WATER QUALITY & TREATMENT About the American Water Works Association American Water Works Association is the authoritative resource for knowledge, information, and advocacy to improve the quality and supply of water in North America and beyond AWWA is the largest organization of water professionals in the world AWWA advances public health, safety, and welfare by uniting the efforts of the full spectrum of the entire water community Through our collective strength we become better stewards of water for the greatest good of the people and the environment American Water Works Association 6666 W Quincy Ave Denver, Colorado 80235 303.794.7711 www.awwa.org WATER QUALITY & TREATMENT A Handbook on Drinking Water James K Edzwald, Editor Sixth Edition New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto Copyright © 2011, 1999 by American Water Works Association All rights reserved Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher ISBN: 978-0-07-163010-8 MHID: 0-07-163010-4 The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-0-07-163011-5, MHID: 0-07-163011-2 All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs To contact a representative please e-mail us at bulksales@mcgraw-hill.com Information contained in this work has been obtained by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc (“McGrawHill”) from sources believed to be reliable However, neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information This work is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought TERMS OF USE This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc (“McGrawHill”) and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work Use of this work is subject to these terms Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGrawHill’s prior consent You may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited Your right to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE McGraw-Hill and its licensors not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free Neither McGraw-Hill nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise About the Editor James K Edzwald is Professor Emeritus of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst He earned his B.S and M.S degrees in Civil Engineering and Environmental Health Engineering from the University of Maryland, and a Ph.D in Water Resources Engineering from the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill He also held faculty positions at the University of Missouri, Clarkson University, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute His research interests include water supply, drinking water treatment, and aquatic chemistry Professor Edzwald has authored or coauthored over 150 publications on water quality and treatment He is a recipient of the 2004 A.P Black Award from AWWA for his contributions in water supply research and a recipient of the 2009 Founders’ Award from the Association of Environmental Engineering and Science Professors for his contributions to environmental engineering education and practice He is a registered professional engineer in New York This page intentionally left blank Contents Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii Chapter 1. Drinking Water Standards, Regulations, and Goals J Alan Roberson, P and Eric G Burneson, P E., E 1.1 Regulatory History Prior to the 1974 Sdwa / 1.2 Evolution of the Sdwa / 1.3 The Risk Management and Standard-Setting Processes / 1.8 Current Drinking Water Regulations / 1.19 Role of State Agencies / 1.26 Peer Review, Outside Consultation, and Public Involvement / 1.30 Other Countries and International Standards / 1.32 Outlook for the Future / 1.33 The Internet as a Resource / 1.34 Disclaimer / 1.35 Abbreviations / 1.35 References / 1.37 Chapter 2. Health and Aesthetic Aspects of Drinking Water Gloria B Post, Ph.D., D.A.B.T., Thomas B Atherholt, Ph.D., and Perry D Cohn, Ph.D., M.P .H Waterborne Disease / 2.3 Pathogenic Organisms / 2.6 Indicators of Water Quality / 2.19 Toxicological Evaluation of Drinking Water Contaminants / 2.23 Risk Assessment of Drinking Water Contaminants / 2.27 Inorganic Constituents / 2.33 Organic Constituents / 2.44 Disinfectants and Disinfection By-Products / 2.59 Radionuclides / 2.69 Aesthetic Quality / 2.72 Preparedness and Health / 2.75 Final Comment / 2.76 Internet Resources / 2.76 Abbreviations / 2.77 Acknowledgments / 2.78 References / 2.79 vii 2.1 viii Contents Chapter 3. Chemical Principles, Source Water Composition, and Watershed Protection James K Edzwald, Ph.D., B.C.E.E., and John E Tobiason, Ph.D., B.C.E.E 3.1 Introduction / 3.2 Chemical Principles and Concepts / 3.2 Source Water Composition / 3.24 Particles / 3.42 Natural Organic Matter / 3.58 Source Water Selection and Protection / 3.67 Abbreviations / 3.71 Notation for Equations / 3.72 References / 3.72 Chapter 4. Hydraulic Characteristics of Water Treatment Reactors and Their Effects on Treatment Efficiency Desmond F Lawler, Ph.D., P .E 4.1 Introduction / 4.2 Continuous Flow Reactors: Ideal and Non-Ideal Flow / 4.2 Tracer Studies / 4.3 Choosing a Step or Pulse Input Tracer Test / 4.11 Mathematical Models for Non-Ideal Flow / 4.16 Computational Fluid Dynamics / 4.24 Reaction Rate Expressions / 4.26 Reactions in Continuous Flow Systems at Steady State: Combining Hydraulics and Reaction Kinetics / 4.33 Reactors in Water Treatment and Their Hydraulics Characteristics / 4.43 Summary / 4.47 Abbreviations / 4.47 Notation for Equations / 4.47 References / 4.49 Chapter 5. Overview of Water Treatment Processes Doug Elder, P E., and George C Budd, Ph.D., P .E 5.1 Introduction / 5.2 Source Water Quality Considerations (Chap 3) / 5.2 Characteristics and General Capabilities of Unit Processes / 5.4 Distribution System Considerations (Chaps 19–21) / 5.25 Treatment Process Residuals Management (Chap 22) / 5.27 Other Considerations / 5.28 Treatment Process Configurations / 5.29 Abbreviations / 5.36 References / 5.38 Chapter 6. Gas–Liquid Processes: Principles and Applications David W Hand, Ph.D., David R Hokanson, M.S., P E., and John C Crittenden, Ph.D., P D.E.E., N.A.E .E., Introduction / 6.1 Theory of Gas Transfer / 6.2 Packed Towers / 6.14 Diffused or Bubble Aeration / 6.41 6.1 I.36 index Precipitative softening See also Lime softening coagulation in, 13.59–13.60 conventional systems for, 13.52–13.54 DOC removal by, 13.65–13.67 inorganic constituents removed by, 13.70–13.74 IX v., 13.61–13.63 metal ions removed by, 13.71–13.72 monitoring and control of, 13.60–13.61 NOM removal by, 13.63–13.70 organic constituents removed by, 13.70 pellet reactors for, 13.56–13.58, 13.57f.