THE URINARY SYSTEM

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THE URINARY SYSTEM The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter the blood to remove wastes and produce urine. The ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra together form the urinary tract, which acts as a plumbing system to drain urine from the kidneys, store it, and then release it during urination. Besides filtering and eliminating wastes from the body, the urinary system also maintains the homeostasis of water, ions, pH, blood pressure, calcium Kidneys The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs found along the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity. The left kidney is located slightly higher than the right kidney because the right side of the liver is much larger than the left side. The kidneys, unlike the other organs of the abdominal cavity, are located posterior to the peritoneum and touch the muscles of the back. The kidneys are surrounded by a layer of adipose that holds them in place and protects them from physical damage. The kidneys filter metabolic wastes, excess ions, and chemicals from the blood to form urine. Ureters The ureters are a pair of tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. The ureters are about 10 to 12 inches long and run on the left and right sides of the body parallel to the vertebral column. Gravity and peristalsis of smooth muscle tissue in the walls of the ureters move urine toward the urinary bladder. The ends of the ureters extend slightly into the urinary bladder and are sealed at the point of entry to the bladder by the ureterovesical valves. These valves prevent urine from flowing back towards the kidneys. Urinary Bladder The urinary bladder is a sac-like hollow organ used for the storage of urine. The urinary bladder is located along the body’s midline at the inferior end of the pelvis. Urine entering the urinary bladder from the ureters slowly fills the hollow space of the bladder and stretches its elastic walls. The walls of the bladder allow it to stretch to hold anywhere from 600 to 800 milliliters of urine. Urethra The urethra is the tube through which urine passes from the bladder to the exterior of the body. The female urethra is around 2 inches long and ends inferior to the clitorisand superior to the vaginal opening. In males, the urethra is around 8 to 10 inches long and ends at the tip of the penis. The urethra is also an organ of the male reproductive system as it carries sperm out of the body through the penis. The flow of urine through the urethra is controlled by the internal and external urethral sphincter muscles. The internal urethral sphincter is made of smooth muscle and opens involuntarily when the bladder reaches a certain set level of distention. The opening of the internal sphincter results in the sensation of needing to urinate. The external urethral sphincter is made of skeletal muscle and may be opened to allow urine to pass through the urethra or may be held closed to delay urination. Urinary System Physiology Maintenance of Homeostasis The kidneys maintain the homeostasis of several important internal conditions by controlling the excretion of substances out of the body. • Ions. The kidney can control the excretion of potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate, and chloride ions into urine. In cases where these ions reach a higher than normal concentration, the kidneys can increase their excretion out of the body to return them to a normal level. Conversely, the kidneys can conserve these ions when they are present in lower than normal levels by allowing the ions to be reabsorbed into the blood during filtration. (See more about ions.) • pH. The kidneys monitor and regulate the levels of hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions in the blood to control blood pH. H+ ions are produced as a natural byproduct of the metabolism of dietary proteins and accumulate in the blood over time. The kidneys excrete excess H+ ions into urine for elimination from the body. The kidneys also conserve bicarbonate ions, which act as important pH buffers in the blood. • Osmolarity. The cells of the body need to grow in an isotonic environment in order to maintain their fluid and electrolyte balance. The kidneys maintain the body’s osmotic balance by controlling the amount of water that is filtered out of the blood and excreted into urine. When a person consumes a large amount of water, the kidneys reduce their reabsorption of water to allow the excess water to be excreted in urine. This results in the production of dilute, watery urine. In the case of the body being dehydrated, the kidneys reabsorb as much water as possible back into the blood to produce highly concentrated urine full of excreted ions and wastes. The changes in excretion of water are controlled by antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH is produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland to help the body retain water. • Blood Pressure. The kidneys monitor the body’s blood pressure to help maintain homeostasis. When blood pressure is elevated, the kidneys can help to reduce blood pressure by reducing the volume of blood in the body. The kidneys are able to reduce blood volume by reducing the reabsorption of water into the blood and producing watery, dilute urine. When blood pressure becomes too low, the kidneys can produce the enzyme renin to constrict blood vessels and produce concentrated urine, which allows more water to remain in the blood. Filtration Inside each kidney are around a million tiny structures called nephrons. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney that filters blood to produce urine. Arterioles in the kidneys deliver blood to a bundle of capillaries surrounded by a capsule called aglomerulus. As blood flows through the glomerulus, much of the blood’s plasma is pushed out of the capillaries and into the capsule, leaving the blood cells and a small amount of plasma to continue flowing through the capillaries. The liquid filtrate in the capsule flows through a series of tubules lined with filtering cells and surrounded by capillaries. The cells surrounding the tubules selectively absorb water and substances from the filtrate in the tubule and return it to the blood in the capillaries. At the same time, waste products present in the blood are secreted into the filtrate. By the end of this process, the filtrate in the tubule has become urine containing only water, waste products, and excess ions. The blood exiting the capillaries has reabsorbed all of the nutrients along with most of the water and ions that the body needs to function. Storage and Excretion of Wastes After urine has been produced by the kidneys, it is transported through the ureters to the urinary bladder. The urinary bladder fills with urine and stores it until the body is ready for its excretion. When the volume of the urinary bladder reaches anywhere from 150 to 400 milliliters, its walls begin to stretch and stretch receptors in its walls send signals to the brain and spinal cord. These signals result in the relaxation of the involuntary internal urethral sphincter and the sensation of needing to urinate. Urination may be delayed as long as the bladder does not exceed its maximum volume, but increasing nerve signals lead to greater discomfort and desire to urinate. Urination is the process of releasing urine from the urinary bladder through the urethra and out of the body. The process of urination begins when the muscles of the urethral sphincters relax, allowing urine to pass through the urethra. At the same time that the sphincters relax, the smooth muscle in the walls of the urinary bladder contract to expel urine from the bladder. Production of Hormones The kidneys produce and interact with several hormones that are involved in the control of systems outside of the urinary system. • Calcitriol. Calcitriol is the active form of vitamin D in the human body. It is produced by the kidneys from precursor molecules produced by UV radiation striking the skin. Calcitriol works together with parathyroid hormone (PTH) to raise the level of calcium ions in the bloodstream. When the level of calcium ions in the blood drops below a threshold level, the parathyroid glands release PTH, which in turn stimulates the kidneys to release calcitriol. Calcitriol promotes the small intestine to absorb calcium from food and deposit it into the bloodstream. It also stimulates the osteoclasts of the skeletal system to break down bone matrix to release calcium ions into the blood. • Erythropoietin. Erythropoietin, also known as EPO, is a hormone that is produced by the kidneys to stimulate the production of red blood cells. The kidneys monitor the condition of the blood that passes through their capillaries, including the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. When the blood becomes hypoxic, meaning that it is carrying deficient levels of oxygen, cells lining the capillaries begin producing EPO and release it into the bloodstream. EPO travels through the blood to the red bone marrow, where it stimulates hematopoietic cells to increase their rate of red blood cell production. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, which greatly increases the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity and effectively ends the hypoxic conditions. • Renin. Renin is not a hormone itself, but an enzyme that the kidneys produce to start the renin-angiotensin system (RAS). The RAS increases blood volume and blood pressure in response to low blood pressure, blood loss, or dehydration. Renin is released into the blood where it catalyzes angiotensinogen from the liver into angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is further catalyzed by another enzyme into Angiotensin II. Angiotensin II stimulates several processes, including stimulating the adrenal cortex to produce the hormone aldosterone. Aldosterone then changes the function of the kidneys to increase the reabsorption of water and sodium ions into the blood, increasing blood volume and raising blood pressure. Negative feedback from increased blood pressure finally turns off the RAS to maintain healthy blood pressure levels. Urinary System: Facts, Functions & Diseases The urinary system – also known as the renal system – produces, stores and eliminates urine, the fluid waste excreted by the kidneys. The urinary system includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, two sphincter muscles and the urethra. Description of the urinary system The urinary system works with the lungs, skin and intestines to maintain the balance of chemicals and water in the body. Adults eliminate about a quart and a half (1.42 liters) of urine each day, depending on the amount of fluid consumed and fluid lost through perspiring and breathing. Certain types of medications, such as diuretics that are sometimes used to treat high blood pressure, can also affect the amount of urine a person produces and eliminates. Certain beverages, such as coffee, can also cause increased urination in some people. The primary organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, which are bean-shaped organs that are located just below the rib cage in the middle of the back. The kidneys remove urea — waste product formed by the breakdown of proteins — from the blood through small filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube called a renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste substances, forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney. From the kidneys, urine travels down two thin tubes, called ureters, to the bladder. The ureters are about 8 to 10 inches long (20 to 25 centimeters). Muscles in the ureter walls continuously tighten and relax to force urine away from the kidneys. A backup of urine can cause a kidney infection. Small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters about every 10 to 15 seconds. The bladder is a hollow muscular organ shaped like a balloon. It sits in the pelvis and is held in place by ligaments attached to other organs and the pelvic bones. The bladder stores urine until you are ready to empty it. A normal, healthy bladder can hold up to 16 ounces (almost half a liter) of urine comfortably for 2 to 5 hours. To prevent leakage, circular muscles called sphincters close