DK2204_book.fm Page i Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM Half Title Page ALBRIGHT’S CHEMICAL ENGINEERING HANDBOOK DK2204_book.fm Page ii Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM DK2204_book.fm Page iii Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM Title Page ALBRIGHT’S CHEMICAL ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Edited by Lyle F Albright Purdue University, West Lafayette Indiana, USA Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business DK2204_book.fm Page iv Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8247-5362-7 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint Except as permitted under U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http:// www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Albright’s chemical engineering handbook / editor Lyle Albright p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-8247-5362-7 (alk paper) Chemical engineering Handbooks, manuals, etc I Albright, Lyle Frederick, 1921- II Title TP151.A565 2008 660 dc22 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com 2007020174 DK2204_book.fm Page v Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM Table of Contents Preface ix The Editor xi Contributors xiii Chapter Physical and Chemical Properties Allan H Harvey Chapter Mathematics in Chemical Engineering 35 Sinh Trinh, Nandkishor Nere, and Doraiswami Ramkrishna Chapter Engineering Statistics .199 Daniel W Siderius Chapter Thermodynamics of Fluid Phase and Chemical Equilibria 255 Kwang-Chu Chao, David S Corti, and Richard G Mallinson Chapter Fluid Flow 393 Ron Darby Chapter Heat Transfer 479 Kenneth J Bell Chapter Radiation Heat Transfer 567 Z M Zhang and David P DeWitt Chapter Mass Transfer 591 James R Fair Chapter Industrial Mixing Technology 615 Douglas E Leng, Sanjeev S Katti, and Victor Atiemo-Obeng Chapter 10 Liquid-Liquid Extraction 709 D William Tedder v DK2204_book.fm Page vi Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM vi Albright’s Chemical Engineering Handbook Chapter 11 Chemical Reaction Engineering .737 J B Joshi and L K Doraiswamy Chapter 12 Distillation 969 James R Fair Chapter 13 Absorption and Stripping .1073 James R Fair Chapter 14 Adsorption 1119 Kent S Knaebel Chapter 15 Process Control .1173 James B Riggs, William J Korchinski, and Arkan Kayihan Chapter 16 Conceptual Process Design, Process Improvement, and Troubleshooting 1267 Donald R Woods, Andrew N Hrymak, and James R Couger Chapter 17 Chemical Process Safety 1437 Richard W Prugh Chapter 18 Environmental Engineering: A Review of Issues, Regulations, and Resources 1485 Bradly P Carpenter, Douglas E Watson, and Brooks C Carpenter Chapter 19 Biochemical Engineering .1501 James M Lee Chapter 20 Measuring Physical Properties .1531 Lyle F Albright Chapter 21 Selecting Materials of Construction (Steels and Other Metals) 1539 David A Hansen Chapter 22 Solid/Liquid Separation 1597 Frank M Tiller, Wenping Li, and Wu Chen Chapter 23 Drying: Principles and Practice .1667 Arun S Mujumdar DK2204_book.fm Page vii Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM Table of Contents vii Chapter 24 Dry Screening of Granular and Powder Materials 1717 A J DeCenso and Nash McCauley Chapter 25 Conveying of Bulk Solids 1729 Fred Thomson Chapter 26 Principles and Applications of Electrochemical Engineering .1737 Peter N Pintauro Chapter 27 Patents and Intellectual Property 1831 M Henry Heines Chapter 28 Communication .1841 F S Oreovicz Chapter 29 Ethical Concerns of Engineers .1859 Lyle F Albright Appendix: Conversion Factors 1867 Index 1881 DK2204_book.fm Page viii Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM DK2204_book.fm Page ix Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM Preface This handbook was written to provide a thorough discussion of the most important topics of interest to engineers and scientists in chemically oriented fields The expected readers will vary from students in the university to those employed in industry, academia, and the government Because the engineering disciplines are broad and complex, and growing more so, a wide variety of subjects needed to be covered in the 29 chapters of this handbook The first 27 chapters are technical in nature; the last two chapters are not Because technical personnel need to communicate their ideas with others, one chapter focuses on communication approaches Ethics has also become a key issue, especially in the last several years, and this is covered in the final chapter As industry becomes increasingly internationalized, ethical concerns will likely continue to grow, because standards often vary in different countries Let me share some of the thoughts that I had as I planned and organized this handbook First, a chapter in this handbook should differ from one to be expected in a textbook In a handbook, each chapter should be succinct, providing basic information (including case examples) and indicating where additional information can be found The topics selected for the various chapters in this handbook were chosen with the advice and counsel of individuals whose opinions I respect Some overlap of material on specific examples is sometimes found in two or more chapters For example, the determination and prediction of chemical and physical properties is discussed in both Chapter (Physical and Chemical Properties) and Chapter (Thermodynamics) As editor, I permitted and even encouraged some overlap when the authors were reaching their conclusions from different perspectives But I tried to be certain that the different authors were each aware of this overlap so that they could handle it to the best advantage of everyone involved Second, there have been major advances in technical information in the last few years It was therefore imperative that these advances be reported and discussed as needed These include fundamentals, new approaches, and improved applications Much better mathematical and statistical models are now available Computers have become of ever-increasing importance, leading to much improved research, plant design, plant operations, and so forth Several groups currently market important computer models, and these are reported here In some cases, free information can be found on the Internet For example, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has made available a large statistics handbook at no charge Chapter of the current handbook emphasizes the applications of statistics to chemically oriented problems Third, the selection of an author for a specific chapter was often made after receiving the advice of others For all chapters, I outlined my thoughts on the expected emphasis that I hoped to be presented throughout the handbook In all cases, the authors were given the chance to