals of dielectric theory . Polymeric insulation for high voltage outdoor applications 8 Magnetic Materials Ferromagnetics . Electrical steels including silicon steels . Soft irons and relay steels . Ferrites . Nickel±iron alloys . Iron±cobalt alloys . Permanent magnet materials 9 Electroheat and Materials Processing Introduction . Direct resistance heating . Indirect resistance heating . Electric ovens and furnaces . Induction heating . Metal melting . Dielectric heating . Ultraviolet processes . Plasma torches . Semiconductor plasma processing . Lasers 10 Welding and Soldering Arc welding . Resistance welding . Fuses . Contacts . Special alloys . Solders . Rare and precious metals . Temperature- sensitive bimetals . Nuclear-reactor materials . Amorphous materials Section C ± Control 11 Electrical Measurement Introduction . Terminology . The role of measurement traceability in product quality . National and international measurement standards . Direct-acting analogue measuring instruments . Integrating (energy) metering . Electronic instrumentation . Oscilloscopes . Potentiometers and bridges . Measuring and protection transformers . Magnetic measurements . Transducers . Data recording 12 Industrial Instrumentation Introduction . Temperature . Flow . Pressure . Level transducers . Position transducers . Velocity and acceleration . Strain gauges, loadcells and weighing . Fieldbus systems . Installation notes 13 Control Systems Introduction . Laplace transforms and the transfer function . Block diagrams . Feedback . Generally desirable and acceptable behaviour . Stability . Classification of system and static accuracy. Transient behaviour . Root-locus method . Frequency-response methods . State-space description . Sampled-data systems . Some necessary mathematical preliminaries . Sampler and zero-order hold . Block diagrams . Closed-loop systems . Stability . Example . Dead-beat response . Simulation . Multivariable control . Dealing with non linear elements . //integras/b&h/Eer/Final_06-09-02/prelims Disturbances . Ratio control . Transit delays . Stability . Industrial controllers . Digital control algorithms . Auto-tuners . Practical tuning methods 14 Digital Control Systems Introduction . Logic families . Combinational logic . Storage . Timers and monostables . Arithmetic circuits . Counters and shift registers . Sequencing and event driven logic . Analog interfacing . Practical considerations . Data sheet notations 15 Microprocessors Introduction . Structured design of programmable logic systems . Microprogrammable systems . Programmable systems . Processor instruction sets . Program structures . Reduced instruction set computers (RISC) . Software design . Embedded systems 16 Programmable Controllers Introduction . The programmable controller . Programming methods . Numerics . Distributed systems and fieldbus . Graphics . Software engineering . Safety Section D ± Power Electronics and Drives 17 Power Semiconductor Devices Junction diodes . Bipolar power transistors and Darlingtons . Thyristors . Schottky barrier diodes . MOSFET . The insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) 18 Electronic Power Conversion Electronic power conversion principles . Switch-mode power supplies . D.c/a.c. conversion . A.c./d.c. conversion . A.c./a.c. conversion . Resonant techniques . Modular systems . Further reading 19 Electrical Machine Drives Introduction . Fundamental control requirements for electrical machines . Drive power circuits . Drive control . Applications and drive selection . Electromagnetic compatibility 20 Motors and Actuators Energy conversion . Electromagnetic devices . Industrial rotary and linear motors Section E ± Environment 21 Lighting Light and vision . Quantities and units . Photometric concepts . Lighting design technology . Lamps . Lighting design . Design techniques . Lighting applications 22 Environmental Control Introduction . Environmental comfort . Energy requirements . Heating and warm-air systems . Control . Energy conservation . Interfaces and associated data 23 Electromagnetic Compatibility Introduction . Common terms . The EMC model . EMC requirements . Product design . Device selection . Printed circuit boards . Interfaces . Power supplies and power-line filters . Signal line filters . Enclosure design . Interface cable connections . Golden rules for effective design for EMC . System design . Buildings . Conformity assessment . EMC testing and measurements . Management plans 24 Health and Safety The scope of electrical safety considerations . The nature of electrical injuries . Failure of electrical equipment 25 Hazardous Area Technology A brief UK history . General certification requirements . Gas group and temperature class . Explosion protection concepts . ATEX certification . Global view . Useful websites Section F ± Power Generation 26 Prime Movers Steam generating plant . Steam turbine plant . Gas turbine plant . Hydroelectric plant . Diesel-engine plant 27 Alternative Energy Sources Introduction . Solar . Marine energy . Hydro . Wind . Geothermal energy. Biofuels . Direct conversion . Fuel cells . Heat pumps 28 Alternating Current Generators Introduction . Airgap flux and open-circuit e.m.f. . Alternating current windings . Coils and insulation . Temperature rise . Output equation . Armature reaction . Reactances and time constants . Steady-state operation . Synchronising . Operating charts . On-load excitation . Sudden three phase short circuit . Excitation systems . Turbogenerators . Generator±transformer connection . Hydrogenerators . Salient-pole generators other than hydrogenerators . Synchronous compensators . Induction generators . Standards 29 Batteries Introduction . Cells and batteries . Primary cells . Secondary cells and batteries . Battery applications . Anodising . Electrodeposition . Hydrogen and oxygen electrolysis Section G ± Transmission and Distribution 30 Overhead Lines General . Conductors and earth wires . Conductor fittings . Electrical characteristics . Insulators . Supports . Lightning . Loadings //integras/b&h/Eer/Final_06-09-02/prelims 31 Cables Introduction . Cable components . General wiring cables and flexible cords . Supply distribution cables . Transmission cables . Current-carrying capacity . Jointing and accessories . Cable fault location 32 HVDC Introduction . Applications of HVDC . Principles of HVDC converters . Transmission arrangements . Converter station design . Insulation co-ordination of HVDC converter stations . HVDC thyristor valves . Design of harmonic filters for HVDC converters . Reactive power considerations . Control of HVDC . A.c. system damping controls . Interaction between a.c. and d.c. systems . Multiterminal HVDC systems . Future trends 33 Power Transformers Introduction . Magnetic circuit . Windings and insulation . Connections . Three-winding transformers . Quadrature booster transformers . On-load tap changing . Cooling . Fittings . Parallel operation . Auto-transformers . Special types . Testing . Maintenance . Surge protection . Purchasing specifications 34 Switchgear Circuit-switching devices . Materials . Primary-circuit- protection devices . LV switchgear . HV secondary distribution switchgear . HV primary distribution switchgear . HV transmission switchgear . Generator switchgear . Switching conditions . Switchgear testing . Diagnostic monitoring . Electromagnetic compatibility . Future developments 35 Protection Overcurrent and earth leakage protection . Application of protective systems . Testing and commissioning . Overvoltage protection 36 Electromagnetic Transients Introduction . Basic concepts of transient analysis . Protection of system and equipment against transient overvoltage . Power system simulators . Waveforms associated with the electromagnetic transient phenomena 37 Optical Fibres in Power Systems Introduction . Optical fibre fundamentals . Optical fibre cables . British and International Standards . Optical fibre telemetry on overhead power lines . Power equipment monitoring with optical fibre sensors 38 Installation Layout . Regulations and specifications . High-voltage supplies . Fault currents . Substations . Wiring systems . Lighting and small power . Floor trunking . Stand-by and emergency supplies . Special buildings . Low-voltage switchgear and protection . Transformers . Power-factor correction . Earthing . Inspection and testing Section H ± Power Systems 39 Power System Planning The changing electricity supply industry (ESI) . Nature of an electrical power system . Types of generating plant and characteristics . Security and reliability of a power system . Revenue collection . Environmental sustainable planning 40 Power System Operation and Control Introduction . Objectives and requirements . System description . Data acquisition and telemetering . Decentralised control: excitation systems and control characteristics of synchronous machines . Decentralised control: electronic turbine controllers . Decentralised control: substation automation . Decentralised control: pulse controllers for voltage control with tap-changing transformers. Centralised control . System operation . System control in liberalised electricity markets . Distribution automation and demand side management . Reliability considerations for system control 41 Reactive Power Plant and FACTS Controllers Introduction . Basic concepts . Variations of voltage with load . The management of vars . The development of FACTS controllers . Shunt compensation . Series compensation . Controllers with shunt and series components . Special aspects of var compensation . Future prospects 42 Electricity Economics and Trading Introduction . Summary of electricity pricing principles . Electricity markets . Market models . Reactive market 43 Power Quality Introduction . Definition of power quality terms . Sources of problems . Effects of power quality problems . Measuring power quality . Amelioration of power quality problems . Power quality codes and standards Section I ± Sectors of Electricity Use 44 Road Transport Electrical equipment of road transport vehicles . Light rail transit . Battery vehicles . Road traffic control and information systems 45 Railways Railway electrification . Diesel-electric traction . Systems, EMC and standards . Railway signalling and control 46 Ships Introduction . Regulations . Conditions of service . D.c. installations . A.c. installations . Earthing . Machines //integras/b&h/Eer/Final_06-09-02/prelims and transformers . Switchgear . Cables . Emergency power . Steering gear . Refrigerated cargo spaces . Lighting . Heating . Watertight doors . Ventilating fans . Radio interference and electromagnetic compatibility . Deck auxiliaries . Remote and automatic control systems . Tankers . Steam plant . Generators . Diesel engines . Electric propulsion 47 Aircraft Introduction . Engine technology . Wing