fluid flow measurement a practical guide to accurate flow measurement (second edition)

Fluid Flow Measurement A Practical Guide to Accurate Flow Measurement CH00ppi-x 10/24/01 4:45 PM Page i CH00ppi-x 10/24/01 4:45 PM Page ii Fluid Flow Measurement A Practical Guide to Accurate Flow Measurement Second Edition E.L. Upp Paul J. LaNasa Boston Oxford Auckland Johannesburg Melbourne New Delhi CH00ppi-x 10/24/01 4:45 PM Page iii Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Butterworth–Heinemann. Copyright © 2002 by Butterworth–Heinemann A member of the Reed Elsevier group All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written, Butterworth–Heinemann prints its books on acid-free paper whenever possible. Butterworth–Heinemann supports the efforts of American Forests and the Global ReLeaf program in its campaign for the betterment of trees, forests, and our envi- ronment. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fluid flow measurement: a practical guide to accurate flow measurement / E.L. Upp, Paul J. LaNasa. p.cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-88415-758-X (alk. Paper) 1. Fluid dynamic measurements. 2. Flow meters. I. LaNasa, Paul J., 1941- II. Title. TA357.5.M43 U66 2001 681’ .28—dc21 2001030550 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. The publisher offers special discounts on bulk orders of this book. For information, please contact: Manager of Special Sales Butterworth–Heinemann 225 Wildwood Avenue Woburn, MA 01801–2041 Tel: 781-904-2500 Fax: 781-904-2620 For information on all Gulf Professional Publishing publications available, contact our World Wide Web home page at: http://www.gulfpp.com 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America CH00ppi-x 10/24/01 4:45 PM Page iv Contents Dedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix CHAPTER 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Chapter Overview, 1. Requisites of Flow Measurement, 2. Background of Flow Measurement, 3. History of Flow Measurement, 4. Definition of Terms, 6. CHAPTER 2 Basic Flow Measurement Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 Reynolds Number, 26. Gas Laws, 27. Expansion of Liquids, 31. Fundamental Flow Equation, 32. References, 34. CHAPTER 3 Types of Fluid Flow Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 Custody Transfer, 36. Non-Custody Transfer Measurement, 46. References, 47. CHAPTER 4 Basic Reference Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 American Gas Association (AGA), 49. American Petroleum Institute (API), 52. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), 63. American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM), 64. Gas Processors Association (GPA), 65. Instrument Society of America (ISA), 67. CHAPTER 5 From Theory to Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 “Ideal” Installations, 73. Non-Ideal Installations, 74. Fluid Characteristics Data, 74. References, 90. CHAPTER 6 Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 Fluids—Liquids and Gases, 91. Fluid Characteristics, 97. Liquids, 104. References, 108. v CH00ppi-x 10/24/01 4:45 PM Page v CHAPTER 7 Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109 Required Characteristics, 109, Measurement Units, 111, Installation Requirements, 112, Flow Pattern, 113, References, 115. CHAPTER 8 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116 Operational Considerations, 116. Operational Influences on Gas Measurement, 117. Uncertainty, 123. Other Fluid Flow Considerations, 132. CHAPTER 9 Maintenance Meter Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136 Gas Measurement Maintenance, 138. Effects of Liquids and Solids on Orifice Measurement, 146. Effects on Other Meters, 149. General Maintenance of Liquid Meters, 150. Specific Liquid Maintenance Problems, 152. CHAPTER 10 Measurement and Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154 Meter Characteristics, 154. Types of Meters, 156. CHAPTER 11 Differential (Head) Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162 Orifice Meter, 164. Meter Design Changed, 165. Orifice Meter Description, 169. Sizing, 170. Equations, 171. Maintenance, 174. Flow Nozzles, 175. Venturi Meters, 178. Venturi Installation, 179. Other Head Meters, 180. CHAPTER 12 Linear and Special Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183 Non-Intrusive Meters, 184. Intrusive Linear Meters, 192. Other and Special-Purpose Meters, 206. References, 211. CHAPTER 13 Readouts and Related Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213 Electronics, 213. Related Devices, 215. Crude Oil Sampling, 221. Natural Gas Sampling, 221. Calorimetry, 225. References, 225. vi Fluid Flow Measurement CH00ppi-x 10/24/01 4:45 PM Page vi CHAPTER 14 Proving Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226 Liquid Provers, 227. Gas Provers, 232. Critical Flow Provers, 233. Central Test Facility, 234. References, 234. CHAPTER 15 “Loss and Unaccounted for” Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236 Introduction, 235. Liquid, 236. Gas, 239. CHAPTER 16 Auditing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244 Introduction, 244. Gas Meters, 245. Liquid Meters, 245. Analysis Equipment, 246. Audit Principles, 246. Objective, 247. Procedures, 247. Evidence, 248. Definitive Testing, 248. Sources of Information, 250. Contract Review, 250. Field Measurement Equipment Review, 251. Data Review and Comparison, 251. Auditing Gas Measurement Systems, 252. Chart Review, 253. Auditing Liquid Measurement, 253. Finalizing the Audit, 254. Conclusion, 254. Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255 Contents vii CH00ppi-x 10/24/01 4:45 PM Page vii Dedication We dedicate this book to our families, particularly our wives, Carol LaNasa and Ann Upp, who assumed most of the responsibilities in raising our families while we worked and traveled in pursuit of our careers. And we express deepest appreciation to the companies—Tennessee Gas Pipeline, The Boeing Company, Daniel Industries (now the Daniel Division of Emerson Process Management), NuTech Industries, and CPL & Associates—whose assignments provided the opportunity for most of our flow-measurement experience. Also, we offer special appreciation to the Daniel Division of Emerson Process Management, whose financial support allowed this book to be pub- lished. For over 70 years, Daniel technical personnel have helped customers solve flow-measurement problems. During this time it has become appar- ent to us that good flow measurement is not a simple commodity to be se- lected solely by comparing product specifications. Rather, successful flow measurement results from application of good products with a full under- standing of the equally important topics discussed in this book. We subtitled the book “A practical guide to accurate flow measurement” and are quite confident that practical know-how comes only from a thor- ough understanding of fluid flow basics coupled with extensive experience. We have tried to share our experience and that of our peers through the ex- amples and illustrations in the book. If our readers can make any contribu- tion to reducing flow measurement uncertainties by application of the book’s information, we will feel more than amply rewarded for the time and effort invested in writing it. viii Fluid Flow Measurement CH00ppi-x 10/24/01 4:45 PM Page viii Preface As noted in the preceding Dedication, the tendency to make flow meas- urement a highly theoretical and technical subject overlooks a basic tenet: Practical application of meters, metering principles, and metering instru- mentation and related equipment is the real key to quality measurement. And that includes the regular maintenance by trained and experienced per- sonnel with quality equipment required to keep flow-measurement systems operating so as to achieve their full measurement potential. We cannot begin to name the many friends who make up our background of experience. They include the pioneers in flow measurement, flow-meas- urement design engineers, operating personnel—ranging from top-manage- ment to the newest testers—academic and research based engineers and scientists, worldwide practitioners, theorists, and those just getting started in the business. Deepest appreciation goes to our friends at Daniel, especially Gene Perkins, division president. Daniel’s financial support and encouragement to write without bias for or against any specific manufacturer made this book possible. A special thanks to Patsye Roesler of Daniel, who typed from our notes and multiple revisions (which we often had trouble deciphering ourselves), and to Jim Anthony, who edited and made our Louisiana cajun readable to the English-speaking public. Our personal experience has been that explaining creates the most com- plete comprehension. Standing in front of a “class” as a “student” asks for an explanation of a point just covered, quickly and clearly separates what you have learned by rote from that which you truly understand. One finds out very rapidly what he really knows. Hopefully you will find that which you need to know and understand. Why another book on flow measurement? Several factors motivated us. We have mentioned our emphasis on the practical side of the subject. Another reason is the large number of early retirements by experienced measurement personnel. And a third consideration is the tendency to make our various measurement standards “technically defensible”—but confusing. We felt simply that a practical guide could be a useful project. In the material covering standards, the brief overviews are coupled with our hope that interested readers will consult the documents and organiza- tions listed for additional information. In the same vein, detailed theoretical Preface ix CH00ppi-x 10/24/01 4:45 PM Page ix discussions are left to such excellent sources as the latest edition of the Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook by R.W. Miller. Because of the extent of such detailed information, we present only outlines along with ref- erence information for the reader’s use. We hope that enough practical information will be found in this book to help a reader analyze a flow problem to the extent that direction to the other detailed references will become clear. We have tried to “demystify” flow measurement by breaking the subject into simple sections and discussing them in everyday terms. Each technology has its own terminology and jar- gon; that’s why you will find many definitions and explanations of terms in the book. In short, flow measurement is based on science, but successful applica- tion depends largely on the art of the practitioner. Too frequently we blindly follow the successful artist simply because “that’s the way we’ve always done it.” Industry experience the world over shows, however, that under- standing why something is done can almost always generate better flow measurement. REFERENCE 1. Miller, Richard W. 1996. Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook, Third Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. x Fluid Flow Measurement CH00ppi-x 10/24/01 4:45 PM Page x [...]... the total flowing stream Saturated Natural Gas: Gas that will condense if the pressure is raised or temperature is lowered Water content saturated with water Hydrocarbon content saturated with hydrocarbons Saturation: A state of maximum concentration of a component of a fluid mixture at a given pressure and temperature Seal Pot: A reservoir installed on each gauge line to maintain a constant leg on a. .. pipeline to the analytical device Gaseous Phase: The phase of a substance that occurs at or above the saturated vapor line of a phase diagram It fills its container and has no level Gasoline Stripping Plant: A separation plant designed to remove the heavier hydrocarbons in a gas stream Grade, Commercial: Less-than-pure substance that must meet a composition limit Although it is normally called by the name... in order to transmit it to other measuring instruments by comparison Standard, International: A standard recognized by an international agreement to serve internationally as the basis for fixing the value of all other standards of the given quantity Standard, National: A standard recognized by an official national decision as the basis for fixing the value, in a country, of all other standards of the... is located 1 inch (25.4 mm) downstream of the nearest plate face Flashing: Liquids with a sudden increase in temperature and/or a drop in pressure vaporize to a gas flow at the point of change Floating Piston Cylinder: A sample container that has a moving piston whose forces are balanced by a pre-charge pressure Flow: Flow, Fluctuating: The variation in flow rate that has a frequency lower than the... number and lower; has a parabolic profile Level Measurement: Determination of a liquid level in a vessel Manometer: A device that measures the height (head) of liquid in a tube at the point of measurement Mass: The property of a body that measures the amount of material it contains and causes it to have weight in a gravitational field Mass Meter: Meter that measures mass of a fluid based on a direct... Saturated steam is unstable; heat loss starts condensation; heat addition superheats; pressure loss superheats; pressure gain starts condensation Steam, Superheated: Pressure decrease or heat added to saturated steam will produce superheated steam, which acts as a gas and follows general gas laws with increased sensitivity to temperature and pressure measurements Steam, Wet (Quality Steam): A two-phase... quantity In general, the national standard in a country is also the primary standard Standard, Primary: A standard of a particular measure that has the highest metrological qualities in a given field Note: (1) The concept of a primary standard is equally valid for base units and for derived units (2) The primary standard is never used directly for measurement other than for comparison with duplicate... system Fluid, ” flow and measurement are defined in generally accepted terms (Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary) as: Fluid: 1 having particles that easily move and change their relative position without separation of the mass and that easily yield to pressure; 2 a substance (as a liquid or a gas) tending to flow or conform to the outline of its container Flow: 1 to issue or move in a stream; 2 to. .. through a meter per unit time Flow Regime: The characteristic flow behavior of a flow process Flow Temperature: The average temperature of a flowing stream taken at a specified location in a metering system Fluid Flow Measurement: The measurement of smoothly moving particles that fill and conform to the piping in an uninterrupted stream to determine the amount flowing Fluid Dynamics: Mechanics of the flow. .. forces and their relation to the fluid motion and equilibrium Fluids, Dehydrated: Fluids that normally have been separated into gas and liquid with the gas dried to the contract limit by a dehydration unit (Normally the liquid is not dried, but it may be.) Fluids, Separated: Fluids that have been separated into gas and liquids at the temperature and pressure of the separating equipment Force Majeure: . Fluid Flow Measurement A Practical Guide to Accurate Flow Measurement CH00ppi-x 10/24/01 4:45 PM Page i CH00ppi-x 10/24/01 4:45 PM Page ii Fluid Flow Measurement A Practical Guide to Accurate. its campaign for the betterment of trees, forests, and our envi- ronment. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fluid flow measurement: a practical guide to accurate flow measurement. to a gas flow at the point of change. Floating Piston Cylinder: A sample container that has a moving piston whose forces are balanced by a pre-charge pressure. Flow: Flow, Fluctuating: The variation