modify my suggestions As a result, even better manuscripts were received Several authors later added one or more coauthors, whom I welcomed In my opinion, this handbook is blessed with expert authors I hope that this handbook will promote better engineering and plant operations ix DK2204_book.fm Page 1899 Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM Index reciprocating plate columns, 726–728 Internet sites, 729 list of symbols, 731–732 Marshall & Swift index, 730 mix point, 722 Nernst’s law, 717, 725 PUREX process, 711, 714 reactive systems, 713–716 lignin extraction, 714 simplified TBP reaction models, 714–715 TBP solvent cleanup, 715–716 Liquid-liquid reactions, industrially important, 787 Liquids, superficial velocities of, 1357 LLE, see Liquid-liquid extraction Local control units (LCUs), 1184 Lockhart–Martinelli correlation, 913 LP, see Linear program Lyapunov’s function, 180–181 M MAC, see Mechanically agitated contactor MACRS, see Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System Major plant items (MPI), 1301 Manipulated variable (MV), 1247 Marshall & Swift (M&S) index, 730 Martensite, 1546–1547 Mass transfer, 591–614 diffusion coefficient, 592 equilibrium distribution coefficient, 610 Fick’s first law, 591 heavy phase, 609 Higbie model, 602 light phase, 609 mass transfer across phase boundary, 604–612 evaporation of spills, 611–612 interfacial area, 607 two-film model, 604–606 volumetric coefficients (gas-liquid), 607–608 volumetric coefficients (liquid-liquid), 608–611 mass transfer at phase boundary, 601–604 penetration model, 602–604 stagnant-film model, 602 surface renewal model, 604 mass transfer coefficient, 602 molecular diffusion coefficients, 592–601 diffusion through porous solids, 598–599 gases (binary mixtures), 592–594 gases (diffusion through membranes), 600–601 gases (multicomponent mixtures), 597 liquids (binary mixtures), 594–597 liquids (multicomponent mixtures), 598 nomenclature, 612–613 slab equation, 598 summary, 612 tortuosity factor, 599 two-resistance theory, 604 MAT, see Minimum approach temperature 1899 Materials of construction (steels and other metals), selection of, 1539–1596 corrosion, 1561–1567 anodes, 1562 basics, 1561–1562 cathodes, 1562–1580 corrosion control, 1562–1564 effect on materials of construction, 1567 microbiologically influenced corrosion, 1566–1567 mitigation methods, 1567 stress corrosion cracking, 1564–1566 failure modes, 1567–1580 carbon and low-alloy steel, 1569–1572 embrittlement phenomena, 1567–1569 high alloys, 1572 high-temperature effects, 1572–1574 hydriding, 1572 hydrogen gas, 1577–1578 low-carbon stainless steel, 1574–1577 nitriding, 1578–1579 oxidation, 1579 sulfidation and sulfidic corrosion, 1579–1580 materials selection process, 1581–1594 corrosion, 1591 criteria, 1588 diagram, 1593–1594 fabricated equipment, 1589–1590 grouping process regions, 1590 high temperature effects, 1590 low temperature effects, 1590 piping, 1589 procedure, 1590–1593 procedure exceptions, 1589–1590 procedure organization, 1589 product contamination, 1588 pumps, 1589 reliability, 1588 template design, 1581–1587 upset conditions, 1592–1593 materials selection process, overview, 1540–1542 governing criteria, 1541 mandatory requirements, 1541 materials selection criteria, 1541 materials selection template, 1542 special requirements, 1542 metallurgy, basic, 1542–1561 alloy designations, 1549 alloy steel, 1553–1554 annealing, 1542–1543 austenite, 1546 carbon steel, 1552–1553 cast iron, 1550–1552 common alloys and metals, 1558–1561 ferrite, 1546 heat treatments, 1542–1546 manufacturing of metals and alloys, 1549–1550 martensite, 1546–1547 metallurgical terms, 1547–1549 metals and alloys, 1550–1561 microstructural terms, 1546–1547 DK2204_book.fm Page 1900 Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM 1900 Albright’s Chemical Engineering Handbook normalizing, 1543 pearlite, 1547 preheat, 1543 quench and temper, 1545–1546 stainless steel, 1554–1558 stress relief/postweld heat treatment, 1544–1545 Mathematics in chemical engineering, 35–197 activities related to mathematics, 41 Adams-Bashforth methods, 99 Adams-Moulton rule, 100 algebraic equations, 40, 81–92 nonlinear equations, 85–92 system of linear equations, 81–85 arithmatic-geometric means inequality, 59 asymptotic approximations and expansions, 170–173 boundary-value problem, 41, 108, 113, 152, 154 branch cut, 147 breakage kernel, 50 Buckingham’s -theorem, 78 Budan’s rule of signs, 86 calculus of variations, 163–166 application, 165 Euler-Lagrange differential equation, 163–164 Euler-Lagrange equations for functional involving n-order derivative, 165 Euler-Lagrange equations for functional of ndependent variables, 164–165 Euler-Lagrange equations for functional of two independent variables, 165 Cardano’s formula, 87 Cauchy integral formula, 148 Cauchy-Riemann equations, 146 Cauchy-Schwartz inequality, 58 chaotic problems, 40 Chebyshev’s inequality, 59 complex variables, 143–155 analytic functions, 144–149 argument principle and Rouché theorem, 151–152 conformal mapping, 152–155 properties of complex numbers, 143–144 residue theorem, 149–151 computational fluid dynamics, 131 Cramer’s rule, 84 d’Alembert’s solution, 124 degenerate kernels, 136 Descartes’s rule of signs, 86 diagonal matrix, 82 difference equations, 92–100 method of solution for homogeneous equations, 92 method of solution for inhomogeneous equations, 92–94 numerical solutions to ordinary differential equations, 94–100 difference kernel, 133 differential and integral calculus, 60–66 derivative, 61–62 functions, limits, and continuity, 60 implicit function theorem, 64 integrals, 64–66 L’Hôspital’s rule, 63–64 mean value theorem, 62–63 dimensional analysis, 78–81 applications, 79–81 theory, 78 dimensional matrix, 78 dimensions of commonly used physical quantities, 79 Dirac delta function, 184 Dirichlet problem, 118 drag coefficient, 80 Duhamel’s principle, 120, 121 elliptic equations, 118 empiricism, 39 entire function, 146 equations, 40–53 difference equations, 42–44 integral equations, 50–52 integrodifferential equations, 52 linear equations, 44–45 nonlinear equations, 45–47 ordinary differential equations, 47–48 partial differential equations, 48–50 stochastic differential equations, 52–53 Euler-Lagrange equation, 163, 164 evolution equations, 118 Fokker-Planck equation, 167, 168 Fourier transforms, 122 Fredholm equations, 42 Fredholm integral equations, 136 Fredholm resolvent kernels, 137 Galerkin finite element equation, 114 gauge functions, 171 Green’s function, 108, 110, 130, 136 harmonic function, 146 Hölder inequality, 59 identity matrix, 82 imaginary number, 143 inflection point, 61 initial-value problems, 41 integral equations, 42, 131–143 Fredholm integral equations, 136 methods