–13.58f phosphate removal with, 13.74 process selection for, 13.61–13.63 residuals of, 13.70 solids contact clarifiers for, 13.54–13.56, 13.54f.–13.55f TOC removal by, 13.64–13.69, 13.65f., 13.69f Precoat filtration, 10.2, 10.87–10.88 advantages of, 10.88–10.89 applications of, 10.88–10.89 body feed and, 10.87, 10.92 body feed concentration and, 10.93–10.94, 10.94f Cryptosporidium removal with, 10.88–10.89 disadvantages of, 10.89 filter elements in, 10.87, 10.89, 10.90f.–10.91f filter media in, 10.91–10.92 filtration rate effecting, 10.94 Giardia lamblia removal with, 10.88–10.89 grades of filter media for, 10.88 mathematical model for, 10.94–10.95 performance of, 10.88–10.89 precoating in, 10.92, 10.92f pressure filter vessels in, 10.91, 10.91f schematic of, 10.88f septum in, 10.87, 10.89, 10.90f spent cake removal in, 10.92–10.93 SWTR and, 10.87 theoretical aspects of, 10.93–10.95 vacuum filter vessels in, 10.90–10.91 Prehydrolyzed metal salts, 8.20–8.21 Premix clarifiers, 9.32–9.33 Premix-recirculation clarifiers, 9.32–9.33, 9.33f Pressure equilibrium constant and effects of, 3.9, 6.5 low/negative-pressure transients in distribution systems, 21.30 membrane processes and low, 22.43–22.47 packed towers and drop in, 6.26f Pressure filtration, 10.3 applications of, 10.76 configuration of, 10.74–10.75, 10.74f Cryptosporidium and Giardia lamblia removal by, 10.8 gravity filters compared with, 10.75–10.76 operation of, 10.75 rate control of, 10.75–10.76 in small water systems, 10.76 Pressure flotation, 9.46 Primary coagulant polymers, 8.46 Probability density functions (PDFs), 16.21–16.22, 16.22f Process integrity monitoring, 11.36 Prometon, 2.52–2.53 Protozoa, 2.15–2.18 See also Cryptosporidium; Giardia lamblia Acanthamoeba, 2.17–2.18 Cyclospora, 2.17 Entamoeba histolytica, 2.16–2.17 free-living, 2.17–2.18, 21.18 Isospora, 2.16 Naegleria fowleri, 2.17 parasitic, 2.15–2.17 Toxoplasma, 2.16 Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 21.10–21.12 Public Notification Rule, 1.31–1.32 pX notation, 3.3, 3.4t Quantum yield, 18.20–18.21, 18.21t Quaternary amines, 8.46 Quats, 12.10 Radical reactions, 7.12–7.13, 7.13t Radioactive residuals, 22.66–22.69, 22.67t.–22.69t characterization of, 22.67, 22.68t disposal options for, 22.69, 22.69t regulations for, 22.68 Radionuclides health effects of, 2.70–2.71 lime softening removing, 13.72, 13.73f particle types of, 2.69 radium, 2.71 radon, 2.72 standards for, 2.71 uranium, 2.72 Radium, 2.71 IX removal of uranium combined with, 12.72–12.73 IX removing, 12.34–12.35 index Radon, 2.72 regulations, 1.19 Rainwater, 3.28–3.29, 3.28t Rapid granular bed filtration air binding in, 10.49 air scour delivery systems in, 10.56 air-scour assisted backwashing of, 10.54t., 10.55–10.57 available head loss in, 10.11 backwash in, 10.11 backwash water and air scour flow rates in, 10.56–10.57, 10.57t backwashing and expansion of filter bed in, 10.60–10.62 backwashing methods for, 10.53–10.57, 10.54t backwashing troughs in, 10.57 backwashing wash water required for, 10.57–10.58 bed depth and media size in, 10.18 Brownian diffusion, 10.31 configurations for, 10.15–10.21, 10.16f continuous turbidity monitoring and, 10.43, 10.44f Cryptosporidium and, 10.22 diffusion mechanism in, 10.31–10.32, 10.31f dirty filter, restarting, and, 10.45–10.46 dirty filter media and, 10.66–10.68 dirty filter rate increases and, 10.45, 10.46f dual-media filters in, 10.18–10.20 effluent quality pattern in, 10.39–10.40, 10.40f fabricated self-supporting underdrain system for, 10.24 false-floor underdrain with nozzles for, 10.25, 10.25f filter cycle, 10.11 filter run in, 10.11 filtering-to-waste in, 10.41–10.42 filtration rates and, 10.21–10.22 GAC in, 10.20–10.21 Giardia lamblia and, 10.22 grain sizes in, 10.16–10.17, 10.17t gross production per filter run in, 10.23–10.24, 10.23f head loss development in, 10.46–10.48, 10.47f.–10.48f initial performance of, 10.40–10.41, 10.41f interception mechanism in, 10.31–10.32, 10.31f intermixing of adjacent layers during backwashing in, 10.63 I.37 Rapid granular bed filtration (Cont.): macroscopic (phenomenological) approach to, 10.29–10.31 manifold-lateral underdrain system, 10.24, 10.24f media properties in, 10.12–10.15, 10.14t media types in, 10.11 microscopic (fundamental) approach to, 10.31–10.35 microscopic/macroscopic models combined for dirty media in, 10.36 mineral deposits and, 10.66–10.68 models for, 10.26–10.39 movement of gravel during backwashing in, 10.64–10.65, 10.65f mudballs and, 10.65f., 10.66 negative head effects in, 10.49, 10.49f particle size for removal efficiency in, 10.32–10.35, 10.33f.–10.34f particle-counting instruments and, 10.43, 10.44f performance of, 10.9, 10.10f., 10.11 polymers aiding, 10.21 pre-treatment coagulation for, 10.43–10.45, 10.44f run length in, 10.23–10.24, 10.23f schematic of, 10.9f.