steam its generation and use

Edited by J.B. Kitto and S.C. Stultz The Babcock & Wilcox Company Steam 41 Copyright © 2005 by The Babcock & Wilcox Company a McDermott company Forty-first edition First printing All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of any part of this work in any form or by any means beyond that permitted by the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright holder is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information should be addressed to: STEAM, The Babcock & Wilcox Company, 20 S. Van Buren Avenue, P.O. Box 351, Barberton, Ohio, U.S.A. 44203-0351. Disclaimer The information contained within this book has been obtained by The Babcock & Wilcox Company from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither The Babcock & Wilcox Company nor its authors make any guarantee or warranty, expressed or implied, about the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of the information, product, process or apparatus discussed within this book, nor shall The Babcock & Wilcox Company or any of its authors be liable for error, omission, losses or damages of any kind or nature. This book is published with the understanding that The Babcock & Wilcox Company and its authors are supplying general information and neither attempting to render engineering or professional services nor offering a product for sale. If services are desired, an appropriate professional should be consulted. Steam/its generation and use. 41st edition. Editors: John B. Kitto and Steven C. Stultz. The Babcock & Wilcox Company, Barberton, Ohio, U.S.A. 2005 Includes bibliographic references and index. Subject areas: 1. Steam boilers. 2. Combustion – Fossil fuels. 3. Nuclear power. The editors welcome any technical comments, notes on inaccuracies, or thoughts on important omissions. Please direct these to the editors at SteamBook@babcock.com. © 1955, 1960, 1963, 1972, 1975, 1978, 1992, The Babcock & Wilcox Company. All rights reserved. ISBN 0-9634570-1-2 Library of Congress Catalog Number: 92-74123 ISSN 1556-5173 Printed in the United States of America. ii The Babcock & Wilcox Company Steam 41 iii Steam/its generation and use is the longest continuously published engineer- ing text of its kind in the world. It has always been, and continues to be, writ- ten and published by The Babcock & Wilcox Company, the Original, head- quartered in Barberton, Ohio, and incorporated in Delaware, The United States of America. Steam, Edition: 41 The Babcock & Wilcox Company Steam 41iv The Babcock & Wilcox Company The Babcock & Wilcox Company Steam 41 v Preface Dear Reader: The founders of our company, George Babcock and Stephen Wilcox, invented the safety water tube boiler. This invention resulted in the commercialization of large-scale utility generating stations. Rapid increases in generation of safe, dependable and economic electricity literally fueled the Industrial Revolution and dramatically increased the standard of living in the United States and industrialized economies worldwide throughout the twentieth century. Advancements in technology to improve efficiency and reduce environmen- tal emissions have continued for nearly 140 years, creating a unique and valu- able body of applied engineering that represents the individual and collective contributions of several generations of employees. As in other areas of science and engineering, our field has continued to evolve, resulting in an extensive amount of new material that has been incorporated into our 41st edition of Steam/its generation and use. This edition required an extensive amount of personal time and energy from hundreds of employees and reflects our com- mitment to both our industry and our future. Today it is clear that the challenge to generate power more efficiently from fossil fuels, while minimizing impacts to our environment and global climate, will require significant technological advancements. These advances will re- quire creativity, perseverance and ingenuity on the part of our employees and our customers. For inspiration, we can recall the relentless drive and imagi- nation of one of our first customers, Mr. Thomas Alva Edison. For strength, we will continue to embrace our Core Values of Quality, Integrity, Service and People which have served us well over our long history as a company. I thank our shareholders, our employees, our customers, our partners and our suppliers for their continued dedication, cooperation and support as we move forward into what will prove to be a challenging and rewarding century. To help guide us all along the way, I am very pleased to present Edition: 41. David L. Keller President and Chief Operating Officer The Babcock & Wilcox Company The Babcock & Wilcox Company Steam 41vi Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii to ix System of Units: English and Système International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x Editors’ Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Introduction to Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intro-1 to 17 Selected Color Plates, Edition: 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plates 1 to 8 Section I – Steam Fundamentals Chapter 1 Steam Generation – An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 to 1-17 2 Thermodynamics of Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 to 2-27 3 Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 to 3-17 4 Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 to 4-33 5 Boiling Heat Transfer, Two-Phase Flow and Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 to 5-21 6 Numerical Modeling for Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer, and Combustion . . . . 