of solution for Fredholm equations, 136–142 methods of solution for Volterra equations, 132–136 Volterra integral equations, 131–132 integral transforms, 155–163 Fourier transform, 157–160 Hankel transform, 162–163 Laplace transform, 156–157 Mellin transform, 160–161 integrodifferential equations, 42 iterated kernels, 138 Ỵto stochastic equation, 53 Jacobian matrix, 90 kernels for different transforms and integration limits, 155 Kronecker delta, 120 Laplace equation, 128 Laurent series, 149 linear partial differential equation, 115 linear stability analysis, 179 Lyapunov’s function, 179, 180, 181 Markov process, 167 DK2204_book.fm Page 1901 Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM Index matching strategy, 172 mathematical software, 182–183 MatLab, 81 Minkowski’s inequality, 59 modulus of complex number, 143 modulus inequality, 59 multiplicity, 178 natural boundary conditions, 164 Neumann problem, 118 Newton-Raphson iteration, 91 number system, 53–60 algebraic inequalities, 58–59 binomial theorem, 58 comparison test, 56–57 integral inequalities, 59–60 integral test, 55–56 limit comparison test, 57 ratio test, 56 real number system, 53–54 root test, 56 sequences and series, 54–55 Taylor series, 57 tests for convergence of sequence and series, 55–57 ordinary differential equations, 47, 101–115 linear first-order differential equation, 101 linear higher-order differential equations, 111–115 nonlinear first-order differential equation, 101–105 second-order differential equations, 106–111 overlap region, 172 overrelaxation method, 84 partial differential equations, 115–131 classification of second-order equations, 118–119 computational fluid mechanics, 131 elliptic equations, 128–131 first-order partial differential equations, 115–118 hyperbolic equations, 124–128 parabolic equations, 119–124 Poisson equation, 128, 130 population balance equations, 52 quasilinear partial differential equation, 115 regular asymptotic expansion, 172 regularization, 140, 142 resolvent kernels, 134 Reynolds number, 80 Robin boundary condition, 129 Robin problem, 118 Routh-Hurwitz criterion, 85 rules of differentiation for real functions, 145–146 Runge-Kutta method, 96 scalar difference equations, 42 Simpson’s rule, 99 singular expansions, 172 singularity theory, 176, 177 square matrix, 82 steady-state multiplicity and stability, 173–181 analysis of multiplicity by singularity theory, 176–179 stability of steady-state solution, 179–181 stochastic differential equations, 42, 166–170 connection between Fokker-Planck equation and, 167–168 1901 differential Chapman-Kolmogorov equation, 167 Ỵto stochastic integral, 168–170 stochastic integral, 168 symmetric kernels, 139 tables of integral transforms, 185–191 Fourier cosine transforms, 189 Fourier sine transforms, 188 Fourier transforms, 186–187 Hankel transforms, 191 Laplace transforms, 185–186 Mellin transforms, 190 Taylor series expansion, 147 trapezoidal rule, 99 vector analysis, 66–78 gradients of sum and product, 77–78 orthogonal curvilinear coordinate systems, 69–76 vector algebra, 66–68 vector calculus, 68 vector integral theorems, 76–77 vector difference equations, 43 Volterra equations, 42, 132, 136 weak formulation of governing differential equation, 114 white noise, 53 Wicke-Kallenbach experiment, 50 Maxwell–Stefan diffusional equations, 1054 McCabe–Thiele diagrams, 986–987 Mechanically agitated contactor (MAC), 938 Mellin transform, 160–161 application, 161 convolution property, 160 Metallurgy, basic, 1542–1561 alloy designations, 1549 heat treatments, 1542–1546 annealing, 1542–1543 normalizing, 1543 preheat, 1543 quench and temper, 1545–1546 stress relief/postweld heat treatment, 1544–1545 manufacturing of metals and alloys, 1549–1550 metallurgical terms, 1547–1549 metals and alloys, 1550–1561 alloy steel, 1553–1554 carbon steel, 1552–1553 cast iron, 1550–1552 common alloys and metals, 1558–1561 stainless steel, 1554–1558 microstructural terms, 1546–1547 austenite, 1546 ferrite, 1546 martensite, 1546–1547 pearlite, 1547 Metal passivation, 1811 Methylchlorosilanes, manufacture of, 943–954 MFR, see Mixed-flow reactor Microbial cells, 1504–1506 bacteria, 1505 culture media, 1506 fungi, 1505–1506 microbial nomenclature, 1505 Mie scattering theory, 586 DK2204_book.fm Page 1902 Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM 1902 MIMO process, see Multiple-input/multiple-output process MIMO process control, 1242–1246 SISO controllers and (c, y) pairings, 1242–1245 tuning decentralized controllers, 1245–1246 Minimum approach temperature (MAT), 1343 Mixed-flow model, 885 Mixed-flow reactor (MFR), 751 Mixer settlers, 726 Mix point, 722 Mixtures, phase behavior of, 291–294 gas-gas equilibrium, 294 gas-liquid equilibrium, 291–293 liquid-liquid equilibrium, 293–294 Miyauchi model, 889, 890 Model(s) activity-coefficient, 329–343 complete local-composition equation, 339–341 Flory-Huggins equation, 334–336 nonrandom two-liquids equation, 338–339 Redlich–Kister equation, 330 regular solutions, 332–334 UNIQUAC equation, 341–343 van Laar equation, 330–332 Wilson’s local-composition equation, 336–338 AIChE efficiency, 1050 Bingham plastic, 426 Bolles–Fair, 1056 capillary, 1804 Carreau-Yashuda, 402 cell, 815 chain-of-spheres, 302 Davidson, 885, 888 distillation, 972–975 contacting stage, 973–975 multiple stages, 975 phase equilibrium, 972–973 dumbbell rotator, 302 electrolyte-NRTL, 18 Eley–Rideal, 758 Ellis, 401 engulfment, deformation, and diffusion, 647 EOS, FOPDT, 1181 Fryer–Potter, 891 Garcia–Fair, 1053 gas-solid equilibrium, 372–374 Gibbs energy models of liquid solutions, 347–350 Hang–Chao–Hilson complete local-composition, 371 Higbie, 602 interaction by exchange with the mean, 647 Jayaraman–Kulkarni–Doraiswamy, 891 Kunii-Levenspiel, 887 Langmuir–Hinshelwood–Hougen–Watson, 758 Lee–Kesler, 1342 liquid-liquid equilibrium, 367 mixed-flow, 885 Miyauchi, 889, 890 noncompetitive adsorption, 759 predictive control (MPC), 1246, 1247 random pore, 773, 783 SAFT, 11 Albright’s Chemical Engineering Handbook Separations Research Program, 1061 sharp interface model, 770 shrinking core, 774 Sisko, 401 SUPERTRAPP, 17 TBP reaction, 714 thermodynamic, LLE and, 716 Thiele–Geddes, 993 two-zone, 778 UNIFAC, 717, 981–983 UNIQUAC, 1342 Vacancy Solution, 1141 volume reaction, 776 Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS), 1289 Monochromatic radiation, 568 Moving-bed reactors, 837 MPC, see Model predictive control MPI, see Major plant items M&S index, see Marshall & Swift index Multicomponent vapor, condensation of, 530 Multiphase reactors, 741 Multiple-input/multiple-output (MIMO) process, 1242 Multitubular reactor, 860 Multivariable control (MVC), 1247 Multivariable controller general method for designing, 1249–1261 commissioning of controller, 