tightly around the opening of the bladder into the urethra, the tube that allows urine to pass outside the body. The only difference between the female and male urinary system is the length of the urethra. In females, the urethra is about 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) to 2 inches (5.1 cm) long and sits between the clitoris and the vagina. In males, it runs the length of the penis, is about 8 inches (20 cm) long and opens at the end of the penis. The male urethra is used to eliminate urine as well as semen during ejaculation. Nerves in the bladder send signals when it needs to be emptied. The sensation to urinate becomes stronger as the bladder reaches its limit. At that point, nerves from the bladder send a message to the brain that the bladder is full, and your urge to empty your bladder intensifies. When you urinate, the brain signals the bladder muscles to tighten while simultaneously signaling the sphincter muscles to relax. Diseases of the urinary system Kidney diseases are treated by a nephrologist, who completes a three-year residency in internal medicine after medical school. That is followed by a two-year (or longer) fellowship in nephrology. Urologists treat ailments involving the urinary tract in both males and females, including the kidneys, adrenal glands, ureters, bladder and urethra. Urologists also treat the male reproductive organs, while gynecologists often treat urinary diseases or disorders in females, including yeast infections. Nephrologists and urologists often work with endocrinologists or oncologists, depending on the disease. Urinary tract infections (UTIs) occur when bacteria enters the urinary tract and can affect the urethra, bladder or even the kidneys. While UTIs are more common in women, they can occur in men. UTIs are typically treated with antibiotics. Interstitial cystitis (IC), also called painful bladder syndrome, is a chronic bladder condition that doesn’t have a known cause. It can cause bladder scarring, and can make the bladder less elastic. A typical result is that the bladder cannot hold as much urine. Prostatitis is a swelling of the prostate gland and, therefore, can only occur in men. Often caused by advanced age, symptoms include urinary urgency and frequency, pelvic pain and pain during urination. Kidney stones are clumps of calcium oxalate that can be found anywhere in the urinary tract. Kidney stones can cause pain in the back and sides, as well as blood in the urine. Kidney failure, also called renal failure, can be a temporary (often acute) condition or can become a chronic condition resulting in the inability of the kidneys to filter waste from the blood. Acute cases may be caused by trauma or other damage, and may recover over time with treatment. However, renal disease may lead to chronic kidney failure, which may require dialysis treatments or even a kidney transplant. Bladder cancer is diagnosed in about 67,000 Americans each year and is more frequent in men. The symptoms, including back or pelvic pain, difficulty urinating and urgent/and or frequent urination, mimic other diseases or disorders of the urinary system. Anatomy of the Urinary System How do the kidneys and urinary system work? The body takes nutrients from food and converts them to energy. After the body has taken the food components that it needs, waste products are left behind in the bowel and in the blood. The kidney and urinary systems help the body to eliminate liquid waste called urea, and to keep chemicals, such as potassium and sodium, and water in balance. Urea is produced when foods containing protein, such as meat, poultry, and certain vegetables, are broken down in the body. Urea is carried in the bloodstream to the kidneys, where it is removed along with water and other wastes in the form of urine. Other important functions of the kidneys include blood pressure regulation and the production of erythropoietin, which controls red blood cell production in the bone marrow. Kidneys also regulate the acid-base balance and conserve fluids. Kidney and urinary system parts and their functions: • Two kidneys. This pair of purplish-brown organs is located below the ribs toward the middle of the back. Their function is to remove liquid waste from the blood in the form of urine; keep a stable balance of salts and other substances in the blood; and produce erythropoietin, a hormone that aids the formation of red blood cells. The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube called a renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste substances, forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney. • Two ureters. These narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Muscles in the ureter walls continually tighten and relax forcing urine downward, away from the kidneys. If urine backs up, or is allowed to stand still, a kidney infection can develop. About every 10 to 15 seconds, small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters. • Bladder. This triangle-shaped, hollow organ is located in the lower abdomen. It is held in place by ligaments that are attached to other organs and the pelvic bones. The bladder's walls relax and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten to empty urine through the urethra. The typical healthy adult bladder can store up to two cups of urine for two to five hours. • Two sphincter muscles. These circular muscles help keep urine from leaking by closing tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder. • Nerves in the bladder. The nerves alert a person when it is time to urinate, or empty the bladder. • Urethra. This tube allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain signals the bladder muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder. At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder through the urethra. When all the signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs. Facts about urine: • Adults pass about a quart and a half of urine each day, depending on the fluids and foods consumed. • The volume of urine formed at night is about half that formed in the daytime. • Normal urine is sterile. It contains fluids, salts and waste