6-1 to 6-25 7 Metallurgy, Materials and Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 to 7-25 8 Structural Analysis and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 to 8-17 Section II – Steam Generation from Chemical Energy Chapter 9 Sources of Chemical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 to 9-19 10 Principles of Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 to 10-31 11 Oil and Gas Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1 to 11-17 12 Solid Fuel Processing and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1 to 12-19 13 Coal Pulverization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1 to 13-15 14 Burners and Combustion Systems for Pulverized Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1 to 14-21 15 Cyclone Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1 to 15-13 16 Stokers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1 to 16-11 17 Fluidized-Bed Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1 to 17-15 18 Coal Gasification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1 to 18-17 19 Boilers, Superheaters and Reheaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1 to 19-21 20 Economizers and Air Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1 to 20-17 21 Fuel Ash Effects on Boiler Design and Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-1 to 21-27 22 Performance Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-1 to 22-21 23 Boiler Enclosures, Casing and Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-1 to 23-9 24 Boiler Cleaning and Ash Handling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-1 to 24-21 25 Boiler Auxiliaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-1 to 25-23 Section Ill – Applications of Steam Chapter 26 Fossil Fuel Boilers for Electric Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-1 to 26-17 27 Boilers for Industry and Small Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1 to 27-21 28 Chemical and Heat Recovery in the Paper Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-1 to 28-29 29 Waste-to-Energy Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-1 to 29-23 30 Wood and Biomass Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-1 to 30-11 31 Marine Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-1 to 31-13 Table of Contents The Babcock & Wilcox Company Steam 41 vii Section IV – Environmental Protection Chapter 32 Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-1 to 32-17 33 Particulate Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1 to 33-13 34 Nitrogen Oxides Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-1 to 34-15 35 Sulfur Dioxide Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-1 to 35-19 36 Environmental Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-1 to 36-15 Section V – Specification, Manufacturing and Construction Chapter 37 Equipment Specification, Economics and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-1 to 37-17 38 Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-1 to 38-13 39 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-1 to 39-19 Section VI – Operations Chapter 40 Pressure, Temperature, Quality and Flow Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-1 to 40-25 41 Controls for Fossil Fuel-Fired Steam Generating Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-1 to 41-21 42 Water and Steam Chemistry, Deposits and Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-1 to 42-29 43 Boiler Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-1 to 43-17 Section VII – Service and Maintenance Chapter 44 Maintaining Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-1 to 44-21 45 Condition Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-1 to 45-21 Section VIII – Steam Generation from Nuclear Energy Chapter 46 Steam Generation from Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-1 to 46-25 47 Fundamentals of Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-1 to 47-15 48 Nuclear Steam Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-1 to 48-15 49 Nuclear Services and Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-1 to 49-21 50 Nuclear Equipment Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-1 to 50-13 Appendices Appendix 1 Conversion Factors, SI Steam Properties and Useful Tables . . . . . . . . . . . T-1 to T-16 2 Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1 to C-6 Symbols, Acronyms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S-1 to S-10 B&W Trademarks in Edition: 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TM-1 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1 to I-22 The Babcock & Wilcox Company Steam 41 Steam/its generation and use is the culmination of the work of hundreds of B&W employees who have con- tributed directly and indirectly to this edition and to the technology upon which it is based. Particular recogni- tion goes to individuals who formally committed to preparing and completing this expanded 41st edition. * The editors offer special acknowledgment to authors J.E. Granger and E.H. Mayer who passed away during the preparation of Edition: 41. Acknowledgments viii Editor-in-Chief/Project Manager S.C. Stultz Technical Editor/Technical Advisor J.B. Kitto Art Director/Assistant Editor G.L. Tomei Assistant Technical Editors J.J. Gaidos M.A. Miklic Lead Authors M.J. Albrecht G.T. Bielawski K.P. Brolly P.A. Campanizzi P.L. Cioffi R.A. Clocker P.L. Daniel R.A. Detzel J.A. Dickinson W. Downs D.D. Dueck S.J. Elmiger J.S. Gittinger J.E. Granger* G.R. Grant G.H. Harth T.C. Heil D.A. Huston B.J. Jankura C.S. Jones K.L. Jorgensen