1260–1261 conducting of plant test and collection of data, 1254–1255 design of plant test, 1251–1254 post audit, 1261 structuring of controller and analysis of data, 1255–1259 tuning of controller, 1259–1260 understanding of process, 1249–1251 troubleshooting, 1261–1263 checklist, 1262–1265 commonsense approach, 1262 controller still making money, 1264 Murphree point efficiency, 975 MV, see Manipulated variable MVC, see Multivariable control N National Chemical Laboratory (NCL), 945 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 28 Natural convection, single-phase heat transfer in, 520–523 horizontal cylinder, 523 horizontal plates, 522–523 other geometries, 523 two horizontal parallel plates, 523 vertical plane surface, 521–522 Navier-Stokes equations, 618, 848 NCL, see National Chemical Laboratory Nernst’s law, 717, 725 Net positive suction head (NPSH), 1325 Newtonian fluids, 419–422 all flow regimes, 420–422 DK2204_book.fm Page 1903 Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM Index laminar flow, 419 rough pipe, 420 turbulent flow, 420 water in Sch 40 pipe, 422 NINA-FBR, see Nonisothermal nonadiabatic fixed-bed reactor NINA reactor, gas-solid reaction in, 878–883 NIST, see National Institute of Standards and Technology NIST, Thermodynamics Research Center, 28 Nonisothermal nonadiabatic fixed-bed reactor (NINAFBR), 813 Nonlinear equations, 85–92 numerical solutions, 88–92 convergence condition, 90–91 Newton-Raphson iteration, 91–92 successive substitution, 88–90 polynomial equations, 85–88 bounds on real roots, 86 Budan’s rule of signs, 86 Cardano’s formula, 87 Descartes’s rule of signs, 86 quadratic formula, 86 quartic formula, 88 Routh-Hurwitz criterion, 85 processes governed by, 45–47 concentration of species in chemical reaction at equilibrium, 45–46 steady state of continuous stirred-tank reactor, 47 vapor-liquid equilibria, 46–47 Nonrandom two-liquids (NRTL) equation, 338–339 NPSH, see Net positive suction head NRTL equation, see Nonrandom two-liquids equation Nuclear power generation, 1496–1497 Chernobyl, 1496–1497 hazardous waste disposal, 1496 Three-Mile Island, 1496–1497 VHTR reactors, 1497 Nucleate boiling, 532 Number system, 53–60 algebraic inequalities, 58–59 binomial theorem, 58 comparison test, 56–57 integral inequalities, 59–60 integral test, 55–56 limit comparison test, 57 ratio test, 56 real number system, 53–54 root test, 56 sequences and series, 54–55 Taylor series, 57 tests for convergence of sequence and series, 55–57 Nusselt number, 505, 764 O Ohm’s law, 1755, 1798 Ordinary differential equations, 47, 101–115 linear first-order differential equation, 101 linear higher-order differential equations, 111–115 application of higher-order equations, 112–114 1903 finite element method, 114–115 homogeneous equation, 111–112 inhomogeneous equation, 112 nonlinear first-order differential equation, 101–105 autonomous nonlinear equation, 101 Bernoulli equation, 103–104 exact differential equations, 104 homogeneous equations, 104–105 implicit equation, 101–102 Lagrange equation, 102–103 Ricatti equations, 105 separable equation, 103 numerical solutions to, 94–100 Adams-Bashforth methods, 99 Adams-Moulton methods, 100 explicit methods, 96–99 implicit methods, 99–100 Runge-Kutta methods, 96–98 trapezoidal, Simpson, and Runge-Kutta, 99–100 processes governed by, 47–48 dynamics of continuous stirred tank reactor, 47 steady state of tubular reactor, 48 second-order differential equations, 106–111 Green’s function, 108–110 Green’s function by eigenfunction (Mercer’s) expansions, 110–111 homogeneous linear equations with constant coefficients, 106 inhomogeneous linear differential equations with constant coefficients, 107–108 Organic compound, hydrogenation of, 934–943 Organic electrochemical reactions, examples of, 1779–1780 Orifice meter, 455–462 applications, 462 compressible flow, 460–461 incompressible flow, 455–460 loss coefficient, 462 Orthogonal curvilinear coordinate systems, 69–76 bispherical coordinates, 76 circular cylindrical coordinates, 71 conical coordinates, 74 differential operators in curvilinear coordinate system, 70–71 ellipsoidal coordinates, 75 elliptic cylindrical coordinates, 72 oblate spheroidal coordinates, 73 parabolic coordinates, 74 parabolic cylinder coordinates, 73–74 paraboloidal coordinates, 75–76 prolate spheroidal coordinates, 72–73 scale factors and metric tensors, 69–70 spherical coordinates, 71–72 toroidal coordinates, 76 OSHA listed chemicals, 1470, 1471–1477 OSHA listed hazardous materials, fire-hazard properties of, 1478 Overpotentials, 1764 Oxydesulfurization of coal, 919 Ozone, oxidation of NO using, 869–870 DK2204_book.fm Page 1904 Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM 1904 P Partial differential equations, 115–131 classification of second-order equations, 118–119 computational fluid mechanics, 131 elliptic equations, 128–131 Green’s function, 130–131 Poisson integral formula, 129–130 first-order partial differential equations, 115–118 hyperbolic equations, 124–128 d’Alembert’s solution, 124–126 separation of variables, 126–128 parabolic equations, 119–124 inhomogeneous boundary conditions, 122 inhomogeneous equation, Duhamel’s principle, 120–121 inhomogeneous equation in infinite domain, 123–124 separation of variables, 119–120 similarity solutions, 122–123 processes governed by, 48–50 dynamics of chromatography, 49–50 dynamics of tubular reactor, 48–49 Patents and intellectual property, 1831–1839 intellectual property between employer and employee, 1838–1839 patents, 1838 rights and obligations created or eliminated by express agreement, 1839 trade secrets, 1838–1839 patents outside United States, 1834 preliminary steps for inventor, 1835–1837 minimizing chances for invalidation, 1837 patents as prior art, 1836 prior art searching, 1835–1836 record keeping, 1836 representation before USPTO, 1835 requirements for patentability, 1834–1835 nonobviousness, 1835 novelty, 1834–1835 utility, 1835 trade secrets, 1837–1838 United States patents and related rights and documents, 1832–1834 copyrights, 1833–1834 design patent, 1832 provisional patent application, 1832–1833 trademarks, 1833 utility patent, 1832 PBT, see Profiled bottom tank PC, see Pipeline contactor PCOR equation, see Polymer chain-of-rotator equation PCS, see Principle of corresponding states Pearlite, 1547 Peclet number, 506–507, 855 Peng–Robinson (PR) equation, 11, 299 Peng–Robinson–Stryjek–Vera (PRSV) eos, 349 Perturbed hard-chain theory (PHCT), 301 PFDs, see Process flow drawings PFR, see Plug-flow reactor PFTR, see Plug flow tubular reactor Albright’s Chemical Engineering Handbook PHCT, see Perturbed hard-chain theory Physical and chemical properties, 1–34 apparatus calibration, 21 aqueous electrolyte solutions, 17–20 