–10.10f sedimentation mechanism in, 10.31–10.32, 10.31f single collector efficiency in, 10.32, 10.33t single-media filters in, 10.18–10.20 skimming during backwashing in, 10.62–10.63 steady state period in, 10.42 stratification during backwashing in, 10.62–10.63 support gravel in, 10.26 surface wash plus fluidized-bed backwash in, 10.54–10.55 terminal head loss in, 10.11 transport mechanisms for, 10.31–10.32, 10.31f triple-media filters in, 10.19–10.20 UFRV in, 10.23–10.24, 10.23f underdrain failures in, 10.65–10.66 underdrain systems in, 10.24–10.26 upflow filter in, 10.15–10.16 upflow wash with full fluidization in, 10.53–10.54 Rapid mixing, 5.8 See also Flocculation jar tests for, 8.64–8.66 lime softening and, 13.56 purpose of, 8.50 I.38 index Rapid-mix tank, 4.45 Rate-limiting step, 7.9, 20.13 in adsorption, 14.28 Raw waters contaminants in SFBW compared to, 22.38, 22.38t turbidity of, 9.41 RBF See Riverbank filtration Reaction kinetics, 7.8–7.10 Reaction pathways, 7.14–7.15 Reaction rate constant, 7.9 Reaction rate expressions, 4.26–4.28 in batch reactors, 4.28–4.33 in CFSTR, 4.36, 4.37t of CFSTRs compared to PFRs, 4.36, 4.38, 4.38t in CFSTRs-in-series model, 4.38–4.39, 4.39f in PFR with dispersion model, 4.39, 4.40f in PFRs, 4.34, 4.35t Reactor hydraulics, 4.26 Recarbonation equilibrium models estimating doses for, 13.24–13.25 of lime softening, 13.21–13.22 single-stage, 13.21 stoichiometry basis for dose estimates of, 13.23–13.24 two-stage, 13.21–13.22, 13.46–13.47 Recycled water contribution, 16.37 Recycling residuals, 22.40–22.43 membrane processes and, 22.46–22.47 Red water, 20.41 Redox chemistry, 3.14–3.17 Reference dose (RfD), 2.28–2.29 Regulations See also National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations; National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations; Safe Drinking Water Act; Standards arsenic, 1.19, 22.63–22.64 of Australia for IPR, 16.38–16.39 C × T approach for disinfection and, 17.39–17.41, 17.40t of California state for IPR, 16.37–16.38 contaminants, current, 1.19, 1.20t.–1.25t of DBPs, 2.60, 19.45–19.46 disinfection issues with, 17.4–17.5, 18.3 for distribution systems by USEPA, 21.35–21.36, 21.35t.–21.36t early history of, 1.2–1.3 of Florida state for IPR, 16.38 Regulations (Cont.): future of, 1.33–1.34 for HAAs, 19.45–19.46 Internet as resource for, 1.34–1.35 Lead and Copper Rule, 2.37–2.38 of lead for pipes, 20.53–20.54 M/DBP, 1.25–1.26 membrane processes and, 11.4, 11.8 for mixed waste, 22.69 for radioactive residuals, 22.68 TENORM, 22.66, 22.68–22.69 for THMs, 19.45–19.46 traditional/negotiated, 1.25–1.26 TTHM Rule forming, 1.4 of U.S Federal government for IPR, 16.36–16.37 of USDOT, 22.69 Relative source contribution factor, 2.29 Reproductive toxicity, 2.25 Reservoirs See Lakes and reservoirs Residence time disinfection and, 17.37–17.38 in distribution systems, 21.27 sedimentation and, 9.26 Residuals See also Brine disposal; Sludge adsorption and, 22.54–22.62 of adsorptive media and arsenic, 12.54–12.55 aluminum, 8.36–8.41, 8.37f.–8.40f with arsenic, 22.62–22.66, 22.63t.–22.66t Atterberg limit test and, 22.10–22.11 backwashing for, 22.44, 22.44t batch thickeners and, 22.17–22.21, 22.18f belt filter presses for, 22.31–22.32 brine, 22.3 centrifuges for, 22.32–22.35, 22.32f., 22.34f of chlorine, 17.30–17.31 CIP waste and, 22.4, 22.44–22.45, 22.45t., 22.49–22.50, 22.49t clarifier sludge, 22.3 coagulants and, 22.4–22.16, 22.11–22.12, 22.11f compaction density and, 22.14 concentration of, 22.49 continuous flow thickeners and, 22.17–22.21, 22.18f CST test for, 22.12, 22.13f., 22.13t DBPs and, 19.17–19.19 deep well injection and, 22.52 desalting membrane processes for, 22.47–22.53, 22.49t dewatering lagoons for, 22.25 disinfectants and, 17.30–17.31, 21.51–21.53 index Residuals (Cont.): of disinfectants and microbial growth, 21.23–21.25 disposal methods for, 22.61–22.62 evaporation ponds and, 22.46 extraction tests for, 22.14–22.15 filter presses for, 22.35–22.37, 22.36f.–22.37f of fluoride removal by AA, 22.57, 22.58t.–22.59t fouling and, 22.47–22.48 freeze-thaw beds for, 22.25–22.26 gaseous, 22.4 gravity sludge thickeners and, 22.17–22.21, 22.17f.–22.18f iron, 8.36–8.41, 8.37f.–8.40f IX and, 22.54–22.62 of IX softening, 22.54–22.55, 22.55t.–22.56t land application of, 22.72–22.73 land disposal of, 22.46, 22.51–22.52 lime sludge, 22.3 low-pressure membrane processes for, 22.43–22.47 management of, 2.50–2.53, 2.53f., 22.44–22.45, 22.45t mechanical dewatering for, 22.29–22.37 membrane backwash, 22.4 membrane processes and, 22.43–22.53, 22.44t.–22.45t MF/UF removing, 22.3–22.4 from nitrate/perchlorate removal by IX, 22.57, 22.60t., 22.61 non-mechanical dewatering of, 22.21–22.29 of precipitative softening, 13.70 quantity of, 22.4–22.10, 22.48–22.49 radioactive, 22.66–22.69, 22.67t.–22.69t recycling, 22.40–22.43 recycling of membrane processes with, 22.46–22.47 RO/NF removing, 22.4 sand drying beds for, 22.21–22.22, 22.23f., 22.24, 22.26–22.29 sewer discharge and, 22.46, 22.51 SFBW and, 22.37–22.40 shear strength and, 22.14, 22.14f solar drying beds for, 22.24 SR test for, 22.12, 22.13f., 22.13t surface discharge of, 22.45 suspended solids concentration and, 22.7–22.10 TCLP for, 22.14–22.15 thickening of, 22.16–22.21 I.39 Residuals (Cont.): topsoil blending of, 22.71, 22.71t total metal concentrations for, 22.15–22.16, 22.15t treatment for arsenic in, 22.65, 22.65f., 22.66t treatment process selection and, 5.27 in trench landfills, 22.74–22.75 TTF test for, 22.12, 22.13f., 22.13t types of, 22.2–22.3, 22.2t UF process, 11.91–11.92 ultimate disposal of, 22.70–22.75 underground injection control for, 22.45–22.46 vacuum filtration for, 22.30–22.31, 22.30f Restabilization, 8.46–8.47 Reverse osmosis (RO), 5.13, 5.15–5.16, 11.2, 16.5 concentrate streams in, 11.65 configuration of, 11.18–11.21, 11.19f.–11.20f DBP removal by, 11.29–11.30, 11.30t., 19.35–19.36 dissolved solutes influence on membrane electrokinetic properties and, 11.28 fouling control in, 11.70 fouling indexes and, 11.9t., 11.67–11.69 hollow fine fiber membranes and, 11.10, 11.18, 11.19f limiting salt and, 11.71–11.76, 11.74t mass transport and, 11.46–11.50, 11.46f MF/UF integration with, 11.59–11.60, 11.59f MF/UF integration with seawater, 11.61–11.62 modified fouling index and, 11.67, 11.68f organic fouling in, 11.71 permeate streams in, 11.65, 11.67 pilot plant testing for, 11.95–11.96 posttreatment for, 11.86–11.91, 11.87t.–11.88t pretreatment in, 11.69–11.71 process concepts of, 11.65, 11.65f.–11.66f., 11.67 process integrity monitoring for, 11.36 residuals removed by, 22.4 scaling control in, 11.71–11.76 silt density index and, 11.67 sonic sensor testing for, 11.36 static microfilters for, 11.76 SW configurations for, 11.18, 11.19f.