electrochemistry in nonaqueous solutions 2002 - izutsu

Kosuke Izutsu Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions. Kosuke Izutsu Copyright © 2002 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ISBNs: 3-527-30516-5 (Hardback); 3-527-60065-5 (Electronic) Related Titles from WILEY-VCH Bard, A.J., Stratmann, M., Licht, S. (Eds) Encyclopedia of Electrochemistry, Volume VI 2001. ISBN 3-527-30398-7 Kaifer, A. E., Gómez-Kaifer, M. Supramolecular Electrochemistry 1999. ISBN 3-527-29597-6 Memming, R. Semiconductor Electrochemistry 2000. ISBN 3-527-30147-X Günzler, H., Williams, A. (Eds) Handbook of Analytical Techniques 2001. ISBN 3-527-30165-8 Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions. Kosuke Izutsu Copyright © 2002 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ISBNs: 3-527-30516-5 (Hardback); 3-527-60065-5 (Electronic) Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions K. Izutsu Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions. Kosuke Izutsu Copyright © 2002 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ISBNs: 3-527-30516-5 (Hardback); 3-527-60065-5 (Electronic) Professor Dr. K. Izutsu 3-8-23 Motomachi Matsumoto 390-0803 Japan Library of Congress Card No.: applied for British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data: A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Die Deutsche Bibliothek – CIP-Cataloguing-in- Publication Data A catalogue record for this publication is available from Die Deutsche Bibliothek. © WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH D-69469 Weinheim, 2002 All rights reserved (including those of translation in other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, mi- crofilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law. Typesetting K+V Fotosatz GmbH, Beerfelden Printing betz-druck gmbh, Darmstadt Bookbinding J. Schäffer GmbH & Co. KG, Grünstadt printed in the Federal Republic of Germany printed on acid-free paper ISBN 3-527-30516-5 n This book was carefully produced. Nevertheless, author and publisher do not warrant the informa- tion contained therein to be free of errors. Rea- ders are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate. Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions. Kosuke Izutsu Copyright © 2002 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ISBNs: 3-527-30516-5 (Hardback); 3-527-60065-5 (Electronic) A majority of chemical reactions are carried out in solution. The use of a solvent as reaction medium makes it easy to control reaction conditions such as tempera- ture, pressure, pH, rate of mass transfer, and concentration of reactant. Water is the most popular solvent. However, by using appropriate non-aqueous solvents, substances that are insoluble in water can be dissolved, substances that are un- stable in water remain stable, and chemical reactions that are impossible in water become possible. The reaction environments are markedly wider in non-aqueous solvents than in water. The widespread use of non-aqueous solvents, especially dipolar aprotic solvents, began in the 1950s in various fields of pure and applied chemistry and has con- tributed greatly to later advances in chemical sciences and technologies. From the very beginning, electrochemistry in non-aqueous solutions has played an impor- tant role in exploring new chemical possibilities as well as in providing the meth- ods to evaluate static solvent effects on various chemical processes. Moreover, many new electrochemical technologies have been developed using non-aqueous solvents. Recently, electrochemistry in non-aqueous solutions has made enormous progress: the dynamic solvent effects on electrochemical processes have been greatly elucidated and solvent effects are now understood much better than be- fore. On the other hand, however, it is also true that some useful solvents have properties that are problematic to