density and enthalpy, 18–19 transport properties, 19–20 vapor-liquid equilibria and activity coefficients, 17–18 binary interaction parameter, 11 Burnett method, 22 calorimetry, 22 combining rule, 11 corresponding-states methods, COSMO, 12 differential ebulliometry, 24 ebulliometry, 23 electrolyte-NRTL model, 18 equation of state, 11 experience, 21 flow calorimetry, 23 fugacity coefficient, 12 gas saturation method, 24 Gibbs energy, 12 group-contribution methods, 7, 20 Hagen-Poiseuille relationship, 25 Helgeson–Kirkham–Flowers correlation, 19 Helmholtz energy, 12 Henry’s law, 13 ideal-gas law, ideal mixture volume, ionic strength, 19 isochors, 22 Knudsen method, 24 liquid-liquid equilibrium , 11 major data sources, 27–30 Beilstein, 29–30 DDB, 29 DECHEMA, 29 DIPPR, 28 Gmelin, 30 Landolt-Börnstein, 29 NEL, 29 NIST, 28 process simulation software, 30 measurement of fluid thermophysical properties, 20–27 density, 22 electrolyte solutions, 27 general considerations, 21–22 heat capacity and caloric properties, 22–23 liquid–liquid equilibria, 25 mixture vapor-liquid equilibria, 24–25 pure-component vapor pressure, 23–24 thermal conductivity, 26–27 viscosity, 25–26 when experiments are necessary, 20–21 model-substance approach, 18 oscillating-cup method, 26 Peng–Robinson equation, 11 phase equilibria for mixtures, 10–14 activity-coefficient methods, 12–13 equation-of-state methods, 11–12 DK2204_book.fm Page 1905 Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM Index method choice, 13–14 sources of data, 14 types of phase-equilibrium calculations, 10–11 potentiometry, 27 Poynting factor, 12 properties for chemical reaction equilibria, 20 pycnometers, 22 Raoult’s law, 13 safety, 21 second virial coefficient, Soave–Redlich–Kwong equation, 11 standard-state volume, 18 static calorimetry, 22 statistical associating fluid theory, 11 SUPCRT92, 19 SUPERTRAPP model, 17 thermodynamic properties of pure fluids, 3–8 critical constants and acentric factors for pure fluids, ideal-gas properties, importance of pure-fluid properties, pure fluids with little or no data, 7–8 pure fluids with moderate amounts of data, 5–7 pure fluids with reference-quality data, relative importance of different properties, water and steam, 3–5 thermodynamic properties of saturated water and steam, 4–5 thermodynamic properties of single-phase mixtures, 8–10 caloric properties, 10 density, 8–10 transient hot-wire method, 26 transport properties, 14–17 diffusivity, 17 kinetic theory, 14–15 thermal conductivity, 16–17 viscosity, 15–16 uncertainty, UNIFAC, 12 vapor-liquid equilibrium, 10 vibrating-tube densimeters, 22 Vogel–Tammann–Fulcher equation, 15 VTPR, 12 Wagner equations, Physical properties, measurement of, 1531–1537 flowmeters, 1535–1536 level measurements, 1537 pressure measurements, 1536 temperature-measuring devices, 1531–1535 bi-metallic thermometers, 1535 filled-bulb and glass-stem thermometers, 1534 pyrometric cones, 1535 radiation and infrared pyrometers, 1533–1534 resistance thermometers and thermistors, 1532–1533 thermcouples, 1532 PID control, advanced, 1227–1246 antiwindup strategies, 1240–1241 bumpless transfer, 1241–1242 cascade control, 1227–1228 1905 computed manipulated variable control, 1239–1240 feedforward control, 1230–12333 inferential control, 1233–1236 MIMO process control, 1242–1246 override/select control, 1238–1239 ratio control, 1229–1230 scheduling controller tuning, 1236–1238 split-range flow control, 1242 PID controllers, 1201–1213 algorithms, 1201–1206 analysis of P, I, and D action, 1206–1207 derivative action, 1207 integral action, 1206–1207 proportional action, 1206 analysis of typical control loops, 1209–1213 composition control loop, 1212–1213 flow control loop, 1209–1210 level control loop, 1210–1211 pressure control loop, 1211 temperature control loop, 1211–1212 controller design issues, 1208–1209 PI control, 1208 PID control, 1208–1209 P-only control, 1208 PID tuning, 1213–1227 controller reliability, 1218–1219 effect of tuning parameters on dynamic behavior, 1214–1218 control interval, 1217–1218 PI control, 1214–1215 PID control, 1216–1217 fast-response loops, 1221–1222 level controller tuning, 1225–1227 recommended approach to controller tuning, 1218 selection of tuning criterion, 1219–1220 slow-response processes, 1222–1225 tuning criteria and performance assessment, 1213–1214 tuning of filter on sensor readings, 1220–1221 Pipe flow, 419–443 analysis, 431–433 Bingham plastic fluids, 426–428 compressible flows, 438–443 economical diameter, 433–435 fitting losses, 428–431 flow regimes, 419 Newtonian fluids, 419–422 noncircular conduits, 435–437 power law fluids, 422–426 pressure-flow relations, 419 turbulent drag reduction, 437–438 Pipeline contactor (PC), 910 Pitch blade turbines, 623 PLCs, see Programmable logic controllers Plug-flow reactor (PFR), 751, 954 Plug flow tubular reactor (PFTR), 1410 bubble reactor, 1415–1416 empty tube, 1411–1412 fire tube, 1412 fixed bed catalyst in tube or vessel, 1412–1413 fixed bed with radial flow, 1414 melting cyclone burner, 1420 DK2204_book.fm Page 1906 Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM 1906 Albright’s Chemical Engineering Handbook monolithic, 1418–1418 motionless mixer in tube, 1415 multibed adiabatic with interbed quench, 1414 multiple hearth, 1419 multitube fixed bed catalyst, 1414 packing, 1417–1418 rotary kiln, 1420 shaft furnace, 1420 spray reactor and jet nozzle reactor, 1416 thin film, 1419 transported or slurry, transfer line, 1414–1415 traveling grate, 1419 trays, 1417 trickle bed, 1418 via multistage CSTR, 1420–1421 Poisson equation, 128, 130 Polymer chain-of-rotator (PCOR) equation, 306 Polymers, 1132 Polynomial equations, 85–88 bounds on real roots, 86 Budan’s rule of signs, 86 Cardano’s formula, 87 Descartes’s rule of signs, 86 quadratic formula, 86 quartic formula, 88 Routh-Hurwitz criterion, 85 Population balance equations, 52 Potentiometry, 27 Pourbaix diagrams, 1807 Powder materials, see Granular and powder materials, dry screening of Power law fluids, 422–426 all flow regimes, 426 laminar flow, 422 Poynting factor, 12, 325 Prandtl number, 506 PR equation, see Peng–Robinson equation Pressure swing adsorption (PSA), 1122 Prigogine–Flory–Patterson theory of polymer liquids, 302 Principle of corresponding states (PCS), 287 Probability distributions, 201–202, 203–212 binomial distribution (discrete variable), 204 characteristic parameters of, 202–203 chi-square distribution for sample variance (continuous variable), 210–211 continuous probability density distributions, 201–202 discrete probability distributions, 201 F distribution for ratio of sample variances (continuous variable), 211 geometric distribution (discrete variable), 205 normal or Gaussian distribution (continuous variable), 