products, but it is free of bacteria, viruses and fungi. • The tissues of the bladder are isolated from urine and toxic substances by a coating that discourages bacteria from attaching and growing on the bladder wall. Urinary System (Renal System) Introduction to the urinary system The urinary system consists of all the organs involved in the formation and release of urine. It includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. The kidneys are bean-shaped organs which help the body produce urine to get rid of unwanted waste substances. When urine is formed, tubes calledureters transport it to the urinary bladder, where it is stored and excreted via the urethra. The kidneys are also important in controlling our blood pressureand producing red blood cells. Components of the urinary system Kidneys and ureters The kidneys are large, bean-shaped organs towards the back of the abdomen (belly). They lie behind a protective sheet of tissue within the abdomen. The kidneys perform many vital functions which are important in everyday life. For example, they help us get rid of waste products by making urine and excreting it from the body. A special system of tubes within the kidneys allow substances such as sodium (salt) and chloride to be filtered. The kidneys regulate the amount of water in the body. Humans produce about 1.5 litres of urine a day. However, if we drink more water, we may produce more urine. On hot days, if we get dehydrated and sweat more, we may produce less urine. This is why it’s very important to drink lots of water on hot summer days. The kidneys also produce renin (a hormone important in regulating blood pressure) and erythropoietin (helps produce red blood cells). Located in the lower part of our bellies, the right kidney is slightly lower in position than the left, allowing room for the liver. The kidneys are reddish brown in colour and measure about 10 cm in length, 5 cm width and 2.5 cm thick. On the side of the kidney with the smaller curve is an opening called the hilum, where blood vessels, nerves, and the ureters enter the kidney. On one end of the ureters is a funnel-shaped expansion, called the renal pelvis, where urine collects. The ureters carry urine to the bladder; they are 25–30 cm long tubes lined with smooth muscle. The muscular tissue helps force urine downwards. The ureters enter the bladder at an angle, so urine doesn’t flow up the wrong way. The kidney can be divided into two distinct regions. There is an outer red-brown part (cortex) and inner lighter coloured part (medulla). The cortex is made up of special units called corpuscles, nephrons, and a system of straight and curvy collecting tubules supplied by many blood vessels. In the outer part of the kidney, there are many nephrons which act as filtering units. Each nephron is supplied by a ball of small blood vessels, called glomeruli. A diagram of a single glomerulus is seen below. Blood is filtered through the small blood vessels to produce a mixture that is the precursor of urine. This mixture then passes through more tubules, where water, salt and nutrients are reabsorbed. The inner part of the kidney (the medulla) is a continuation of the specialized nephrons in the kidney. A small blood vessel network called the vasa recta supplies the medulla. Each kidney is supplied by the renal arteries, which give off many smaller branches to the surrounding parts of the kidneys. Renal veins drain the kidney. Bladder The bladder is a pyramid-shaped organ which sits in the pelvis (the bony structure which helps form the hips). The main function of the bladder is to store urine and, under the appropriate signals, release it into a tube which carries the urine out of the body. Normally, the bladder can hold up to 500 mL of urine. The bladder has three openings: two for the ureters and one for the urethra (tube carrying urine out of the body). The bladder consists of smooth muscles. The main muscle of the bladder is called the detrusor muscle. Muscle fibres around the opening of the urethra forms a ring-like muscle that controls the passage of urine. When we want to urinate, stretch receptors in the bladder are activated, which send signals to ourbrain and tell us that the bladder is full. The ring-like muscle relaxes and the detrusor muscle contracts, allowing urine to flow. The blood supply of the bladder is from many blood vessels. Some of these blood vessels are named: the vesical arteries, the obturator, uterine, gluteal and vaginal arteries. In females, a venous network drains blood from the bladder arteries into the internal iliac vein. Nervous control of the bladder involves centres located in the brain and spinal cord. Urethra The male urethra is 18–20 cm long, running from the bladder to the tip of thepenis. The male urethra is supplied by the inferior vesical and middle rectal arteries. The veins follow these blood vessels. The nerve supply is via the pudendal nerve. The female urethra is 4–6 cm long and 6 mm wide. It is a tube running from the bladder neck and opening into an external hole located at the top of the vaginalopening. As the female urethra is shorter than the male urethra, it is more likely to get infections from bacteria in the vagina. The female urethra is supplied by the internal pudendal and vaginal arteries. More information URINARY SYSTEM The urinary system eliminates waste products from the body and maintains fluid/salt balance. The system consists of paired kidneys with ureters, a urinary bladder, and urethra. The Kidney - An Overview The kidney is covered by a thin connective tissue capsule and consists of an outer cortex and medullary pyramid or papillae (Kidney). Within these two regions are found the components of the structural and functional unit of the kidney, the nephron. The nephron is composed of: (1) the glomerulus, a tuft of capillaries, which produces the glomerular filtrate, housed in the renal corpuscle; followed by a series of tubules, specialized for excretion and reabsorption, including (2) the proximal convoluted tubule, (3) the descending and ascending loop of Henle, and (4) the distal convoluted tubule. Each nephron drains into a collecting tubule, which serves as a duct