human health and the environment. Today, ef- forts are being made, under the framework of ‘green chemistry’, to find environ- mentally benign media for chemical processes, including harmless non-aqueous solvents, immobilized solvents, ionic liquids, supercritical fluids, aqueous sys- tems, and even solventless reaction systems. For electrochemical purposes, replac- ing hazardous solvents by harmless solvents, ionic liquids and supercritical fluids appears to be promising. This book was written to provide readers with some knowledge of electrochem- istry in non-aqueous solutions, from its fundamentals to the latest developments, including the current situation concerning hazardous solvents. The book is di- vided into two parts. Part I (Chapters 1 to 4) contains a discussion of solvent prop- erties and then deals with solvent effects on chemical processes such as ion solva- tion, ion complexation, electrolyte dissociation, acid-base reactions and redox reac- tions. Such solvent effects are of fundamental importance in understanding chem- V Preface Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions. Kosuke Izutsu Copyright © 2002 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ISBNs: 3-527-30516-5 (Hardback); 3-527-60065-5 (Electronic) istry in non-aqueous solutions; furthermore, their quantitative evaluations are of- ten carried out by means of electrochemical techniques. Part II (Chapters 5 to 12) mainly deals with the use of electrochemical techniques in non-aqueous solu- tions. In Chapter 5, the fundamentals of various electrochemical techniques are outlined in preparation for the following chapters. In Chapters 6 to 9, the applica- tions of potentiometry, conductimetry, polarography, voltammetry, and other new electrochemical techniques in non-aqueous solutions are discussed by focusing on the chemical information they provide. Chapters 10 and 11 examine methods of selecting and purifying the solvents and electrolytes of electrochemical impor- tance. Finally, in Chapter 12, some practical applications of non-aqueous solvents in modern electrochemical technologies are discussed. These include their use in batteries, capacitors and display devices, and such processes as electrolytic refin- ing, plating, synthesis and polymerization. The applicability of ionic liquids and supercritical fluids as environmentally benign media for electrochemical technol- ogy is also dealt with. Most chemists are familiar with chemistry in aqueous solutions. However, the common sense in aqueous solutions is not always valid in non-aqueous solutions. This is also true for electrochemical measurements. Thus, in this book, special emphasis is placed on showing which aspects of chemistry in non-aqueous solu- tions are different from chemistry in aqueous solutions. Emphasis is also placed on showing the differences between electrochemical measurements in non-aque- ous systems and those in aqueous systems. The importance of electrochemistry in non-aqueous solutions is now widely recognized by non-electrochemical scientists – for example, organic and inorganic chemists often use cyclic voltammetry in aprotic solvents in order to determine redox properties, electronic states, and reac- tivities of electroactive species, including unstable intermediates. This book will therefore also be of use to such non-electrochemical scientists. I obtained most of the information included in this book from the publications of many scientists in this field. I would like to express my sincere thanks to all of them. I also would like to thank my coworkers for their cooperation, the editorial and production staff of Wiley-VCH for their help and support, and my wife for her assistance and patience. Matsumoto, December 2001 Kosuke Izutso PrefaceVI Books, reviews and data compilations relating to non-aqueous solution chemistry and/or non-aqueous solvents: 1 Lagowski, J.J. (Ed.) The Chemistry of Non-Aqueous Solvents, Academic Press, New York, Vol. 1, 1966; Vol. 2, 1967; Vol. 3, 1970; Vol. 4, 1976; Vol. 5A, 1978; Vol. 5B, 1978. Includes many reviews. 