206–207 Poisson distribution (discrete variable), 205–206 t distribution of sample means (continuous variable), 207–210 Process control, 1173–1265 adaptive control techniques, 1238 adjustable-speed pumps, 1191 advanced PID control, 1227–1246 antiwindup strategies, 1240–1241 bumpless transfer, 1241–1242 cascade control, 1227–1228 computed manipulated variable control, 1239–1240 feedforward control, 1230–12333 inferential control, 1233–1236 MIMO process control, 1242–1246 override/select control, 1238–1239 ratio control, 1229–1230 scheduling controller tuning, 1236–1238 split-range flow control, 1242 ATV tests, 1223, 1246 boiler drum level control, 1230 booster relays, 1191 cavitation, 1190 closed-loop dynamic behavior, 1181–1182 comparison of feedback and feedforward control, 1232 controller cycle time, 1186 controller/DCS system problems, 1199 control loop hardware and troubleshooting, 1182–1200 actuator systems (final control elements), 1187–1191 distributed control system, 1184–1187 sensor systems, 1191–1194 troubleshooting control loops, 1194–1200 coupled process, 1242 decentralized control, 1242–1243 definition of symbols for control diagrams, 1176 derivative kick, 1202 direct-acting controller, 1201 direct-acting final control element, 1190 distillation column, bottoms composition control of, 1228 error from setpoint, 1177 finite control element, common problems with, 1196 first-order plus deadtime model, 1179–1181 FOPDT model, 1181 general dynamic behavior, 1177–1179 generalized feedback system, 1177 integral windup, 1240 interactive PID controller, 1205 internal reflux control, 1240 model predictive control, 1246–1264 description, 1246–1247 general method for designing multivariable controller, 1249–1261 history, 1248 multivariable controller troubleshooting, 1261–1264 when to use, 1248–1249 move suppression, 1260 multiple-input/multiple-output process, 1242 nonstationary process, 1237 PID algorithm, 1205 PID controllers, 1201–1213 algorithms, 1201–1206 analysis of P, I, and D action, 1206–1207 analysis of typical control loops, 1209–1213 controller design issues, 1208–1209 PID tuning, 1213–1227 controller reliability, 1218–1219 effect of tuning parameters on dynamic behavior, 1214–1218 DK2204_book.fm Page 1907 Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM Index fast-response loops, 1221–1222 level controller tuning, 1225–1227 recommended approach to controller tuning, 1218 selection of tuning criterion, 1219–1220 slow-response processes, 1222–1225 tuning criteria and performance assessment, 1213–1214 tuning of filter on sensor readings, 1220–1221 quarter-amplitude damping, 1214 rate before reset controller, 1205 reference trajectory, 1260 relay feedback experiment, 1223 reset windup, 1240 reverse-acting controller, 1201 reverse-acting final control element, 1190 ringing, 1181 saturated control valve, 1240 self-regulating process, 1179 self-tuning controllers, 1238 sensor system, common problems, 1198 state of the plant, 1250 stationary process, 1237 underdampened response, 1179 valve deadband, 1190 wastewater neutralization process, 1229 watchdog timer, 1260 Zeigler–Nichols tuning, 1246 Process design, see Conceptual process design, process improvement, and troubleshooting Process flow drawings (PFDs), 1249 Process Safety Management (PSM), 1439 Profiled bottom tank, 843 Programmable logic controllers (PLCs), 1186, 1246 PRSV eos, see Peng-Robinson-Stryjek-Vera eos PSA, see Pressure swing adsorption Pseudo-steady-state (PSS) assumption, 774 PSM, see Process Safety Management PSS assumption, see Pseudo-steady-state assumption Q QAD, see Quarter-amplitude damping Quarter-amplitude damping (QAD), 1214 R Radial flow fixed-bed reactor (RF-FBR), 813 Radial-flow turbines (RFT), 623 Radiation heat transfer, 567–589 bidirectional reflectance distribution function, 574 blackbody band fraction, 570 dependent scattering, 586 diffuse emitter, 569 discrete ordinates method, 584 gas and particle radiation, 583–586 radiative properties of gases and particles, 585–586 radiative transfer equation, 583–585 Kirchhoff’s laws, 575 Maxwell’s electromagnetic wave equations, 583 1907 Mie scattering theory, 586 monochromatic radiation, 568 radiation thermometry, 586–588 radiative energy exchange between surfaces, 575–582 net radiation method, 579–580 network representation, 580–582 radiation exchange between blackbody surfaces, 576–578 radiosity, 575–576 view factor, 576 radiative properties of solids, 570–575 absorptance, reflectance, and transmittance, 573–574 emissivity, 570–573 Kirchhoff’s law, 574–575 radiative transitions, 585 Rayleigh-Jeans formula, 570 reradiating surface, 581 scattering phase function, 583 single scattering albedo, 583 Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 569 surface emission, 568–570 blackbody, 569–570 intensity, emissive power, and irradiation, 568–569 third radiation constant, 570 vibration-rotation bands, 585 Wien’s displacement law, 570 zonal method, 584 Radiative transfer equation (RTE), 583 Random-pore models, 773, 783 Raoult’s law, 13, 325, 975, 977 Rayleigh-Jeans formula, 570 RBC, see Rotating biological contactors RCI, see Retreat-curve impellers RCRA, see Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Reaction analysis, 739 Reaction injection-molding systems (RIM), 650 Reactive distillation, 1005–1006 Reactor, see also Plug flow tubular reactor adiabatic fixed-bed reactor, 813 air-lift, 808, 811 analysis, 739 Berty, 770 bubbling-bed reactor, 826 catalytic wire-gauze, 820 Choudhary–Doraiswamy, 770 continuous, design of, 949 continuous stirred tank reactor, 41, 751 dead-end, 840 electrochemical, 1766–1774 Akzo fluidized bed, 1773 batch tank reactors, 1771 characterization, 1766–1769 choice, 1769–1774 design experiments, 1766, 1770 electrode materials, 1768 external-loop air-lift reactor, 907 fluid-fluid-reactions, 788 gradientless, 739 helical coil, 859 ideal, 741 DK2204_book.fm Page 1908 Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM 1908 jet-loop, 847 kinetic energy (stirred tank reactors), 839–848 blending, 841, 845 blending in gas-liquid systems, 844–845 dead end systems, 846–848 gas dispersion, 841–843 heat transfer, 844 heat transfer in gas-liquid systems, 846 solid suspension, 843–844 suspension in gas-liquid-solid systems, 845–846 mixed-flow, 751 moving-bed, 837 multiphase, 741 multitubular, 860 NINA, 879 nonisothermal nonadiabatic fixed-bed reactor, 813 pressure energy, 800–839 gas-liquid reactors, 800–812 gas-solid catalytic fixed-bed reactors, 813 gas-solid catalytic fluidized-bed reactors, 821–835 gas-solid noncatalytic reactors, 835–839 liquid-liquid reactors, 812 solid-liquid reactors, 812–813, 821 radial-flow, 819 radial flow fixed-bed reactor, 813 simulated moving-bed, 740 single-pellet, 770 SPE oil