technology . Integrated active controls . Flight-control systems . Systems technology . Hydraulic systems . Air-frame mounted accessory drives . Electrohydraulic flight controls . Electromechanical flight controls . Aircraft electric power . Summary of power systems . Environmental control system . Digital power/digital load management 48 Mining Applications General . Power supplies . Winders . Underground transport . Coal-face layout . Power loaders . Heading machines . Flameproof and intrinsically safe equipment . Gate-end boxes . Flameproof motors . Cables, couplers, plugs and sockets . Drilling machines . Underground lighting . Monitoring and control 49 Standards and Certification Introduction . Organisations preparing electrical standards . The structure and application of standards . Testing, certification and approval to standard recommendations . Sources of standards information Index //integras/b&h/Eer/Final_06-09-02/prelims Preface The Electrical Engineer's Reference Book was first published in 1945: its original aims, to reflect the state of the art in electrical science and technology, have been kept in view throughout the succeeding decades during which sub - sequent editions have appeared at regular intervals. Publication of a new edition gives the opportunity to respond to many of the changes occurring in the practice of electrical engineering, reflecting not only the current commercial and environmental concerns of society, but also industrial practice and experience plus academic insights into fundamentals. For this 16th edition, thirty- nine chapters are either new, have been extensively rewritten, or augmented and updated with new material. As in earlier editions this wide range of material is brought within the scope of a single volume. To maintain the overall length within the possible bounds some of the older material has been deleted to make way for new text. The organisation of the book has been recast in the following format with the aim of facilitating quick access to information. General Principles (Chapters 1±3) covers basic scientific background material relevant to electrical engineering. It includes chapters on units, mathematics and physical quantities, electrotechnology and network analysis. Materials & Processes (Chapters 4±10) describes the fundamentals and range of materials encountered in electrical engineering in terms of their electromechanical, thermoelectric and electromagnetic properties. Included are chapters on the fundamental properties of materials, conductors and superconductors, semiconductors, insu - lation, magnetic materials, electroheat and materials pro- cessing and welding and soldering. Control (Chapters 11±16) is a largely new section with six chapters on electrical measurement and instruments, industrial instrumentation for process control, classical control systems theory, fundamentals of digital control, microprocessors and programmable controllers. Power Electronics and Drives (Chapters 17±20) reflect the significance of upto 50% of all electrical power passing through semiconductor conversion. The subjects included of greatest importance to industry, particularly those related to the area of electrical variable speed drives, comprise power semiconductor devices, electronic power conversion, electrical machine drives, motors and actuators. Environment (Chapters 21±25) is a new section of particular relevance to current concerns in this area including lighting, environmental control, electromagnetic compatibility, health and safety, and hazardous area technology. Power Generation (Chapters 26±29) sees some ration- alisation of contributions to previous editions in the largely mechanical engineering area of prime movers, but with an expanded treatment of the increasingly important topic of alternative energy sources, along with further chapters on alternating current generators and batteries. Transmission and Distribution (Chapters 30±38) is con- cerned with the methods and equipment involved in the delivery of electric power from the generator to the consumer. It deals with overhead lines, cables, HVDC transmission, power transformers, switchgear, protection, and optical fibres in power systems and aspects of installation with an additional chapter on the nature of electromagnetic transients. Power Systems (Chapters 39±43) gathers together those topics concerned with present day power system planning and power system operation and control, together with aspects of related reactive power plant and FACTS controllers. Chapters are included on electricity economics and trading in the liberalised electricity supply industry now existing in many countries, plus an analysis of the power supply quality necessary for modern industrialised nations. Sectors of Electricity Use (Chapters 44±49) is a concluding section comprising chapters on the special requirements of agriculture and horticulture, roads, railways, ships, aircraft, and mining with a final chapter providing a preliminary guide to Standards and Certification. Although every effort has been made to cover the scope of electrical engineering, the nature of the subject and the manner in which it is evolving makes it inevitable that improvements and additions are possible and desirable. In order to ensure that the reference information provided remains accurate and relevant, communications from professional engineers are invited and all are given careful consideration in the revision and preparation of new editions of the book. The expert contributions made by all the authors involved and their patience through the editorial process is gratefully acknowledged. M. A. Laughton D. F. Warne 2002 //integras/b&h/Eer/Final_06-09-02/prelims Electrical Engineer's Reference BookÐonline edition As this book goes to press an online electronic version is also in preparation. The online edition will feature . the complete text of the book . access to the latest revisions (a rolling chapter-by-chapter revision will take place between print editions) . additional material not included in the print version To find out more, please visit the Electrical Engineer's Reference Book web page: http://www.bh.com/newness?isbn=0750646373 or send an e-mail to newnes@elsevier.com [...]