2 Charlot, G., Trémillon, B. Chemical Reactions in Solvents and Melts, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1969. 3 Bard, A. J. (Ed.) Electroanalytical Chemis- try, Marcel Dekker, New York, Vol. 3, 1969, p. 57; Vol. 8, 1975, p. 281, etc. 4 Coetzee, J. F., Ritchie, C. D. (Eds) So- lute-Solvent Interactions, Marcel Dekker, New York, Vol. I, 1969; Vol. II, 1976. In- cludes reviews. Preface VII 5 Mann, C. K., Barnes, K. K. Electrochemi- cal Reactions in Nonaqueous Solvents, Mar- cel Dekker, New York, 1970. 6 Janz, G. J., Tomkins, R.P. T. (Eds) Non- aqueous Electrolytes Handbook, Academic Press, New York, Vol. 1, 1972; Vol. 2, 1973. 7 Covington, A.K., Dickinson, T. (Eds) Physical Chemistry in Organic Solvent Sys- tems, Plenum Press, New York, 1973. In- cludes reviews and data compilations. 8 Fritz, J.S. Acid-Base Titrations in Non- aqueous Media, Allyn & Bacon, Needham Heights, MA, 1973. 9 Trémillon, B. Chemistry in Nonaqueous Solvents, D. Reidel, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, 1974. 10 Sawyer, D. T., Roberts, J. L., Jr Experi- mental Electrochemistry for Chemists, Wiley & Sons, New York, 1974; Sawyer, D.T., Sobkowiak, A., Roberts, J.L., Jr Electro- chemistry for Chemists, 2nd edn, Wiley & Sons, New York, 1995. Useful references on electrochemical techniques in non- aqueous solutions. 11 Meites, L., Zuman, P. (Eds) CRC Hand- book Series in Organic Electrochemistry, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, Vols I–VI, 1977–83; CRC Handbook Series in Inor- ganic Electrochemistry, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, Vols I–VIII, 1981–1988. Com- pilations of potential data. 12 Burgess, J. Metal Ions in Solutions, Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 1978. 13 Gutmann, V. Donor-Acceptor Approach to Molecular Interactions, Plenum Press, New York, 1978. 14 Kolthoff, I. M., Elving, P. J. (Eds) Trea- tise on Analytical Chemistry, 2nd edn, Part I, Vol. 2, Wiley & Sons, New York, 1979, Chapter 19. Excellent reviews on acid-base reactions in non-aqueous systems. 15 Popovych, O., Tomkins, R.P. T. Nonaque- ous Solution Chemistry, Wiley & Sons, New York, 1981. Treats electrochemical aspects in detail. 16 Coetzee, J. F. (Ed.) Recommended Methods for Purification of Solvents and Tests for Im- purities, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1982. Reports from IUPAC. 17 Marcus, Y. Introduction to Liquid State Chemistry, Wiley & Sons, New York, 1977. 18 Burger, K. Solvation, Ionic and Complex Formation Reactions in Nonaqueous Sol- vents, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1983. 19 Marcus, Y. Ion Solvation, Wiley & Sons, New York, 1985. Includes large amounts of data. 20 Riddick, A., Bunger, W. R., Sakano, T. K. Organic Solvents, Physical Properties and Methods of Purification, 4th edn, Wi- ley & Sons, New York, 1986. Includes de- tailed data on solvent properties and methods of solvent purification. 21 Safarik, L., Stransky, Z. Titrimetric Analysis in Organic Solvents, Comprehen- sive Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 22, Else- vier, Amsterdam, 1986. 22 Reichardt, C. Solvents and Solvent Effects in Organic Chemistry, 2nd edn, VCH, Weinheim, 1988. 23 Izutsu, K. Acid-Base Dissociation Constants in Dipolar Aprotic Solvents, IU- PAC Chemical Data Series No. 35, Black- well Science, Oxford, 1990. Data compila- tion. 24 Krestov, G. A. Thermodynamics of Solva- tion, Solution and Dissolution, Ions and Solvents, Structure and Energetics, Ellis Horwood, New York, 1991. 25 Lund, H., Baizer, M.M. (Eds) Organic Electrochemistry, 3rd edn, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1991. Detailed treatments of electrochemical techniques and electrode processes of organic substances. 