hydrogenation, 1786, 1787 staged, 828 steady-state adiabatic, 386 stirred-tank, 45 three-phase catalytic reactor, 936 three-phase sparged, 921 tubular dynamics of, 48 steady-state multiplicity, 174 turbulent-bed reactor, 826 Real number system, 53–54 logarithm, 54 powers and roots, 53–54 Redlich–Kister equation, 330 Redlich and Kwong (RK) equation, 298, 1342 Regularization, method of, 142 Relay feedback experiment, 1223 Resistance temperature detectors (RTD), 1192, 1351 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 1327, 1499 Retreat-curve impellers (RCI), 623 Retrograde condensation, 292 Reynolds number, 80, 504–505, 518, 689, 764, 864, 912 RF-FBR, see Radial flow fixed-bed reactor RFT, see Radial-flow turbines Ricatti equations, 105 RIM, see Reaction injection-molding systems RK equation, see Redlich and Kwong equation Robin boundary condition, 129 Robin problem, 118 Rotating biological contactors (RBC), 848 Rouché theorem, 151–152 RTD, see Resistance temperature detectors RTE, see Radiative transfer equation Albright’s Chemical Engineering Handbook S Safety, see Chemical process safety Safety interlock system (SIS), 1351 SAFT, see Statistical associating fluid theory Sales, administration, research, and engineering (SARE) expenses, 1287 SAP catalyst, see Supported aqueous phase catalyst SARE expenses, see Sales, administration, research, and engineering expenses SBC, see Sectionalized bubble column Scalar difference equations, 42 Schmidt number, 1761 SCM, see Shrinking core model Sectionalized bubble column (SBC), 905 Sensor systems, 1191–1194 chemical composition analyzers, 1193 flow measurements, 1193 level measurements, 1193 pressure measurements, 1193 repeatability, accuracy, and dynamic response, 1192 sampling system, 1193 temperature measurements, 1192 thermowells, 1192 transmitters, 1194 Separations Research Program (SRP) model, 1061 Sharp interface model (SIM), 770 Sherwood number, chemical reaction engineering, 764 Shock wave velocity, 1146 Shrinking core model (SCM), 770, 774 Sieder-tate term, 507 Silicas, 1130–1131 SIM, see Sharp interface model Simulated moving-bed reactors, 740 Simulated moving-bed systems, 1122 Single-pellet reactor, 770 SIS, see Safety interlock system Sisko model, 401 SLE, see Solid-liquid extraction SLS, see Solid/liquid separation Slugging, 833 Slurry reactor, oxydesulfurization of coal in, 919–925 Soave–Redlich–Kwong (SRK) equation, 11 Software CFD, 618, 632 design, process improvement, and troubleshooting, 1334–1335 mathematical, 182–183 MPC modeling software, 1257 security, process safety management, 1467 solvent extraction, 729 Solid(s) bulk, conveying of, 1729–1736 air-activated gravity conveyor, 1735 belt conveyors, 1730–1733 bucket elevators, 1734 en-masse conveyors, 1734–1735 materials characterization, 1729–1730 pneumatic conveyors, 1735 screw conveyors, 1733 vibrating conveyors, 1734 DK2204_book.fm Page 1909 Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM Index floating, slurries of, 657 -liquid extraction (SLE), 709 -liquid mass transfer coefficient, 930 -liquid reactions, examples, 797 radiative properties, 570–575 absorptance, 573–574 emissivity, 570–573 Kirchhoff’s law, 574–575 reflectance, 573–574 transmittance, 573–574 Solid-liquid mixing, 653–660 equipment, 659–660 floating solids, 657 just-suspended conditions, 656 particle suspension in stirred vessels, 655 power requirements, 659 settling solids, 653–655 solids suspension by jet mixing, 660 uniform solids concentrations, 657–659 Solid/liquid separation (SLS), 1597–1665 cake washing, 1648–1650 displaced washing and repulping, 1648 terms and definitions for displacement washing, 1648–1649 washing curves, 1649–1650 classification of operations by particle size, 1599 equipment and operation, 1629–1648 bag filters, 1633–1634 batch pressure filters, 1630–1636 candle filter, 1632–1633 cartridge filters, 1634 centrifugation, 1645–1646 continuous filters, 1636–1640 cross-flow filters, 1641 deep-bed filter, 1640–1641 expression equipment, 1647–1648 filter presses, 1634–1636 horizontal belt filter, 1639 hydrocyclone, 1646–1647 indexing belt filter, 1639–1640 leaf filter, 1631–1632 membrane filters, 1641–1642 pressure nutsches, 1630–1631 rotary drum and disc filters, 1636–1639 thickening and clarification, 1643–1644 filtration fundamentals, 1613–1629 critical pressure drop, 1628–1629 data analysis, 1616–1620 deviations from parabolic theory, 1620–1623 filtration of super-compactible materials, 1623–1629 material balance, 1614–1616 strange behavior of super-compactible materials, 1627–1628 theory, 1613–1614 volume vs time, 1616 laboratory test, 1650–1654 adverse effect of sedimentation on filtration experiments, 1653 problems, 1653 samples, 1653 1909 test numbers, 1653–1654 wall friction in C-P cell and small-scale cells, 1653 operations, 1599–1602 cake filtration, 1600 centrifugation, 1601 cross-flow filtration, 1600–1601 deep-bed filtration, 1601 deliquoring, 1601 flotation, 1601–1602 hydrocyclone separation, 1601 membrane filtration, 1601 sedimentation, 1599 straining, 1600 washing, 1601 overview, 1599–1603 particles, 1599 pretreatment (coagulation and flocculation), 1603–1608 coagulation and flocculation, 1604–1607 interparticle forces and zeta potential, 1604 laboratory tests, 1607–1608 pretreatment (filter aids), 1608–1613 diatomaceous earth, 1611–1612 other filter aids, 1613 perlite, 1612 stages, 1602–1603 system design, 1654–1664 cycle analysis in selection of filter aids, 1661–1663 decision network for design for cake filtration systems, 1656–1658 equipment selection, 1654–1565 filter media selection, 1658–1660 pump selection in filtration operation, 1660–1661 scale up, 1663–1664 Solvent extraction services, Internet sites, 729 SOP catalyst, see Supported organic phase catalyst Souders–Brown capacity parameter, 1012 SPCC Act, see Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures Act Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) Act, 1499 SRK equation, see Soav–Redlich–Kwong equation SRP model, see Separations Research Program model Staged reactors, 828 Stanton number, 506 Statistical associating fluid theory (SAFT), 11, 308 Steady-state solution, stability of, 179–181 linear stability analysis, 179–180 method of Lyapunov’s function, 180–181 Steam distillation, 1002 Steam stripping, 1107–1111 Stirred-tank reactor, 45 kinetic energy, 839–848 blending, 841 blending in gas-liquid systems, 844–845 blending in solid-liquid systems, 845 dead end systems, 846–848 gas dispersion, 841–843 heat transfer, 844, 846 solid suspension, 843–844 suspension in gas-liquid-solid systems, 845–846 linear equations, 45 DK2204_book.fm Page 1910 Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM 1910 Albright’s Chemical Engineering Handbook Stochastic differential