–11.20f., 11.20–11.21 use of, 11.8 uses of, 11.4 I.40 index Reynolds number discrete particle settling, 9.6, 9.6f., 9.13 granular media filters and, 10.58, 10.61 sedimentation and, 9.6, 9.6f RfD See Reference dose Rhodococcus, 21.10–21.11 Richardson and Zaki equation, 9.13 Risk assessment acceptable, 2.32 carcinogenic, 2.29–2.31 of contaminants, 2.27–2.33 estimation of, 2.30 Internet resources for, 2.76–2.77 microbial, 2.31–2.33, 17.19–17.21 noncarcinogenic, 2.28–2.29 USEPA approach to, 2.27–2.28 Risk management, 1.8–1.19 See also National Primary Drinking Water Regulations CCL, 1.8–1.9, 1.10f., 1.11t.–1.13t., 2.31 DWAs for, 1.18–1.19 health advisories for, 1.16, 1.18–1.19 MCLGs for, 1.15 UCMRs for, 1.14–1.15 Riverbank filtration (RBF), 5.21–5.22, 15.3 ARR compared to, 15.7, 15.8f attributes/limitations of, 15.6–15.7 in Aurora, CO, 15.27–15.28 design parameter effects on efficiency of, 15.21, 15.21t in Düsseldorf, Germany, 15.25–15.26 hydrogeological conditions in, 15.4–15.6 in Louisville, KY, 15.25 in Maribor, Slovenia, 15.26 pumping rates in, 15.6 removal mechanisms of, 15.4, 15.4f slow sand filtration, SAT compared with, 15.19, 15.19t source water mixing with groundwater in, 15.6 in United States and Europe, 15.24t well distance/spacing in, 15.6 Rivers and streams, 3.29–3.30 anthropogenic chemicals in, 3.33–3.34 downstream, 3.32t., 3.33 upland, 3.30, 3.31t.–3.32t., 3.33 RO See Reverse osmosis Rotaviruses, 2.12 SAB See Science Advisory Board Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 1.2 See also Consumer Confidence Report; Risk management; State agencies amendments (1986), 1.6–1.7 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) (Cont.): amendments (1996), 1.7, 1.28–1.29 CWA compared to, 16.5–16.6 DHS and, 1.7 evolution of, 1.3–1.7 future of, 1.33–1.34 in 1974, 1.4, 1.6 NPDWRs, 1.4, 1.5t., 1.15–1.16 origins and passage of, 1.3–1.4 public notification requirements of, 1.31–1.32 regulatory processes, 1.8f Salmonella, 2.6–2.8, 2.27 IPR and, 16.7, 16.7t Salting-out coefficients, 6.9–6.10, 6.10t Sand boils, 10.63, 10.64f Sand drying beds, 22.21–22.22, 22.23f., 22.24, 22.26–22.29 SAT See Soil aquifer treatment Saturator, 9.48 air composition within, 9.50–9.51, 9.50f Scales, protective/nonprotective, 20.11 Scaling control, 11.71–11.76 Scanning electron microscope, 20.71 SCD See Streaming current detectors Schmutzdecke, 5.12, 10.77–10.78, 10.84 Science Advisory Board (SAB), 1.30 SDVB resin See Styrene-divinylbenzene resin SDWA See Safe Drinking Water Act Secondary disinfection, 17.31 Secondary minimum aggregation, 8.11–8.12 Sedimentation See also Floc-blanket process; Inclined settling baffling, 9.40 candelabra flow distribution in, 9.3, 9.3f Candy tanks, 9.3, 9.3f.–9.4f CFD and, 9.26, 9.88 circular tanks for, 9.28, 9.29f coagulation and, 9.41–9.42 compactness of, 9.87 compression point for, 9.14 costs of, 9.86–9.87 DAF compared with, 9.84–9.88, 9.85t discrete particle settling in, 9.5–9.11, 9.6f drag force and, 9.5–9.7, 9.6f emerging technology for, 9.88–9.89 filtration as alternative to, 9.88–9.89 flat-bottom clarifiers for, 9.3, 9.3f., 9.37 flocculant aids and, 9.43–9.45, 9.44f flocculation and, 4.46, 9.7–9.9, 9.42–9.43, 9.42f.–9.43f flow-through curves for, 9.26 fluidization and, 9.14–9.20 index Sedimentation (Cont.): Froude number and, 9.27 high-gravity setting for, 5.10 hindered settling and, 9.11–9.14 horizontal flow, 5.10 horizontal-flow tanks for, 9.26–9.28, 9.28f.–9.29f inlets and outlets for, 9.40 laminar flow and, 9.26 lateral flow distribution in, 9.3, 9.4f MF/UF integration with, 11.58–11.60, 11.58f.–11.59f modern history of, 9.2–9.3 multiusory tanks for, 9.28, 9.28f nomenclature of, 9.89–9.92 particle interaction in hindered settling and, 9.11 particle shape effecting, 9.7 plug flow and, 9.26 polyelectrolyte coagulants and, 9.43–9.45, 9.44f predicting settling efficiency, 9.11 premix clarifiers, 9.32–9.33 premix-recirculation clarifiers, 9.32–9.33, 9.33f rapid granular bed filtration and, 10.31–10.32, 10.31f rapid start-up of, 9.87 rectangular tanks for, 9.26–9.27 residence time and, 9.26 Reynolds number and, 9.6, 9.6f seasonal water quality and, 9.40 settlement in tanks in, 9.9–9.11, 9.10f settling types in, 9.4 settling velocity, 9.9–9.11, 9.10f sludge removal and, 9.88 solar radiation and, 9.45 solids contact clarifiers, 5.10, 9.32–9.33, 9.33f solids flux in, 9.11–9.12, 9.12f solids loading and, 9.84, 9.86 subsidence in, 9.4 surface loading tanks for, 9.39 tank size/shape/depth for, 9.39–.940 terminal settling velocity in, 9.5–9.7 tracer tests and, 9.26 treatment process selection and, 5.9–5.11 wind effects on, 9.45 Selective leaching, 20.7–20.8 Selectivity reversal, 13.62 Selenium, 2.43 Septum, 10.87, 10.89, 10.90f I.41 Service flow rate, 12.27 Setschenow coefficients, 6.9–6.10, 6.10t Settling See also Discrete particle settling; Hindered settling; Inclined settling efficiency, 9.11 in tanks, 9.9–9.11, 9.10f types of, 9.4 velocity, 9.9–9.11, 9.10f SFBW See Spent filter backwash water Shear strength, 22.14, 22.14f Shigella, 2.7 IPR and, 16.7, 16.7t Siderite model, 20.41 Sieve analysis, 10.12, 10.12f., 10.14–10.15 Sieve tray columns, 6.15, 6.17 Silica activated, 8.48 lime softening removing, 13.72, 13.73f surface charge of, 8.7, 8.8f zeolites and, 14.89 Silicates, 20.39, 20.44–20.45 Silt density index, 11.61–11.62, 11.67 Simazine, 2.52–2.53 Simulated distribution system test, 19.24 Singapore’s NEWater Project, 16.28 Skimming, 10.62–10.63 Slow sand filtration (SSF) biological activity in, 10.77–10.78 cleaning, 10.84–10.85 Cryptosporidium removal with, 5.12, 10.8, 10.78–10.79 design of, 10.80–10.82 filtration mechanisms of, 10.77–10.79 filtration rates/control in, 10.81–10.82, 10.81f Giardia lamblia removal with, 5.12, 10.8, 10.78–10.79 history of, 10.76–10.77 maintenance for, 10.84–10.86 microorganism removal in, 10.78–10.79 model for, 10.29–10.31 modifications for enhanced performance of, 10.83–10.84 performance of, 10.78–10.79, 10.86 RBF, SAT compared with, 15.19, 15.19t resanding, 10.85–10.86 schmutzdecke in, 5.12, 10.77–10.78, 10.84 scraping in, 10.84–10.85 in small water systems, 10.86–10.87 source water quality in, 10.82–10.83 startup of, 10.84 I.42 index Sludge See also Residuals air/solids ratio on float in DAF, 9.78 alum, 22.4–22.5 batch thickeners and, 22.17–22.21, 22.18f cake, 22.3 clarifier, 22.3 color and production of, 22.6 compaction density and, 22.14 continuous flow thickeners and, 22.17–22.21, 22.18f float removal in DAF, 9.78–9.79 floc-blanket process, recycling of, 9.37 floc-blanket process, removal of, 9.35 gravity sludge thickeners and, 22.17–22.21, 22.17f.