system to conduct the urine out of the Kidney. The glomeruli and the proximal and distal convoluted tubules are found in the cortex. The descending loop of Henle leaves the cortex and enters the medulla, returning to the cortex as the ascending loop. Therefore, the medulla consists of portions of the loops of Henle and the collecting tubules. Kidney Cortex The outer most region of the kidney, which lies just below the convex surface of the organ, is the cortex, where three components of the nephron can be found. The renal corpuscles (or Bowman's capsules) containing glomeruli are surrounded by a labyrinth of proximal and distal convoluted tubules (Cortex). The collecting tubules also penetrate the cortex, to connect with the distal convoluted tubules. These extensions are called medullary rays and represent the cores of the kidney lobules (Medullary Rays). The glomeruli consist of a tuft of capillaries housed in an epithelial lined Bowman's capsule (Renal Corpuscle). The parietal epithelium of Bowman's Capsule is a layer of simple squamous epithelium lining the outer border of the corpuscle. The visceral epithelium of Bowman's capsule (or podocytes) surrounds the capillary endothelial cells, with mesangial cells filling in the spaces between closely apposed capillaries. The afferent arteriole enters the corpuscle and the efferent arteriole leaves the corpuscle, both at a region called the vascular pole. The glomerular filtrate leaves the corpuscle via the proximal convoluted tubule. The proximal convoluted tubule travels a tortuous course, therefore will appear as tubes cut in various orientations (i.e. cross-sectional or oblique). They are the most prominent tubule seen in the cortex. The cells stain highly acidophilic and possess a brush border (Proximal Tubules). The distal convoluted tubules differ from the proximal tubules in that: (1) the total diameter of the tubule is smaller, (2) but, the cells are lower producing a larger lumen, (3) the cells are less acidophilic, and (4) the cells do not have a brush border (Distal Tubules). The distal tubules also travel a tortuous course, producing different cut orientations. Before joining the collecting tubules, the distal convoluted tubules abut the renal corpuscle at the vascular pole. At this site, the distal tubule wall has an increased number of nuclei, producing a structure called the macula densa (Macula Densa). Kidney Medulla The medullary portion of the kidney is organized as a single medullary pyramid (unilobar kidney) or multiple pyramids (multilobar kidney). Each pyramid of medullary tissue and its associated "cap" of cortical tissue is defined as a kidney lobe (Kidney Lobe). The pyramids appear striated, due to the parallel alignment of the loops of Henle and collecting tubules (Medulla 1). Histologically, the loop of Henle appear acidophilic as the descending/ascending loop (Medulla 2) and becomes a thin squamous lined tube near the tip of the papillae (Medulla 3). Collecting tubules are not considered part of the nephron; they are the duct system of the kidney. The bulk of the medullary pyramid is composed of collecting tubules. The collecting tubules are lined with simple cuboidal epithelium. They meet at the apex or papillae of the medullary pyramid, merging together to form large ducts, the ducts of Bellini which empty into the renal pelvis (Papillae). Urinary Tubular System The urine in the collecting tubules is collected in the renal pelvis and exits the kidney in the ureter. The ureter travels to the bladder, where the urine can be stored. The bladder is drained by the urethra which leads to the external orifice. Ureter The ureter is composed of a folded mucus membrane, a muscle coat, and a fibroelastic adventitia (Ureter 1). The mucus membrane consists of two layers: (1) transitional epithelium and (2) lamina propria (Ureter 2). The muscle coat consists of two layers of smooth muscle. Bladder The urinary bladder is lined with transitional epithelium underlined by a collagenous lamina propria. A submucosa of elastic fibers and a muscular layer of three coats of smooth muscle permit expansion of the structure (Bladder). Urethra In the male, the urethra runs within the prostate gland and penis, and will be studied in the male reproductive section. In the female, it is a separate tube consisting of a mucus membrane (epithelium and lamina propria), submucosa and muscular coat of two layers of smooth muscle. The epithelium varies: transitional by the bladder, changing to stratified squamous non- keratinizing (Female Urethra), and finally stratified squamous at the opening. elimination::(sự) bài tiết. (sự) loại bỏ , loại trừ, thải elimination chromatin::Chất nhiễm sắc bị đào thải excess::Danh từ 1. sự vượt quá giới hạn, sự quá mức excessive::Tính từ 1. quá mức, thừa 2. quá thể, quá đáng excessively::Phó từ quá chừng, quá đáng excessiveness::Danh từ 1. sự quá mức, tính chất thừa 2. tính chất quá thể, tính chất quá đáng proper coat::áo riêng, lớp riêng proper coat of pharynx::Lớp dưới niêm mạc thực quản proper coat of small intestine::Lớp dưới niêm mạc ruột non proper coat of testis::Màng trắng tinh hòan proper extensor muscle of fifth digit::Cơ duỗi riêng ngón tay út proper fraction::Danh từ (toán học) phân số thật sự proper hepatic artery::Động mạch gan riêng proper name::Danh từ tên riêng; Danh từ riêng proper Officer::Viên chức chính thức proper substance of sclera::Chất riêng của củng mạc properdin::nhóm chất trong huyết tương properitoneal::ở giữa màng bụng và thành properly::Phó từ 1. đúng, chính xác 2. propertied::Tính từ có của, có tài sản property::Danh từ 1. quyền sở hữu, tài sản, của cải, vật sở hữu 2. đặc tính, tính chất 3. đồ dùng sân khấu (trang trí, phục trang, dàn cảnh ) 4. (định ngữ) (thuộc) quyền sở hữu, (thuộc) tài sản property-man::Danh từ người phụ trách đồ dùng sân khấu property-master::Danh từ như property-man property-room::Danh từ phòng để đồ dùng sân khấu unproper::Tính từ không thích hợp, không đúng chổ, không đúng lúc genito-urinary::Tính từ thuộc sinh dục-niệu genitourinary::(thuộc) cơ quan sinh dục nìệu. genitourinary apparatus::bộ sinh dục nìệu genitourinary region::Vùng sinh dục-niệu infundibulum of urinary