... physical quantities Table 1.5 Relation between SI, e.s and e.m units Quantity SI unit Equivalent number n of e.m.u e.s.u Length Mass Time Force Torque Energy Power Charge, electric flux density Potential, e.m.f Electric field strength Current density Magnetic flux density Mag fd strength M.M.F Resistivity Conductivity Permeability (abs) Permittivity (abs) Resistance Conductance Inductance Capacitance... Use is made of these correspondences in mechanical problems (e.g of vibration) when the parameters can be considered to be `lumped' An ideal transformer, in which the primary m.m.f in ampere-turns i1N1 is equal to the secondary m.m.f i2N2 has as analogue the simple lever, in which a force f1 at a point distant l1 from the fulcrum corresponds to f2 at l2 such that f1l1 ˆ f2l2 A simple series circuit is... k 10 exa E 1015 peta P 1012 tera T Table 1.3 Although obsolescent, electrostatic and electromagnetic units (e.s.u., e.m.u.) appear in older works of reference Neither system is `rationalised', nor are the two mutually compatible In e.s.u the electric space constant is "&0 ˆ 1, in e.m.u the magnetic space constant is 0 ˆ 1; but the SI units take account of the fact that 1/H("&00) is the velocity of... the velocity of electromagnetic wave propagation in free space Table 1.5 lists SI units with the equivalent number n of e.s.u and e.m.u Where these lack names, they are expressed as SI unit names with the prefix `st' (`electrostatic') for e.s.u and `ab' (`absolute') for e.m.u Thus, 1 V corresponds to 10�2/3 stV and to 108 abV, so that 1 stV ˆ 300 V and 1 abV ˆ 10�8 V 102 101 10�1 10�2 hecto h deca da... field of given geometry will apply to other Laplacian fields of similar geometry, e.g System Potential Flux Medium current flow heat flow electric field magnetic field voltage V temperature & voltage V m.m.f F current I heat q electric flux Q magnetic flux & conductivity & thermal conductivity & permittivity "& permeability & //integras/b&h/eer/Final_06-09-02/eerc001 Physical quantities The ratio... the results are applicable to all the others It is usual to treat problems as two-dimensional where possible Several field-mapping techniques have been devised, generally electrical because of the greater convenience and precision of electrical measurements For two-dimensional problems, conductive methods include high-resistivity paper sheers, square-mesh `nets' of resistors and electrolytic tanks The... 1.1.4 Derived units All physical quantities have units derived from the base and supplementary SI units, and some of them have been given names for convenience in use A tabulation of those of interest in electrical technology is appended to the list in Table 1.1 Table 1.1 SI base, supplementary and derived units Quantity Unit name Length Mass Time Electric current Thermodynamic temperature Luminous intensity... and exp(�u) decreasing at a rate proportional to u If u ˆ 1, then exp…‡1† ˆ 1 ‡ 1 ‡ 1=2 ‡ 1=6 ‡ 1=24 ‡


ˆ e ˆ 2:718


@ exp…�1† ˆ 1 � 1 ‡ 1=2 � 1=6 ‡ 1=24 �


ˆ 1=e ˆ 0:368


@ In the electrical technology of transients, u is most commonly a negative function of time t given by u ˆ �(t/T ) It then has the graphical form shown in Figure 1.2 (left) as a time dependent variable With an... Decimal Binary and the inverse transformation of F(s) to give f(t) is …5 1 ‡j!& L�1 ‰F…s†Š ˆ f …t† ˆ lim exp…st†
F…s†
ds 2 �j!& The process, illustrated by the response of a current i(t) in an electrical network of impedance z to a voltage v(t) applied at t ˆ 0, is to write down the transform equation where I(s) is the L.t of the current i(t), V(s) is the L.t of the voltage v(t), and Z(s) is... K) W/(m K) cd/m2 Decimal multiples and submultiples of SI units are indicated by prefix letters as listed in Table 1.2 Thus, kA is the unit symbol for kiloampere, and mF that for microfarad There is a preference in technology for steps of 103 Prefixes for the kilogram are expressed in terms of the gram: thus, 1000 kg ˆ 1 Mg, not 1 kkg Table 1.2 1.2 Mathematics Mathematical symbolism is set out in Table . State-space description . Sampled-data systems . Some necessary mathematical preliminaries . Sampler and zero-order hold . Block diagrams . Closed-loop systems . Stability . Example . Dead-beat. units, mathematics and physical quantities, electrotechnology and network analysis. Materials & Processes (Chapters 4±1 0) describes the fundamentals and range of materials encountered in electrical. & Term Symbol & sin & cos & tan & Base of natural logarithms e ( 2.718 28 . . . ) deg rad Complex number C A jB C exp(j ) C  & 0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 argument; modulus