–22.18f land application of, 22.73–22.74 lime, 22.3, 22.11–22.12, 22.11f macro/micro properties of, 22.11 monofills, 22.73–22.74, 22.74f shear strength and, 22.14, 22.14f source water influence on float in DAF, 9.78–9.79 terminology of, 22.2 thickening of, 22.3, 22.16–22.21 treatment process selection and removal of, 9.88 in trench landfills, 22.74–22.75 volume calculations for, 22.16–22.17 Small water systems pressure filtration in, 10.76 SSF in, 10.86–10.87 UV disinfection in, 18.16 SOCs See Synthetic organic chemicals Sodium, 2.43–2.44 Sodium hydroxide, lime softening with, 13.20 Sodium hypochlorite, 7.17–7.18 basic chemistry of, 17.5–17.8 risks of, 17.32 Sodium IX softening design example for, 12.28–12.33 strong-acid cation exchange resins in, 12.27–12.28 Softening See also Lime softening; Precipitative softening IX, 5.17 IX and capacity of, 12.25, 12.26t residuals from IX, 22.54–22.55, 22.55t.–22.56t of surface water, 5.34–5.35, 5.34f Softening membranes, 13.61–13.63 Soil aquifer treatment (SAT), 15.12–15.15, 15.12f comparisons of zones for, 15.12, 15.13t in Dan Region, Israel, 15.28 groundwater recharge and, 15.13 HLR in, 15.14, 15.15t RBF, SSF compared with, 15.19, 15.19t requirements for, 15.14 water depth in, 15.14–15.15 Soil fumigants, 2.55–2.56 Solar drying beds, 22.24 Solar radiation, 9.45 Solids contact clarifiers for precipitative softening, 13.54–13.56, 13.54f.–13.55f for sedimentation, 5.10, 9.32–9.33, 9.33f Solids flux, 9.11–9.12, 9.12f Solubility diagrams, 20.13–20.18, 20.16f.–20.18f Solubility equilibria, 13.5, 13.8–13.12 Solubility product constants, 13.5, 13.6t–13.8t Solubility reactions, 3.14–3.15 Solvent-motivated adsorption, 14.13 Solvents, 2.73, 2.73t Sonic sensor testing, 11.36 Source control, 16.6 Source water See also Groundwater; Surface water biochemical cycle in, 3.27, 3.27f composition of, 3.24–3.42 DAF, float and influence of, 9.78–9.79 for direct filtration, 10.71–10.72 hydrogeochemical cycle in, 3.26–3.27, 3.26f IPR, characteristics of, 16.5–16.16 lakes and reservoirs, 3.34–3.39 LBF/RBF groundwater mixing with, 15.6 nonpoint source pollution of, 3.69 point-source control of, 3.69 prechlorination of, 17.32–17.33 protection of, 3.69 rainwater, 3.28–3.29, 3.28t rivers and streams, 3.29–3.30 selection of, 3.67–3.69 SSF and water quality of, 10.82–10.83 treatment process selection and variables of, 5.4 treatment process selection and water quality of, 5.2–5.4 treatment process selection incorporation in various, 5.32–5.36 Specific deposit, 10.29 index Specific resistance test (SR test), 22.12, 22.13f., 22.13t Specific UV absorbance (SUVA), 3.65–3.66, 3.65t., 3.66f TOC/UV removal estimation with, 8.27–8.28, 8.27f., 8.28t Spectrophotometric absorbance, 18.7–18.8 Spent adsorption material, 22.3 Spent filter backwash water (SFBW), 22.3 characteristics of, 22.10, 22.10t contaminants in raw waters compared to, 22.38, 22.38t Cryptosporidium in, 22.42 giardia lamblia in, 22.42 residuals and, 22.37–22.40 summary of, 22.41t treatment of, 22.39–22.40 Spent rinse water, 22.3 Sphingomonas, 21.10–21.11 Spiral wound membranes (SW), 11.18, 11.19f.–11.20f., 11.20–11.21 Split-treatment softening, 13.47–13.50 Spray aerators, 6.56–6.57 governing equations for, 6.57–6.60 sample calculation for, 6.58–6.60 schematic of, 6.57f SR test See Specific resistance test SSF See Slow sand filtration Stage Disinfection By-Products Rule, 8.5–8.6, 8.5t Staining, aesthetic concerns with, 2.75 Standard half-cell potentials, 7.3t Standards See also National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations; National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Regulations; U.S Environmental Protection Agency Australia, 1.32–1.33 Canada, 1.32 distribution systems and design, 21.46–21.47 European Union, 1.33 future of, 1.33–1.34 international, 1.32–1.33 processes for setting, 1.8–1.19 for radionuclides, 2.71 of state agencies, 1.29–1.30 Treasury, 1.3 USPHS, 1.3 WHO, 1.33 Staphylococcus, 21.11 Stark-Einstein law, 18.18 I.43 State agencies new programs for, 1.28–1.29 primacy of, 1.27 role of, 1.26–1.30 standards of, 1.29–1.30 USEPA co-regulating with, 1.26–1.27 Static microfilters, 11.76 Steady state OH radical model, 18.28–18.29 Steel, galvanized, 20.63–20.64 Steric stabilization, 8.12–8.14, 8.13f Stoichiometry, 3.6–3.7 excess lime softening calculations by, 13.35–13.39 lime softening dose estimates based on, 13.23–13.24 recarbonation dose estimates based on, 13.23–13.24 Stokes’ law, 8.52, 9.6 Storage facilities, microbial contaminants in, 21.31–21.32, 21.54–21.55, 21.55t., 21.65 Straight lime softening, 13.30–13.31 Straight lime-soda softening, 13.30f., 13.31–13.34 Straining filtration, 10.3 Stratification, 10.62–10.63 Stray current corrosion, 20.10 Streaming current detectors (SCD) coagulation control/monitoring and measurements of, 8.68–8.69, 8.69f jar test interpretation for, 8.69–8.70, 8.70f Streams See Rivers and streams Strong-acid cation exchange resins, 12.4–12.5 adsorption rates of, 12.18 selectivity sequences in, 12.12–12.13, 12.13t in sodium IX softening, 12.27–12.28 Strong-base anion exchange resins, 12.4–12.5, 12.76–12.77 adsorption rates of, 12.18 nitrate removal and, 12.37 selectivity sequences in, 12.12–12.13, 12.13t Styrene-divinylbenzene resin (SDVB resin), 14.87–14.88 Subnatant, 9.48 Subsidence, 9.4 Subsurface groundwater treatment, 15.10–15.11 Sulfate, 2.44 corrosion from, 20.9, 20.29–20.30, 20.48 IX removal of arsenic, effect of, 12.59, 12.59t regulations, 1.19 Sulfur, 21.21 Superchlorination, 17.33 I.44 index Supervisory control and data acquisition, 21.42 Surface aeration brush type, 6.52 governing equations of, 6.53–6.56 sample calculation for, 6.55–6.66 schematic of, 6.52f single tank schematic of, 6.53f tanks in series schematic of, 6.54f turbine type, 6.52 wastewater and, 6.52 Surface charge electrostatic stabilization and origins of, 8.7–8.8, 8.8f neutralization, 8.14–8.15, 8.22–8.24 of particles, 3.47–3.49 of silica, 8.7, 8.8f Surface water augmentation, 16.23, 16.27–16.29 conventional treatment of, 