26 Mamantov, G., Popov, A.I. (Eds) Chemis- try of Nonaqueous Solutions, Current Pro- gress, VCH, Weinheim, 1994. 27 Galus, Z., in Advances in Electrochemical Science and Engineering, Vol. 2 (Eds H. Gerischer, C.W. Tobias), VCH, Wein- heim, 1994, pp. 217–295. Thermody- namics and kinetics of electrode reac- tions in non-aqueous and mixed sol- vents. 28 Gutmann, V., Resch, G. Lecture Notes on Solution Chemistry, World Science, Singa- pore, 1995. 29 Kissinger, P. T., Heineman, W.R. (Eds) Laboratory Techniques in Electroanalytical Chemistry, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1996. Includes many chapters on electro- chemical techniques in non-aqueous so- lutions. PrefaceVIII 30 Marcus, Y. Ion Properties, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1997. 31 Trémillon, B. Reactions in Solution: An Applied Analytical Approach, Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997. 32 Barthel, J. M.G., Krienke, H., Kunz, W. Physical Chemistry of Electrolyte Solu- tions: Modern Aspects, Topics in Physical Chemistry Vol. 5, Springer, Berlin, 1998. 33 Marcus, Y. The Properties of Solvents,Wi- ley & Sons, New York, 1998. 34 Chipperfield, J. R. Non-Aqueous Solvents, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999. 35 Aurbach, D. (Ed.) Nonaqueous Electro- chemistry, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1999. Mainly concerned with lithium bat- teries. 36 Burgess, J. Ions in Solution, Basic Princi- ples of Chemical Interactions, Horwood Publishing, Chichester, 1999. 37 Wypych, G. (Ed.) Handbook of Solvents, ChemTec Publishing, Toronto, 2001. 38 Lund, H., Hammerich, O. (Eds) Organic Electrochemistry, 4th edn, Marcel Dekker, New York, 2001. Examples of books dealing with the fundamentals of electrochemistry: 1 Rossiter, B. W., Hamilton, J.F. (Eds) Electrochemical Methods, Physical Methods of Chemistry, Vol. II, 2nd edn, Wiley & Sons, New York, 1986. 2 Brett, C. M.A., Brett, A.M. O. Electro- chemistry, Principles, Methods, and Applica- tions, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1993. 3 Koryta, J., Dvorak, J., Kavan, L. Princi- ples of Electrochemistry, 2nd edn, Wiley & Sons, New York, 1993. 4 Oldham, H.B., Myland, J.C. Fundamen- tals of Electrochemical Science, Academic Press, New York, 1994. 5 Galus, Z. Fundamentals of Electrochemical Analysis, 2nd edn, Wiley & Sons, New York, 1994. 6 Bruce, P.G. (Ed.) Solid State Electrochem- istry, Cambridge University Press, Cam- bridge, 1995. 7 Rubinstein, I. (Ed.) Physical Electro- chemistry, Principles, Methods, and Ap- plications, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1995. 8 Fisher, A.C. Electrode Dynamics, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1996. 9 Hamann, H., Hamnett, A., Vielstich, W. Electrochemistry, Wiley-VCH, Wein- heim, 1998. 10 Bockris, J.O’M., Reddy, A.N. Modern Electrochemistry, 2nd edn, Plenum Press, New York, Vol. 1, Ionics, 1998; Vol. 2A, Fundamentals of Electronics, 2000; Vol. 2B, Electronics in Chemistry, Engineer- ing, Biology, and Environmental Science, 2000. 11 Wang, J. Analytical Electrochemistry, 2nd edn, Wiley-VCH, New York, 2000. 12 Bard, A.J., Faulkner, L. R. Electrochemi- cal Methods, Fundamentals and Applica- tions, 2nd edn, Wiley & Sons, New York, 2001. Preface V Part I Fundamentals of Chemistry in Non-Aqueous Solutions: Electrochemical Aspects 1 Properties of Solvents and Solvent Classification 3 1.1 Properties of Solvents 4 1.1.1 Physical Properties of Solvents 4 1.1.2 Chemical Properties of Solvents 13 1.1.3 Structural Aspects of Solvents 16 1.1.4 Toxicity and Hazardous Properties of Solvents 18 1.2 Classification of Solvents 19 1.3 Effects of Solvent Properties on Chemical Reactions (an Outline) 21 1.4 References 23 2 Solvation and Complex Formation of Ions and Behavior of Electrolytes 25 2.1 Influence of Ion Solvation on Electrolyte Dissolution 25 2.2 Some Fundamental