J.B. Kitto D.L. Kraft A.D. LaRue M.P. Lefebvre P. L i G.J. Maringo W.N. Martin E.H. Mayer* D.K. McDonald R.M. McNertney Jr. J.E. Monacelli T.E. Moskal N.C. Polosky E.F. Radke K.E. Redinger J.D. Riggs D.E. Ryan D.P. Scavuzzo S.A. Scavuzzo W.G. Schneider T.D. Shovlin T.A. Silva B.C. Sisler J.W. Smith R.E. Snyder W.R. Stirgwolt J.R. Strempek S.C. Stultz J.M. Tanzosh G.L. Tomei D.P. Tonn S.J. Vecci P.S. Weitzel R.A. Wessel L.C. Westfall P.J. Williams The Babcock & Wilcox Company Steam 41 ix Primary Support Authors S.A. Bryk D.E. Burnham D.S. Fedock J.T. Griffin B.L. Johnson N. Kettenbauer T.P. Kors G.J. Lance R.C. Lenzer E.P.B. Mogensen G.M. Pifer K.J. Rogers B.J. Youmans Executive Steering Committee B.C. Bethards E.M. Competti J.S. Kulig D.C. Langley J.W. Malone M.G. Morash R.E. Reimels Production Group J.L. Basar L.A. Brower P.L. Fox L.M. Shepherd Outside Support P.C. Lutjen (Art) J.R. Grizer (Tables) [...]... design of modern steam generators The section concludes with Chapters 7 and 8 discussing key elements of material science and structural analysis that permit the safe and efficient design of the steam generating units and components Steam 41 The Babcock & Wilcox Company Section II Steam Generation from Chemical Energy This section containing 17 chapters applies the fundamentals of steam generation to... turning into steam The steam is normally heated further to specific temperatures and pressures Steam is also a vital resource in industry It drives pumps and valves, helps produce paper and wood products, prepares foods, and heats and cools large buildings and institutions Steam also propels much of the world’s naval fleets and a high percentage of commercial marine transport In some countries, steam plays... directed toward pumps and engines In 1680, Dr Denis Papin, a Frenchman, invented a steam digester for food pro- The early use of steam Steam generation as an industry began almost two thousand years after Hero’s invention, in the seventeenth century Many conditions began to stimulate the development of steam use in a power cycle Mining for ores and minerals had expanded greatly and large quantities... superheaters, economizers and air heaters for steam generation from chemical or fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) As discussed in Chapter 1, the fuel and method of combustion have a dramatic impact on the size and configuration of the steam producing system Therefore, Chapters 9 and 10 begin the section by exploring the variety and characteristics of chemical and fossil fuels, and summarize the combustion... been used to generate steam This is even true today as an ever-widening and varied supply of waste and byproduct fuels such as municipal refuse, coal mine tailings and biomass wastes, join coal, oil and natural gas to meet steam production needs These fuels must be burned and their combustion products successfully handled while addressing two key trends: 1) declining fuel quality (lower heating value and. .. only a novelty, and Hero made no suggestion for its use, the idea of generating steam to do useful work was born Even today, the basic idea has remained the same – generate heat, transfer the heat to water, and produce steam Steam 41 / Introduction to Steam Fig 1 Hero’s aeolipile Intro-1 The Babcock & Wilcox Company Today’s steam plants are a complex and highly sophisticated combination of engineered... Babcock & Wilcox Company Steam 41 xi The Babcock & Wilcox Company Section I Steam Fundamentals Steam is uniquely adapted, by its availability and advantageous properties, for use in industrial and heating processes and in power cycles The fundamentals of the steam generating process and the core technologies upon which performance and equipment design are based are described in this section of eight chapters... MPa) Today’s steam generating systems owe their dependability and safety to the design, fabrication and operation of safe water tube boilers, first patented by George Babcock and Stephen Wilcox in 1867 (Fig 3) Because the production of steam power is a tremendous resource, it is our challenge and responsibility to further develop and use this resource safely, efficiently, dependably, and in an environmentally-friendly... the process, equipment and design of steam generating systems, and how they interface with other processes that produce power and use steam This is followed by fundamental discussions of thermodynamics, fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and the complexities of boiling and steam- water flow in Chapters 2 through 5 New Chapter 6 is dedicated to exploring the dramatic increase in the use of advanced computational... development, nuclear steam systems, materials development and evaluation, and manufacturing technology Research focuses upon areas of central importance to B&W and steam power generation However, partners in these research programs have grown to include the U.S Departments of Energy and Defense, the Environmental Protection Agency, public and private research institutes, state governments, and electric utilities . Company Steam 41 iii Steam/ its generation and use is the longest continuously published engineer- ing text of its kind in the world. It has always been, and continues to be, writ- ten and published. edition of Steam/ its generation and use. This edition required an extensive amount of personal time and energy from hundreds of employees and reflects our com- mitment to both our industry and our. Wilcox Company Steam 41 Steam/ its generation and use is the culmination of the work of hundreds of B&W employees who have con- tributed directly and indirectly to this edition and to the technology