5.33–5.34, 5.34f DIC in, 3.29 inorganic carbon chemistry concentrations in, 3.18t softening of, 5.34–5.35, 5.34f treatment process selection and, 5.2–5.3 treatment process selection for high quality, 5.32, 5.32f Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) C × T approach for regulation of disinfections under, 17.39–17.41, 17.40t disinfection and, 17.4–17.5 filtration requirements and, 10.5–10.6, 10.6t precoat filtration and, 10.87 Surfactants, 6.10 Surrogate parameters, 16.34, 16.36t Suspended microbes, 21.7–21.8, 21.8f Suspended solids, 16.16 residuals and concentration of, 22.7–22.10 SUVA See Specific UV absorbance SW See Spiral wound membranes Sweep flocculation, 8.24 SWTR See Surface Water Treatment Rule Symmetric membranes, 11.10 Synthetic adsorbent resins, 14.7 Synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs), 1.4, 11.4 chemical oxidation of, 7.43–7.46 GAC adsorption systems removing, 14.51–14.56 membrane processes removing, 11.30, 11.31t.–11.32t types of, 14.2–14.3 System toxicity, 2.25 Taste and odor aesthetic concerns with, 2.73–2.74 algae and, 3.36, 3.37t.–3.38t., 3.44 chemical oxidation for destruction of, 7.37–7.39, 7.41 chlorine dioxide for controlling, 7.21 GAC adsorption systems removing, 14.48–14.51, 14.49f.–14.50f of inorganic/organic constituents, 2.73–2.74 from microorganisms, 2.74 PAC removing, 14.83–14.84 potassium permanganate eliminating, 7.39 solvents, thresholds for, 2.73, 2.73t TCA See Trichloroacetic acid TCE See Trichloroethylene TCLP See Toxicity characteristic leach procedure TCR See Total Coliform Rule TCRDSAC See Total Coliform Rule Distribution System Advisory Committee TDS See Total dissolved solids Technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials (TENORM), 22.66, 22.68–22.69 Temperature chemical oxidation and, 7.10 coagulation and effect of, 8.63–8.64 corrosion influenced by, 20.21–20.24, 20.23f.–20.24f DBPs and, 19.20 disinfection and impact of, 17.27 equilibrium constant and effects of, 3.9, 6.5 flocculation and effect of, 8.63–8.64 gas transfer/Henry’s law and, 6.8t.–6.9t mass transport and correction factors in, 11.55–11.56 membrane processes and correction factors in, 11.55–11.56 microbial growth and, 21.23 pH effected by, 20.23–20.24, 20.23f TENORM See Technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials Teratogenicity, 2.25 Terminal disinfection, 17.33 Terminal head loss, 10.11 Terminal settling velocity, 9.5–9.7 Terpenoids, 19.23 Tetrachloroethylene, 2.48 Tetravalent lead corrosion, 20.60–20.63, 20.60f.–20.61f TEVA See Threat Ensemble Vulnerability Assessment index Theoretical normalized flux equation, 11.55 Thermodynamic principles, chemical oxidation, 7.2–7.8 Thin-film composite membranes, 11.11–11.12 THMs See Trihalomethanes Thornton, Colorado (UV disinfection), 18.17 Threat Ensemble Vulnerability Assessment (TEVA), 21.42 Threshold inhibitors, 13.3 Time to filter test (TTF test), 22.12, 22.13f., 22.13t Titanium dioxide, 18.34 Titration curves, 8.34–8.36, 8.35f., 8.39f TOC See Total organic carbon Toluene, 2.45–2.46 Total alkalinity, 20.26 Total available chlorine, 17.10 Total coliform, as indicator, 2.19–2.20 Total Coliform Rule (TCR), 1.16, 2.20 revising, 21.35 TCRDSAC, 1.26 Total Coliform Rule Distribution System Advisory Committee (TCRDSAC), 1.26 Total dissolved solids (TDS), 11.4 corrosion and, 20.39 IPR and, 16.8 selectivity reversal with, 13.62 Total organic carbon (TOC), 3.23 backwashing and, 14.41 chlorine decay and, 17.17–17.18 concentrations of, 3.62t DAF removing, 5.33, 5.33f GAC adsorption systems and initial concentration of, 14.44–14.48, 14.47f in IPR, 16.11, 16.12t.–16.13t IX and, 12.10 lime softening removing, 13.65–13.69, 13.65f., 13.68t., 13.69f measurements of, 3.62–3.63, 3.66–3.67 POC and, 13.64 precipitative softening removing, 13.64–13.69, 13.65f., 13.69f SUVA estimating removal of, 8.27–8.28, 8.27f., 8.28t THM formation potential and, 19.24 UV as surrogate for, 3.63–3.65, 3.64t Total oxidants, 17.10 Total Trihalomethanes Rule (TTHM Rule), 1.4 Toxicity characteristic leach procedure (TCLP), 22.14–22.15 Toxicodynamics, 2.24 Toxicokinetics, 2.24 I.45 Toxicology, 2.23–2.27 See also Chemicals Toxoplasma, 2.16 Trace organic contaminants, 15.17, 15.18t Tracer tests CFD and, 4.25–4.26 for CFSTR, 4.13–4.16, 4.13f.–4.15f CFSTRs-in-series model fit to data from, 4.18–4.19, 4.20f cumulative age distribution in, 4.4, 4.5f., 4.6, 4.7f., 4.8, 4.12f discrete data in, 4.8–4.11, 4.9f.–4.10f exit age distribution in, 4.4, 4.5f., 4.6, 4.7f., 4.8, 4.12f for PFRs, 4.11–4.13, 4.12f sedimentation and, 9.26 step v pulse, 4.11 types of, 4.3–4.4 Transmembrane pressure, 11.39–11.40 Transport control, 20.13 Transport mechanisms in adsorption, 14.28–14.29 Brownian diffusion, 8.51–8.52, 10.31, 11.42, 11.43f differential settling, 8.52 flocculation and, 8.50–8.54 G value concept for, 8.53–8.54 in laminar shear, 8.52 orthokinetic flocculation, 8.52 for rapid granular bed filtration, 10.31–10.32, 10.31f Stokes’ law, 8.52, 9.6 turbulent, 8.52–8.53 Treasury Standards, 1.3 Treatment process selection adsorption and, 5.19–5.21 aeration and, 5.5 air stripping and, 5.5 chemical oxidation and, 5.5–5.7 coagulation and, 5.7–5.9 compactness for, 9.87 contaminant removal in, 5.29, 5.30t.–5.31t., 5.32 conventional, 5.33–5.34, 5.34f costs of DAF and sedimentation for, 9.86–9.87 DAF and, 5.10–5.11 DAF compared to sedimentation in, 9.83–9.84, 9.84f disinfection and, 5.22–5.24 distribution systems considerations in, 5.25–5.27, 21.21–21.22 environmental considerations for, 5.28–5.29 I.46 index Treatment process selection (Cont.): flexibility in, 5.28 flocculation and, 5.7–5.9 granular media filters and, 5.11–5.13 groundwater considerations for, 5.3–5.4 for high quality surface water, 5.32, 5.32f for IPR, 16.5 for iron/manganese removal from groundwater, 5.35, 5.35f IX and, 5.16–5.17 membrane processes and, 5.13–5.16 natural treatment systems and, 5.21–5.22 pilot-scale testing for, 5.28 precipitation and, 5.17–5.19 rapid start-up for, 9.87 residuals and, 5.27 sedimentation and, 5.9–5.11 sludge removal and, 9.88 solids loading for, 9.84, 9.86 source water incorporation of, 5.32–5.36 source water quality considerations for, 5.2–5.4 source water variables in, 5.4 surface water and, 5.2–5.3 UV and, 5.24–5.25 UV/H2O2 AOP mechanism, 18.31–18.32 Treatment systems See Natural treatment systems Triazine herbicides, 2.52–2.53 Trichloroacetic acid (TCA), 2.68 packed towers calculating, 6.29–6.36 Trichloroethane, 2.49 1,1,1-Trichloroethane, 2.48–2.49 Trichloroethylene (TCE), 2.49 Trihalomethanes (THMs), 2.44–2.45, 2.59, 2.66–2.67, 19.7–19.8 adsorption of, 14.53 ammonia’s impact on formation of, 19.38, 19.38f bromide reactions with, 19.20–19.22, 19.20f bromine/iodine and, 19.21–19.22, 19.21f.– 19.22f discovery of, 1.4 haloform reaction and, 7.14–7.15, 7.15f in IPR, 16.15 reaction time and, 19.16–19.17, 19.16f regulations for, 19.45–19.46 spatial temporal variability of, 19.46 stability of, 19.43–19.45, 19.44f TOC and formation potential of, 19.24 TTHM Rule, 1.4 UV controlling precursors to, 19.30–19.31, 19.31f TTF test See Time to filter test TTHM Rule See Total Trihalomethanes Rule Tuberculation, 20.4, 20.8 Turbidimeter, 8.4 Turbidity aesthetic concerns with, 2.74–2.75 DAF and, 9.83–9.84, 9.84f direct filtration and effluent, 10.73 flocculation, 8.66–8.67, 8.67f GAC reducing, 14.57–14.58 as indicator, 2.22–2.23 in natural treatment systems, 15.15–15.16 of particles, 3.49, 3.50f., 8.4–8.5 rapid granular bed filtration and continuous monitoring of, 10.43, 10.44f of raw waters, 9.41 Turbulent transport, 8.52–8.53 UDF See Unidirectional flushing UF See Ultrafiltration UFRV See Unit filter run volume Ultrafiltration (UF), 5.13–5.15, 11.2, 16.5 coagulants removing arsenic with, 11.61, 11.61f coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation integration with, 11.58–11.60, 11.58f.–11.59f configuration of, 11.12–11.15, 11.15f.–11.17f., 11.17t crossflow operation in, 11.13, 11.14f Cryptosporidium removed by, 11.33–11.34, 11.33f dead end operation in, 11.13, 11.14f floc-blanket reactor-PAC-UF process, 14.80–14.81, 14.80f flow patterns of, 11.13, 11.14f.–11.15f., 11.15 Giardia lamblia removed by, 11.33–11.34, 11.33f mechanical sieving in, 11.44–11.45 MF integrated process design/applications with, 11.57–11.65 NF/RO/EDR integration with, 11.59–11.60, 11.59f oxidation reactions integrated with, 11.60–11.61, 11.60f PAC with, 14.80 pilot plant testing for, 11.95 process residuals of, 11.91–11.92 residuals removed by, 22.3–22.4 seawater RO integrated with, 11.61–11.62 uses of, 11.4, 11.8 index Ultraviolet light (UV) See also UV disinfection; UV photolysis absorbance of, 18.14 Beer-Lambert law and, 18.7–18.8 bench-scale testing for, 18.8–18.9 biodosimetry test for, 18.9–18.10, 18.9f collimated beam and, 18.8–18.9, 18.8f DBPs and, 19.4t.–19.6t., 19.14–19.15 Disinfection Guidance Manual for, 18.5, 18.9 as DOC surrogate, 3.63–3.65 dose calculations for, 18.6–18.10 in electromagnetic spectrum, 18.4, 18.4f emerging lamps for, 18.6 energy measurements for, 18.7 fundamentals of, 18.4–18.10 hydrogen peroxide formation and, 7.27–7.28 irradiance calculations for, 18.7–18.8 lamp types for, 18.4–18.6, 18.5t., 18.6f mercury vapor lamps for, 18.5–18.6, 18.5t., 18.6f microorganisms and, 18.1–18.2 reactors for, 18.10, 18.10f spectrophotometric absorbance and, 18.7–18.8 SUVA, 3.65–3.66, 3.65t., 3.66f SUVA estimating removal of, 8.27–8.28, 8.27f., 8.28t for THM precursor control, 19.30–19.31, 19.31f as TOC surrogate, 3.63–3.65, 3.64t treatment process selection and, 5.24–5.25 UV/Cl2 AOP mechanism, 18.33 UV/H2O2 AOP mechanism, 18.24, 18.25t.–18.26t., 18.27–18.32 UV/O3 AOP mechanism, 18.33 UV/TiO2 AOP mechanism, 18.34 water quality effecting transmission of, 18.14–18.15 Underground injection control, 22.45–22.46 Unidirectional flushing (UDF), 21.52–21.53 Uniform corrosion, 20.6 of copper, 20.46–20.50, 20.47f., 20.49f Uniform formation conditions test, 19.23 Unit conversion factors, C.1t.–C.3t Unit filter run volume (UFRV), 10.23–10.24, 10.23f Unregulated contaminant monitoring regulations (UCMRs), 1.14–1.15 Upflow filter, 10.15–10.16 Upper Occuquan Service Authority, Virginia, 16.27–16.28 I.47 Uranium, 2.72 chemistry/speciation of, 12.67 IX removal of (by anion exchange), 12.67–12.73 IX removal of radium combined with, 12.72–12.73 pH effecting IX removal of, 12.69–12.70 regenerability of spent resin in IX removal of, 12.71–12.72, 12.72f U.S Department of Transportation (USDOT), 22.69 U.S Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 1.2 See also National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Risk management contaminants, regulatory determinations of, 1.9–1.10, 1.13, 1.14t future of, 1.33–1.34 grants of, 1.27 health advisories of, 1.16, 1.18–1.19 MCLGs, 1.15, 16.17–16.18 MCLs, 1.4, 16.17–16.18 National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations, 1.16, 1.18t peer review/outside consultation for, 1.30–1.31 public notification requirements of, 1.31–1.32 regions of, 1.28f regulations for distribution systems by, 21.35–21.36, 21.35t.–21.36t risk assessment approach of, 2.27–2.28 SAB of, 1.30 Stage Disinfection By-Products Rule of, 8.5–8.6, 8.5t state agencies co-regulating with, 1.26–1.27 traditional/negotiated rulemaking processes of, 1.25–1.26 UCMRs for, 1.14–1.15 U.S Federal regulations for IPR, 16.36–16.37 U.S Public Health Services (USPHS) Bureau of Water Hygiene CWSS, 1.3–1.4 standards, 1.3 U.S Treasury Department, 1.3 USEPA See U.S Environmental Protection Agency USPHS See U.S Public Health Services UV See Ultraviolet light I.48 index UV disinfection, 18.10 advantages/disadvantages of, 18.3t application/design of, 17.37 bacteria inactivation by, 17.29, 17.29t chlorine for disinfection compared to, 18.3, 18.3t DBPs and, 18.15 demand reactions of, 17.19 dose monitoring for, 18.14 in Fort Benton, Montana, 18.17 fouling interfering with, 18.14–18.15 fundamentals of, 18.11–18.13 groundwater application of, 18.16 history of use, 17.4 integration of, 18.15–18.16 microbial inactivation mechanisms of, 8.11f., 18.11 for multiple-barrier treatment approach, 18.16 in New York City, NY, 18.17 particles interfering with, 18.15 pathogen inactivation and doses in, 18.12, 18.12f photoreactivation and, 18.11–18.12 reactor performance for, 18.13 reactor validation for, 18.13–18.14 resurgence of, 18.2–18.3 in Seattle Public Utilities, 18.17 in small water systems, 18.16 in Thornton, Colorado, 18.17 for unfiltered systems, 18.16 virus inactivation and, 18.16 water quality effecting transmission of UV in, 18.14–18.15 UV photolysis, 18.17 chemical pollutants treated with, 18.21–18.24 Grotthuss-Draper law and, 18.18 HOMO and, 18.18–18.19, 18.18f Jablonski diagram and, 18.19, 18.19f light and matter interactions in, 18.19–18.21, 18.19f.–18.20f LUMO and, 18.18–18.19, 18.18f molar absorption coefficient and, 18.20, 18.20f., 18.21t monochromatic, 18.21–18.23, 18.21t NDMA and, 18.21–18.22 polychromatic, 18.23–18.24 quantum yield and, 18.20–18.21, 18.21t Stark-Einstein law and, 18.18 UV/Cl2 AOP mechanism, 18.33 UV/H2O2 AOP mechanism, 18.24, 18.25t.–18.26t., 18.27–18.32 adOx kinetic model for, 18.29–18.30, 18.30f drinking water applications of, 18.31–18.32 IPR applications of, 18.30–18.31 steady state OH radical model for, 18.28–18.29 UV/O3 AOP mechanism, 18.33 UV/TiO2 AOP mechanism, 18.34 Vacuum filtration, 10.3 for mechanical dewatering of residuals, 22.30–22.31, 22.30f Vacuum flotation, 9.46 Vadnais Lake example problem, 8.43–8.44 VBNC bacteria See Viable but nonculturable bacteria Verrucomicrobium, 21.10 Viable but nonculturable bacteria (VBNC bacteria), 21.14, 21.15t Vibrio chloerae, 2.7–2.8 Vinyl chloride, 2.49–2.50 Vinylidene chloride, 2.47–2.48 Viruses, 2.11–2.14 adenoviruses, 2.14 astroviruses, 2.14 caliciviruses, 2.11–2.12 enteroviruses, 2.13–2.14 HAV, 2.12–2.13 HEV, 2.13, 2.21 norovirus, 2.11 Rotaviruses, 2.12 UV disinfection and inactivation of, 18.16 VOCs See Volatile organic chemicals Volatile organic chemicals (VOCs), 2.45–2.50 air stripping of, 6.42–6.45 benzene, 2.45–2.46 carbon tetrachloride, 2.46–2.47 chlorinated, 2.46–2.49 dichlorobenzenes, 2.47 1,2-dichloroethane, 2.47 1,1-dichloroethylene, 2.47–2.48 1,2-dichloroethylenes, 2.48 dichloromethane, 2.48 ethylbenzene, 2.45–2.46 ethylene dichloride, 2.47 GAC adsorption systems removing, 14.51–14.53, 14.52f., 14.52t Henry’s law and, 3.9–3.10 in IPR, 16.11, 16.12t.–16.13t., 16.14 methyl chloroform, 2.48–2.49 methylene chloride, 2.48 index Volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) (Cont.): monochloroethene, 2.49–2.50 MTBE, 2.50 off-gas control with, 6.36–6.41, 6.37f.–6.38f., 6.39t perchloroethylene, 2.48 TCE, 2.49 tetrachloroethylene, 2.48 toluene, 2.45–2.46 trichloroethane, 2.49 1,1,1-trichloroethane, 2.48–2.49 vinyl chloride, 2.49–2.50 vinylidene chloride, 2.47–2.48 xylene, 2.45–2.46 Vyredox method, 15.10 Warm monomictic lakes, 3.35 Warm polymictic lakes, 3.35 Wastewater, 3.68–3.69 backwashing management of, 10.68–10.69 DAF of, 9.46 pathogens in, 17.21 surface aeration and, 6.52 upflow filter treatment for, 10.15–10.16 Water age, 21.51–21.52, 21.53t Water dissociation, 3.3–3.4 Water properties physical, 3.3 polar nature, 3.2 Water quality adsorption and, 14.3 aesthetic concerns with, 2.2 concentrations measuring, 3.4 distribution system design practices and, 21.46–21.47 distribution system models for, 21.44–21.45, 21.44f in distribution systems, 5.25–5.27 distribution systems, measuring parameters for, 21.36–21.38 health concerns with, 2.2–2.3 indicators of, 2.19–2.23 IX removal of nitrate and effects of, 12.35, 12.36f., 12.37 in lakes and reservoirs, 3.36, 3.37t.–3.38t., 3.38–3.39 natural treatment systems and improvements in, 15.15–15.19 NOM effects on, 3.58, 3.58t on-line monitoring for, 21.37–21.38 particles importance to, 3.42–3.43 sampling techniques for, 21.36–21.37 I.49 Water quality (Cont.): sedimentation and seasonal, 9.40 in SSF of source water, 10.82–10.83 treatment process selection, source water considerations with, 5.2–5.4 UV transmission and effects of, 18.14–18.15 Water Replenishment District of Southern California, 16.29 Water Research Foundation, 1.6 Water reuse, 3.68 See also Direct potable reuse; Indirect potable reuse BNR in, 16.10–16.11, 16.10t phosphorus in, 16.11 Water security, 21.41–21.42 Water supplies, hardness classification for, 13.16, 13.16t Water treatment conversion factors, C.3t Water treatment residuals See Residuals Waterborne disease See also Cryptosporidium; Escherichia coli; Giardia lamblia; Legionella; Salmonella; Shigella distribution systems and outbreaks of, 21.2–21.4 Legionella outbreaks and, 21.3–21.4, 21.3f microorganisms and, 2.3, 2.4t outbreaks, 2.3, 2.4t., 2.5, 2.11–2.12 reporting, 2.5 United States outbreaks of, 21.2f.–21.3f in water main repairs and installations, 21.32–21.34, 21.33t., 21.63–21.65 Water’s physical properties, D.1t Watersheds, protection of, 3.70 Weak-acid cation exchange resins, 12.5–12.6, 12.12–12.13 adsorption rates of, 12.18–12.19 Weak-base anion exchange resins, 12.6–12.7, 12.12–12.13 adsorption rates of, 12.18–12.19 Western Corridor Project, Queensland, Australia, 16.28–16.29 Western Corridor Recycled Water Project, Queensland, Australia, 16.41 Wet chemical procedures, 20.71 White water blanket, 9.51, 9.54 WHO See World Health Organization Windhoek’s Goreangab Reclamation Plant, Namibia, 16.32–16.33 World Health Organization (WHO) DALYs established by, 16.18 standards of, 1.33 I.50 XAFS See X-ray absorption fine structure XANES See X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS), 20.73 X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy (XANES), 20.73 X-ray diffraction, 20.72–20.73, 20.73f X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, 20.70–20.71 index X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, 20.44 Xylene, 2.45–2.46 Yellow water, 20.41 Yersinia enterocolitica, 2.8 Zeolites, 14.8 high-silica, 14.89 Zinc, 20.35 .. .WATER QUALITY & TREATMENT About the American Water Works Association American Water Works Association is the authoritative resource for knowledge, information, and advocacy to improve the quality. .. 1.14 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations 1.15 National Primary Drinking Water Regulation Review 1.16 National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations 1.16 Health Advisories and... TCR revisions are discussed later in this chapter National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations, referred to as secondary maximum contaminant levels