Aspects of Ion-Solvation 27 2.2.1 Ion-Solvent Interactions Affecting Ion Solvation 27 2.2.2 Structure of Solvated Ions 34 2.2.3 Ultrafast Ion-Solvation Dynamics 37 2.3 Comparison of Ionic Solvation Energies in Different Solvents and Solvent Effects on Ionic Reactions and Equilibria 38 2.3.1 Gibbs Energies of Transfer and Transfer Activity Coefficients of Ions 38 2.3.2 Prediction of Solvent Effects by the Use of Transfer Activity Coefficients 42 2.4 Solvent Effects on the Complexation of Metal Ions 44 2.5 Selective Solvation of Ions in Mixed Solvents 47 2.6 Ion Association and Solvent Permittivities 50 2.7 References 56 IX Contents Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions. Kosuke Izutsu Copyright © 2002 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ISBNs: 3-527-30516-5 (Hardback); 3-527-60065-5 (Electronic) 3 Acid-Base Reactions in Non-Aqueous Solvents 59 3.1 Solvent Effects on Acid-Base Reactions 59 3.1.1 Acid-Base Reactions in Amphiprotic Solvents of High Permittivit 61 3.1.2 Acid-Base Reactions in Aprotic Solvents of High Permittivity 64 3.1.3 Acid-Base Reactions in Amphiprotic Solvents of Low Permittivity 75 3.1.4 Acid-Base Reactions in Aprotic Solvents of Low Permittivity 75 3.2 pH-Scales in Non-Aqueous Solutions 76 3.2.1 Definition of pH in Non-Aqueous Solutions 76 3.2.2 pH Windows in Non-Aqueous Solvents and pH Scales Common to Multi Solvents 78 3.3 References 82 4 Redox Reactions in Non-Aqueous Solvents 85 4.1 Solvent Effects on Various Types of Redox Reactions 85 4.1.1 Fundamentals of Redox Reactions 85 4.1.2 Solvent Effects on Redox Potentials and Redox Reaction Mechanisms 88 4.1.3 Dynamical Solvent Effects on the Kinetics of Redox Reactions 96 4.2 Redox Properties of Solvents and Potential Windows 99 4.3 Redox Titrations in Non-Aqueous Solutions 102 4.3.1 Titrations with Oxidizing Agents 102 4.3.2 Titrations with Reducing Agents 105 4.4 References 106 Part II Electrochemical Techniques and Their Applications in Non-Aqueous Solutions 5 Overview of Electrochemical Techniques 109 5.1 Classification of Electrochemical Techniques 109 5.2 Fundamentals of Electrode Reactions and Current-Potential Relations 110 5.2.1 Current-Potential Relation for Electron Transfer at the Electrode 111 5.2.2 Current-Potential Relations and Mass Transport 114 5.3 DC Polarography – Methods that Electrolyze Electroactive Species Only Partially (1) 117 5.4 New Types of Polarography – Methods that Electrolyze Electroactive Species Only Partially (2) 125 5.4.1 AC Polarography 125 5.4.2 SW Polarography 127 5.4.3 Pulse Polarography 127 5.5 Voltammetry and Related New Techniques – Methods that Electrolyze Electroactive Species Only Partially (3) 129 ContentsX [...]... Nonaqueous Solutions Kosuke Izutsu Copyright © 2002 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KGaA ISBNs: 3-5 2 7-3 051 6-5 (Hardback); 3-5 2 7-6 006 5-5 (Electronic) Part I Fundamentals of Chemistry in Non-Aqueous Solutions: Electrochemical Aspects Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions Kosuke Izutsu Copyright © 2002 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KGaA ISBNs: 3-5 2 7-3 051 6-5 (Hardback); 3-5 2 7-6 006 5-5 (Electronic) 1 Properties... Amplifiers in Electrochemical Instrumentation 158 Applications of Personal Computers in Electrochemical Instrumentation 163 References 164 Potentiometry in Non-Aqueous Solutions 167 Basic Techniques of Potentiometry in Non-Aqueous Solutions 167 Potentiometric Indicator Electrodes for Non-Aqueous Solutions 168 Reference Electrodes for Non-Aqueous Solutions 168 Method of Reporting Electrode Potentials in Non-Aqueous... Non-Aqueous Solutions (IUPAC Recommendation) 171 Liquid Junction Potential Between Electrolyte Solutions in the Same Solvent 174 pH Measurements in Non-Aqueous Solutions 176 pH Measurements in Aqueous Solutions 176 Methods of pH Measurements in Non-Aqueous and Mixed Solvents 177 Determination of Autoprotolysis Constants 181 Applications of Potentiometry in Non-Aqueous Solutions 183 Acid-Base Reactions in Non-Aqueous... 