bladder::Đáy bàng quang neck of urinary bladder::Cổ bàng quang sphincter muscle of urinary bladder::Cơ thắt bàng quang urinary::(thuộc) nước tiểu , tiết niệu urinary bladder::Bọng đáI urinary calculus::Sỏi niệu urinary carrier::Người truyền bệnh qua niệu urinary cast::Trụ niệu urinary continence::Khả năng kìm tiểu tiện, nhịn tiểu tiện urinary cylinder::Trụ niệu urinary cyst::U nang niệu urinary fistula::Rò niệu urinary incontinence::Đái dầm urinary incotinence::đái dầm. urinary lithiasis::Bệnh sỏi niệu urinary organ::Cơ quan tiết niệu urinary output::Hiệu suất tiết niệu urinary reflex::Phản xạ bàng quang urinary schistosomiasis::Bệnh sán lá bàng quang urinary sediment::Chất lắng nước tiểu urinary siderosis::Nhiễm sắt niệu urinary stasis::Bí tiểu tiện urinary tract::đường niệu colpocysto-ureterocystotomy::(thủ thuật) mở niệu quản qua âm đạo bàng quang cutaneous ureterostomy::(thủ thuật) mở thông niệu quản-da cutaneousureterostomy::thủ thuật mở thông niệu quản-da. cystoureteritis::Viêm bàng quang-niệu quản cystoureterogram::Phim chụp rơngen bàng quang-niệu đạo cystoureteropyelitis::Viêm bàng quang-niệu quản-bể thận heminephro-ureterectomy::(thủ thuật) cắt bỏ phần thận niệu quản hydro-ureter::Tích dịch niệu quản hydro-ureterosis::Tích dịch niệu quản Hydroureter::1 Niệu quản ứ nước interureteral::Gian niệu quản interureteric::Gian niệu quả intraureteral::trong niệu quả lithureteria::Bệnh sỏi niệu quản megalo ureter::niệu quản to. megalo-ureter::Niệu quản to megaureter::chứng phình niệu quản . nephro-ureterocystectomy::(thủ thuật) mở thận niệu quản bàng quang Nephroureterectomy::cắt bỏ thận - niệu quản (cắt bỏ niệu quản - thận). orifice of ureter::Lỗ niệu quản orificium ureteris::Lỗ niệu quản ostium ureteris::Lỗ niệu quản pars abdominalis ureteris::Phần bụng của niệu quản pars pelvina ureteris::Phần chậu hông bé của niệu quản periureteric::Quanh niệu quản periureteritis::Viêm quanh niệu quản plexus uretericus::Đám rối thần kinh niệu quản plica interureterica::Gờ gian niệu quản pyeloureterectasis::Giãn bể thận-niệu quản Pyeloureteretasis::giãn bể thận niệu quả pyeloureterography::Phim chụp tia X thận -niệu quản Pyeloureteroplasty::thủ thuật tạo hình bể thận - niệu quả pyeloureterplasty::(thủ thuật) tạo hình bể thận-niệu quản pyoureter::(chứng) mủ niệu quản rami ureterici arteriae renalis::Cành niệu quản động mạch thận, động mạch bể thận-niệu quản rami ureterici arteriae testicularis::Cành niệu quản của động mạch tinh, động mạch niệu quản xuất tunica mucosa ureteris::Lớp niêm mạc niệu quản tunica muscularis ureteris::Lớp cơ của niệu quản typhlo-ureterostomy::(thủ thuật) mở thông niệu quản-manh tràng ureter::Niệu quản ureteral::(thuộc) niệu quản ureteral colic::Cơn đau nìệu quản ureteral fistula::Rò niệu quản ureteralgia::(chứng) đau niệu quản ureterectasia::(chứng) giãn niệu quản ureterectasis::(chứng) giãn niệu quản ureterectomy::(thủ thuật) cắt bỏ niệu quản ureteric::(thuộc) niệu quản ureteric catheter::Thông niệu đạo ureteric plexus::Đám rối thần kinh niệu quản ureterine colic::Cơn đau tử cung ureteritis::Viêm niệu quản uretero-enteric::Niệu quản-ruột non uretero-entero-anastomosis::(thủ thuật) mở thông niệu quản- ruột non uretero-enterostomy::(thủ thuật) mở thông niệu quản- ruột non uretero-ileostomy::(thủ thuật) mở thông niệu quản-hồi tràng uretero-intestinal::Niệu quản-ruột non ureterocele::Thoát vị niệu quản ureterocervical::(thuộc) niệu đạo-cổ bàng quang ureterocervical fistula::Rò niệu quản-cổ tử cung ureterocolostomy::(thủ thuật) mở thông niệu quản-kết tràng . ureterocutaneostomy::(thủ thuật) mở thông-niệu quản-da ureterocystanastomosis::(thủ thuật) mở thông-niệu quản-da ureterocystoneostomy::(thủ thuật) tân tạo lỗ thông niệu quản- bàng quang ureterocystostomy::(thủ thuật) tân tạo lỗ thông niệu quản- bàng quang ureterodialysis::Rách niệu quản ureteroduodenal::niệu quản - tá tràng. ureteroduodenlal::Niệu quản-tá tràng ureteroenteric::nìệu quản - ruột no ureteroenterostomy::mở thông nìệu quản - ruột. ureterogram::Phim chụp tia X niệu quản ureterogramy::phim chụp tia X - nìệu quả ureterography::(sự) chụp tia X niệu quản, chụp rơngen niệu quản ureterolith::(chứng) sỏi niệu quản ureterolithiasis::(chứng) sỏi niệu quản ureterolithotomy::(thủ -thuật) mở niệu quản lấy sỏi ureterolysis::1. vở niệu quản 2 . liệt niệu quản 3. (thủ thuật) gỡ dính niệu quản ureteroneocystostomy::(thủ thuật) tân tạo lỗ thông niệu quản- bàng quang ureteroneopyelostomy::(thủ thuật) tân tạo lỗ thông niệu quản-bể thận ureteronephrectomy::(thủ thuật) cắt bỏ thận-niệu quản ureteroplasty::(thủ thuật) tạo hình niệu quản ureteroproctostomy::( thủ thuật) mở thông niệu quản -trực tràng ureteropyelitis::Viêm niệu quản-bể thận ureteropyelography::(sự) chụp tia X niệu quản, bể thận, chụp rơngen niệu quản-bể thận ureteropyeloneostomy::(thủ thuật) tân tạo lỗ thông niệu quản-bể thận ureteropyelonephritis::Viêm niệu quản-bể thận ureteropyelonephrostomy::(thủ thuật) mở thông niệu đạo-bể thận-thận ureteropyeloplasty::(thủ thuật) tạo hình niệu quản- bể thận ureteropyelostomy::(thủ thuật) tân tạo lỗ thông niệu quản-bể thận ureteropyosis::Viêm thận mủ ureterorectal::Niệu quản- trực tràng ureterorectal fistula::Rò niệu quản-trực tràng ureterorectostomy::( thủ thuật) mở thông niệu quản -trực tràng ureterorrhagia::Xuất huyết niệu quản ureterorrhaphy::(thủ lhuật) khâu niệu quản ureterosigmoidostomy::(thủ thuật) mở thông niệu quản-ruột xích ma ureterostegnosis::(chứng) hẹp niệu quản ureterostenoma::(chứng) hẹp niệu quản ureterostenosis::(chứng) hẹp niệu quản ureterostoma::1. Lỗ niệu quản 2. rò niệu quản ureterostomosis::(thủ thuật) mở thông niệu quản ureterostomy::(thủ thuật) mở thông niệu quản ureterotomy::(thủ thuật) mở niệu quản ureterotrigono-enterostomy::(thủ thuật) mở thông niệu quản tam giác bàng quang-ruột non ureterotrigonosigmoidostomy::(thủ thuậ t) mở thông niệu quản tam giác bàng quang-kết tràng ureteroureteral::Niệu quản-niệu quản ureteroureterostomy::(thủ thuật) mở thông niệu quản-niệu quản ureterouterine::Niệu quản-tử cung . ureterovaginal::Niệu quản-âm đạo ureterovaginal fistula::Rò niệu quản-âm đạo ureterovesical::Niệu quản-bàng quang ureterovesicostomy::(thủ thuật) tân tạo lỗ thông niệu quản- bàng quang uropyoureter::Niệu quản ứ nước mủ uroureter::ứ niệu-niệu quản vesicoureteral::(thuộc) bàng quang-niệu quản vesicoureteric reflux::hồi lưu bàng quang niệu quả annulus urethralis::vòng niệu đạo. arteria buibi urethrae::sy Arteria buibi penis bulb of urethra::Hành niệu đạo bulbo-urethral::(thuộc) hành niệu đạo bulbourethral glands::tuyến hành - niệu quả bulbus urethrae::Hành dương vật carina urethralis vaginae::Cột âm đạo compressor urethrae::Cơ thắt niệu đạo constrictor urethrae::Cơ thắt niệu đạo corpus cavernosum urethrae virilis::Thể xốp niệu đạo corpus glandulae bulbourethralis::Thân tuyến hành niệu đạo crista urethralis femininae::Mào niệu đạo nữ crista urethralis masculinae::Mào niệu đạo nam crista urethralis virilis::Màng niệu đạo nam cutaneous opening of male urethra::Lỗ ngoài của niệu đạo nam ductus paraurethrales::ống quanh niệu đạo , tuyến Skene endo-urethral::Trong niệu đạo external orifice of male urethra::Lỗ niệu đạo ngoài nam facies urethralis penis::Mặt niệu đạo của duơng vật femal urethral crest::Mào niệu đạo nữ female urethra::Niệu đạo nữ fossa navicularis urethrae::Hố thuyền (của niệu đạo nam) glandula bublourethralis::Tuyến hành-niệu đạo, tuyến Cooper glandula bulbourethralis::Tuyến hành - niệu đạo, tuyến Cooper glandulae urethrales::Tuyến niệu đạo great lacuna of urethra::Hố thuyền niệu đạo nam hymenal value of male urethra::hố thuyền niệu đạo nam hymenal valve of male urethra::Van hố thuyền niệu đạo internal orifice of urethra::Lỗ niệu đạo trong intra-urethral::Trong niệu đạo isthmus urethrae::eo niệu đạo lacunae urethrales::Hốc niệu đạo male urethra::Niệu đạo nam male urethral crest::Mào niệu đạo nam musculus rectourethralis::Cơ trực tràng-niệu đạo musculus sphincter urethrae::Cơ thắt niệu đạo musculus sphincter urethrae membranaceae::Cơ thắt niệu đạo orificium urethrae externum muliebris::Lỗ niệu đạo ngoài nữ orificium urethrae externum virilis::Lỗ níệu đạo ngoài nam orificium urethrae internum::Lỗ niệu đạo trong ostium urethrae externum feminina::Lỗ niệu đạo ngoài nữ ostium urethrae externum masculinae::Lỗ niệu đạo ngoài nam, lỗ sáo ostium urethrae internum::Lỗ niệu đạo trong para-urethral::Cận niệu đạo paraurethral duct::ống quanh niệu đạo pars membranacea urethrae masculinae::Phần màng của niệu đạo nam pars prostatica urethrae masculinae::Phần tuyến tiền liệt của niệu đạo (nam) pars prostatica urethrae virilis::Phần tuyến tiền liệt của niệu đạo (nam) pars spongiosa urethrae masculinae::Niệu đạo xốp periurethral::Quanh niệu đạo periurethral abscess::áp xe quanh niệu đạo posterior urethra::Niệu đạo sau rectourethral::(thuộc) trực tràng-niệu đạo rectourethral muscle::Cơ trực tràng-niệu đạo retrourethral catheterization::Thông niệu đạo ngược dòng sphincter muscle of membranous urethra::Cơ thắt ngoài của niệu đạo sphincter muscle of urethra::Cơ thắt niệu đạo spongy body of male urethra::Thể xốp niệu đạo nam suburethral::Dưới niệu đạo transurethral::Qua niệu đạo transurethral resection::(thủ thuật) cắt bỏ tuyến tiền liệt qua niệu đạo triangular ligament of urethra::Dây chằng mu-tiền liệt tunica mucosa urethrae femininae::Lớp niêm mạc niệu đạo nữ tunica mucosa urethrae muliebris::Lớp niêm mạc niệu đạo nữ tunica submucosa urethrae muliebris::Lớp dưới niêm mạc niệu đạo nữ Tur::(transurethral resection) cắt đoạn qua niệu đạo urethra::Niệu đạo urethra feminina::Niệu đạo nữ urethra masculina::Niệu đạo nam urethra muliebris::Niệu đạo nữ urethrae::như urethra urethrae sphincter::Cơ thắt niệu đạo urethral::(thuộc) niệu đạo urethral artery::Động mạch niệu đạo urethral carina of vagina::Cột âm đạo urethral caruncle::Núm niệu đạo urethral fistula::Rò niệu đạo urethral gland::Tuyến niệu đạo urethral hematuria::Huyết niệu niệu đạo urethral ridge::Cựa âm đạo của niệu đạo urethral sound::Sông niệu đạo urethral utricle::Túi bầu dục tuyến tiền liệt urethralgia::(chứng) đau niệu đạo urethrascope::(dụng cụ) soi niệu đạo urethratresia::Hẹp trít niệu đạo vesicourethral::(thuộc) bàng quang-niệu đạo vesicourethral opening::Lỗ trong của niệu đạo vestibulo-urethral::(thuộc) tiền đình-niệu đạo cardiac sphincter::Cơ thắt tâm vị external sphincter muscle of anus::Cơ thắt hậu môn ngoài inguinal sphincter::Cơ thắt ống bẹn internal sphincter muscle of anus::Cơ thắt hậu môn trong internal sphincterotomy::(thủ thuật) cắt cơ thắt hậu môn trong musculus sphincter::Cơ thắt musculus sphincter ani externus::Cơ thắt hậu môn ngoài musculus sphincter ani internus::Cơ thắt hậu môn trong musculus sphincter ductus choledochi::Cơ thắt ống mật chủ musculus sphincter pupillae::Cơ thắt đồng tử musculus sphincter pylori::Cơ thắt môn vị musculus sphincter urethrae::Cơ thắt niệu đạo musculus sphincter urethrae membranaceae::Cơ thắt niệu đạo musculus sphincter vesicae urinariae::Cơ thắt bàng quang Oddi sphincter::Cơ thắt Oddi oddis sphincter::cơ thắt oddis papillosphincterotomy::(thủ thuật) mở cơ thắt núm ruột tá to pars profunda musculi sphincteris ani externi::Phần sâu cơ thắt ngoài hậu môn pars subcutanea musculi sphincteris ani externi::Cơ thắt da của hậu môn pars superficialis musculi sphincteris ani externi::Phần nông của cơ thắt hậu môn ngoài prepyloric sphincter::Cơ thắt tiền môn vị pyloric sphincter::Cơ thắt môn vị sphincter::Cơ thắt sphincter ampullae hepatopancreaticae::Cơ thắt Oddi sphincter ani::Cơ thắt hậu môn sphincter muscle::Cơ thắt sphincter muscle of bile duct::Cơ thắt ống mật chủ sphincter muscle of hepatopancreatic::Cơ thắt bóng gan-tụy, cơ thắt Oddi sphincter muscle of membranous urethra::Cơ thắt ngoài của niệu đạo sphincter muscle of pupil::Cơ thắt đồng tử, cơ co đồng tử sphincter muscle of pylorus::Cơ thắt môn vị sphincter muscle of urethra::Cơ thắt niệu đạo sphincter muscle of urinary bladder::Cơ thắt bàng quang sphincter oculi::Cơ thắt đồng tử sphincter oris::Cơ vòng môi sphincter pupillac::Cơ thắt đồng tử sphincter vaginae::Cơ thắt âm đạo sphincter vesicae::Cơ thắt bàng quang sphincteral::(thuộc) cơ thắt sphincteralgia::(chứng) đau cơ thắt sphincterectomy::(thủ thuật ) cắt bỏ cơ thắt sphincterelysis::(thủ thuật) phân tách mống mắt sphincterial::Tính từ như sphincteral sphincteric::(thuộc) cơ thắt sphincterismus::(chứng) co thắt cơ thắt sphincteritis::Viêm cơ thắt sphincterolysis::thủ thuật phân tách mống mắt. sphincteroplasty::(thủ thuật ) tạo hình cơ thắt sphincteroscope::(dụng cụ) soi cơ thắt hậu môn sphincteroscopy::(sự) soi cơ thắt hậu môn sphincterotomy::(thủ thuật) cắt cơ thắt tubal sphincter::Cơ thắt vòi buồng trứng urethrae sphincter::Cơ thắt niệu đạo annulus urethralis::vòng niệu đạo. arteria buibi urethrae::sy Arteria buibi penis bulb of urethra::Hành niệu đạo bulbo-urethral::(thuộc) hành niệu đạo bulbourethral glands::tuyến hành - niệu quả bulbus urethrae::Hành dương vật carina urethralis vaginae::Cột âm đạo compressor urethrae::Cơ thắt niệu đạo constrictor urethrae::Cơ thắt niệu đạo corpus cavernosum urethrae virilis::Thể xốp niệu đạo corpus glandulae bulbourethralis::Thân tuyến hành niệu đạo crista urethralis femininae::Mào niệu đạo nữ crista urethralis masculinae::Mào niệu đạo nam crista urethralis virilis::Màng niệu đạo nam cutaneous opening of male urethra::Lỗ ngoài của niệu đạo nam ductus paraurethrales::ống quanh niệu đạo , tuyến Skene endo-urethral::Trong niệu đạo external orifice of male urethra::Lỗ niệu đạo ngoài nam facies urethralis penis::Mặt niệu đạo của duơng vật femal urethral crest::Mào niệu đạo nữ female urethra::Niệu đạo nữ fossa navicularis urethrae::Hố thuyền (của niệu đạo nam) glandula bublourethralis::Tuyến hành-niệu đạo, tuyến Cooper glandula bulbourethralis::Tuyến hành - niệu đạo, tuyến Cooper glandulae urethrales::Tuyến niệu đạo great lacuna of urethra::Hố thuyền niệu đạo nam hymenal value of male urethra::hố thuyền niệu đạo nam hymenal valve of male urethra::Van hố thuyền niệu đạo nam internal orifice of urethra::Lỗ niệu đạo trong intra-urethral::Trong niệu đạo isthmus urethrae::eo niệu đạo lacunae urethrales::Hốc niệu đạo male urethra::Niệu đạo nam male urethral crest::Mào niệu đạo nam musculus rectourethralis::Cơ trực tràng-niệu đạo musculus sphincter urethrae::Cơ thắt niệu đạo musculus sphincter urethrae membranaceae::Cơ thắt niệu đạo orificium urethrae externum muliebris::Lỗ niệu đạo ngoài nữ orificium urethrae externum virilis::Lỗ níệu đạo ngoài nam orificium urethrae internum::Lỗ niệu đạo trong ostium urethrae externum feminina::Lỗ niệu đạo ngoài nữ ostium urethrae externum masculinae::Lỗ niệu đạo ngoài nam, lỗ sáo ostium urethrae internum::Lỗ niệu đạo trong para-urethral::Cận niệu đạo paraurethral duct::ống quanh niệu đạo pars membranacea urethrae masculinae::Phần màng của niệu đạo nam pars prostatica urethrae masculinae::Phần tuyến tiền liệt của niệu đạo (nam) pars prostatica urethrae virilis::Phần tuyến tiền liệt của niệu đạo (nam) pars spongiosa urethrae masculinae::Niệu đạo xốp periurethral::Quanh niệu đạo periurethral abscess::áp xe quanh niệu đạo posterior urethra::Niệu đạo sau rectourethral::(thuộc) trực tràng-niệu đạo rectourethral muscle::Cơ trực tràng-niệu đạo retrourethral catheterization::Thông niệu đạo ngược dòng sphincter muscle of membranous urethra::Cơ thắt ngoài của niệu đạo sphincter muscle of urethra::Cơ thắt niệu đạo spongy body of male urethra::Thể xốp niệu đạo nam suburethral::Dưới niệu đạo transurethral::Qua niệu đạo transurethral resection::(thủ thuật) cắt bỏ tuyến tiền liệt qua niệu đạo triangular ligament of urethra::Dây chằng mu-tiền liệt tunica mucosa urethrae femininae::Lớp niêm mạc niệu đạo nữ tunica mucosa urethrae muliebris::Lớp niêm mạc niệu đạo nữ tunica submucosa urethrae muliebris::Lớp dưới niêm mạc niệu đạo nữ Tur::(transurethral resection) cắt đoạn qua niệu đạo urethra::Niệu đạo urethra feminina::Niệu đạo nữ urethra masculina::Niệu đạo nam urethra muliebris::Niệu đạo nữ urethrae::như urethra urethrae sphincter::Cơ thắt niệu đạo urethral::(thuộc) niệu đạo urethral artery::Động mạch niệu đạo urethral carina of vagina::Cột âm đạo urethral caruncle::Núm niệu đạo urethral fistula::Rò niệu đạo urethral gland::Tuyến niệu đạo urethral hematuria::Huyết niệu niệu đạo urethral ridge::Cựa âm đạo của niệu đạo urethral sound::Sông niệu đạo urethral utricle::Túi bầu dục tuyến tiền liệt urethralgia::(chứng) đau niệu đạo urethrascope::(dụng cụ) soi niệu đạo urethratresia::Hẹp trít niệu đạo vesicourethral::(thuộc) bàng quang-niệu đạo vesicourethral opening::Lỗ trong của niệu đạo vestibulo-urethral::(thuộc) tiền đình-niệu đạo ascending lumbar vein::Tĩnh mạch thắt lưng lên columbarium::Danh từ nhà để tro hoả táng chuồng bồ câu dorsolumbar::(thuộc) lưng, thắt lưng. endolumbar::Trong vùng thắt lưng fith lumbar artery::Động mạch thắt lưng thứ năm iliolumbar::(thuộc) vùng chậu-thắt lưng iliolumbar artery::Động mạch chậu thắt lưng iliolumbar ligament::Dây chằng chậu - thắt lưng iliolumbar vein::tĩnh mạch chậu thắt lưng lumbar::(thuộc) vùng thắt lưng lumbar abscess::áp xe vùng thắt lưng lumbar appendicitis::víêm ruột thừa vùng thắt lưng lumbar artery::Động mạch thắt lưng lumbar flexura::Đường cong thắt lưng lumbar flexure::đường cong thắt lưng lumbar ganglia::Hạch (giao cảm) thắt lưng lumbar herina::thoát vị vùng thắt lưng [...]... concentration::Nồng độ theo khối lượng molar concentration::Nồng độ phân tử molecular concentration::Nồng độ phân tử gam partial concentration::Nồng độ riêng phần radio-isotope concentration::Nồng độ đồng vị phóng xạ radioactive concentration::Nồng độ phóng xạ urea concentration::Nồng độ urê urea concentration test::Thử nghiệm nồng độ urê volume concentration::Nồng độ theo thể tích weight concentration::Nồng độ theo... spine of maxilla::Gai mũi trước anterior tympanic spine::Gai màng nhĩ lớn basilar spine::Củ hầu Civinini spine::Gai Civini, mỏm gai chân bướm civininus spine::gai civini , mỏm gai chân bướm concussion of the spine::Chấn động xương sống crispiness::Xem crispy dorsal spine::Cột sống dyspinealism::Loạn năng tuyến tùng erector muscle of spine::Cơ dựng gai sống ethmoidal spine of Macalister::Mào xương bướm . THE URINARY SYSTEM The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter the blood to remove wastes and produce urine. The ureters, urinary. urine, the fluid waste excreted by the kidneys. The urinary system includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, two sphincter muscles and the urethra. Description of the urinary system The urinary. around the opening of the bladder into the urethra, the tube that allows urine to pass outside the body. The only difference between the female and male urinary system is the length of the urethra.