329 Index 331 Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions Kosuke Izutsu Copyright © 2002 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KGaA ISBNs: 3-5 2 7-3 051 6-5 (Hardback); 3-5 2 7-6 006 5-5 (Electronic) Index a Absorbance-potential curve 138 AC impedance method 127 AC polarography (see Polarography, AC) 125 Acceptor number (AN) 14 – in mixed solvents 48 – table of values 15 – van der Waals forces, influence of 15 Acetic acid,... Purifying Supporting Electrolytes References 310 308 12 Use of Non-Aqueous Solutions in Modern Electrochemical Technologies 313 12.1 12.2 12.2.1 12.2.2 12.3 New Batteries Using Non-Aqueous Solutions (Lithium Batteries) 313 New Capacitors Using Non-Aqueous Solutions 316 Supercapacitors 316 Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors 316 Conducting Polymers and Electrochemistry in Non-Aqueous Solutions 318 Electrochemical... Ionophore 50 Ion-pair of radical anion-metal ion 252 – naphthoquinone radical anion in AN 253 Ion-pairs (see also Ion association) 54 – contact ion-pairs 54 – equilibrium between three types of ionpair 54 – solvent-separated ion-pairs 54 – solvent-shared ion-pairs 54 – study by dielectric relaxation spectroscopy 54 337 338 Index – study by infrared spectroscopy 54 – three types of ion-pair, discrimination... Methylacetamide, N-, purification 297 Methylformamide, N-, liquid structure 17 Methylpropionamide, N-, purification 297 Methyl-2-thiopyrrolidinone, N- (NMTP) 33 Microelectrogravimetry, in situ 137 Migration current 123 Mixed solvents 47 – acceptor number in 48 – acid-base properties of 47 – donor number in 47 – permittivity in 47 – selective solvation of ions 49 – solvent acidity in 48 – solvent basicity in 47... Cu(II)/Cu(I) in AN 188 – titration curves for 87 Redox titrations in nonaqueous solvents 102 – hydroquinone, oxidation titration in AN 103 – oxidizing agents 102 – reducing agents 105 – SCN–, oxidation titration in AN 104 – tetramethylbenzidine, oxidation titration in 103 Reducing agents in nonaqueous solvents 105 – biphenyl radical anions 105 – radical anions 105 Reference electrodes, for aqueous solutions. .. solvent-berg model 210 – theory for the deviation 210 – ultrafast solvent relaxation in ionic mobility 210 – Zwanzig’s continuum theory 210 Water, influence on potential window in PC 288 Water, network by hydrogen bonding 16 – anomalous physical properties of water 16 – lifetime of hydrogen bonding 16 Wave analysis, in DC polarography 121 z Zwanzig’s continuum theory 210 Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions. .. reaction) 70 –, – in protophilic aprotic solvents 65 –, – in protophobic aprotic solvents 65 –, – picric acid, solvent effect on pKa 68 –, – substituent effects on pKa 68 – in inert solvents 75 –, – comparison of acid-base strength in 76 – in low-permittivity amphiprotic solvents 75 –, – acetic acid, acid-base reactions in 75 –, – ion-pair formation 75 – in low-permittivity aprotic solvents 75 – in polar amphiprotic . (Electronic) Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions K. Izutsu Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions. Kosuke Izutsu Copyright © 2002 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ISBNs: 3-5 2 7-3 051 6-5 (Hardback); 3-5 2 7-6 006 5-5 . ISBN 3-5 2 7-3 016 5-8 Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions. Kosuke Izutsu Copyright © 2002 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ISBNs: 3-5 2 7-3 051 6-5 (Hardback); 3-5 2 7-6 006 5-5 (Electronic) Electrochemistry. Kosuke Izutsu Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions Electrochemistry in Nonaqueous Solutions. Kosuke Izutsu Copyright © 2002 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA ISBNs: 3-5 2 7-3 051 6-5 (Hardback);