equations, 42, 166–170 connection between Fokker-Planck equation and, 167–168 differential Chapman-Kolmogorov equation, 167 Ỵto stochastic integral, 168–170 application, 169–170 one-dimensional Ỵto formula, 169 processes governed by, 52–53 Stochastic processes, 166 Stokes’s law, 654 Stripping operating line, 986 Sublimation pressure, 284, 372 Sublimation pressure curve, 296 SUPCRT92, 19 Super-compactible materials, filtration of, 1623–1629 Darcy’s law, 1625–1626 effective pressure, 1623–1625 empirical constitutive equations, 1626 integration of Darcy equation, 1626–1627 Superheated vapor, condensation of, 530–531 SUPERTRAPP model, 17 Supported aqueous phase (SAP) catalyst, 754 Supported organic phase (SOP) catalyst, 756 acentric factor, 288 adiabatic system, 257 analytical solution of groups method, 345 athermal solutions, 334 azeotrope, 292 Boublik–Alder–Chen–Kreglewski eos, 301 bubble-point curve, 291 Carnot cycle, 265 chain-of-rotators equation, 302 chemical reaction equilibria, 375–391 chemical reaction equilibrium, 375–376 equilibrium constants, 376–384 open systems with reaction, 385–388 phase rule for chemically reacting species, 384–385 stoichiometric formulation, 388–391 Clapeyron equation, 352 compressed liquid states, 355 degree of freedom, 290 dew-point curve, 291 dimer theory, 306 energy functions, 276 enthalpy balance, 261 entropy, 264 equilibrium ratio, 355 extensive property of system, 257 first law of open systems, 261 fluid-phase equilibria, 351–375 gas-solid equilibrium models, 372–374 liquid-liquid equilibrium models, 367–372 vapor-liquid equilibrium of ideal mixtures, 355–358 vapor-liquid equilibrium by φ-φ models, 364–367 vapor-liquid equilibrium by -φ models, 358–364 vapor-liquid equilibrium in single-component fluid, 351–355 free-energy-matching mixing rules, 349 free volume, 296 fugacity, 279 fugacity coefficient, 322 function of temperature, 377 gas-liquid critical state, 285 Gauss-Jordan elimination, 390 Gibbs-Duhem equation, 281, 283 Gibbs phase rule, 385 Hang–Chao–Hilson complete local-composition model, 371 heat exchangers, 262 Helmholtz free energy, 273 ideal gas definition, 313 ideal-gas equation, 258 ideal-solution law, 325 intensive property of system, 257 isobaric process, 257 isochores, 286 Lewis fugacity rule, 355 light component, 355 liquid solutions, 325–351 activity coefficient, 363 activity-coefficient models, 329–343 Gibbs energy models of liquid solutions, 347–350 group contribution methods, 343–346 ideal and excess solution properties, 328–329 T Tafel equation, 1751 TBP, see Tri-n-butyl phosphate TCs, see Thermocouples Temperature-measuring devices, 1531–1535 bi-metallic thermometers, 1535 filled-bulb and glass-stem thermometers, 1534 pyrometric cones, 1535 radiation and infrared pyrometers, 1533–1534 resistance thermometers and thermistors, 1532–1533 thermcouples, 1532 Temperature swing adsorption (TSA), 1122, 1162–1163 Tetrachloroethane chlorinates, 871 The Natural Step (TNS), 1322 Thermal energy direct contact gas-liquid condensers, 1366 direct contact gas-liquid cooling towers, 1366 direct contact gas-liquid quenchers, 1366 direct contact gas-solid fluidized beds, 1365 direct contact gas-solid kilns, 1363 direct contact gas-solid multiple-hearth furnaces, 1365 direct contact liquid-liquid immiscible liquids, 1364 fluid heat exchangers, 1361 fluidized bed, 1363 furnaces, 1360 gas-gas thermal wheels, 1367 gas-solid drying of solids, 1365 heat loss to atmosphere, 1367 motionless mixers, 1364 refrigeration, 1367 solidify liquids, 1367 steam generation, 1368 Thermocouples (TCs), 1192 Thermodynamics, fluid phase and chemical equilibria, 255–392 absolute temperature, 267 DK2204_book.fm Page 1911 Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM Index ideal and real solutions, 325–328 mechanical instability, 274 model dumbbell rotator, 302 nonstoichiometric formulation, 375 normal fluids, 288 packing fraction, 300, 306 perturbed hard-chain theory, 301 polymer chain-of-rotator equation, 306 Poynting correction factor, 325 Prigogine–Flory–Patterson theory of polymer liquids, 302 principles of thermodynamics, 256–284 equilibrium energy functions, 268–270 first law of thermodynamics and internal energy, 258–264 open system and chemical potential, 277–280 partial molar quantities and Gibbs-Duhem relation, 280–284 second law of thermodynamics and entropy, 264–268 temperature and ideal gas, 257–258 process, 257 Raoult’s law, 325 reduced dipole moment, 311 residual functions, 258 retrograde condensation, 292 saturated liquid state, 355 state of equilibrium phase, 257 statistical-associated fluid theory, 308 stoichiometric formulation, 376 sublimation equilibrium, 372 sublimation pressure, 284, 372 sublimation pressure curve, 296 supercritical extraction, 372, 374 surroundings, 256 system, 256 thermodynamic temperature, 265 throttle, 262 UNIQUAC equation, 343, 369 upper critical solution temperature, 294 van der Waals one-fluid mixing rules, 297 vapor pressure curve, 286 volumetric and thermodynamic properties, 284–324 energy functions of ideal gases and mixtures, 313–316 equations of state, 295–313 fugacity, 321–324 phase behavior of mixtures, 291–294 phase rule, 290–291 pressure–volume–temperature relationship, 284–287 principle of corresponding states, 287–290 residual functions and energy functions from equations of state, 317–321 work expansion of steam, 272 Thiele–Geddes model, 993 Three-Mile Island, 1496–1497 TNS, see The Natural Step Tortuosity factor, 599 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 1498 Transition boiling regime, 532 1911 Tri-n-butyl phosphate (TBP), 714, 718 reaction models, 714 solvent cleanup, 715 TSA, see Temperature swing adsorption TSCA, see Toxic Substances Control Act Turbulent-bed reactor, 826 Two-zone model, 778 U UCST, see Upper critical solution temperature Uncertainty, estimation of, 241 UNIFAC model, 717, 981 UNIQUAC equation, 343, 369 UNIQUAC model, 1342 Upper critical solution temperature (UCST), 294 Uranium, distribution coeffieicnt, 715 V Vacancy Solution model, 1140 Valve trays, 1021 van der Waals (vdW) equation, 295, 330 van der Waals one-fluid mixing rules, 297 van Laar equation, 330–332 Vaporization natural and forced convection, 533 special cases in, 535–536 boiling outside tube bundles, 535 enhanced surfaces in boiling, 536 subcooled boiling, 536 Vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE), 10, 358, 364 Vapor lock, 447 Vapor pressure curve, 286 VDUs, see Video display units vdW equation, see van der Waals equation Vector analysis, 66–78 gradients of sum and product, 77–78 orthogonal curvilinear coordinate systems, 69–76 vector algebra, 66–68 vector calculus, 68 vector integral theorems, 76–77 Vector difference equations, 43 Video display units (VDUs), 1184 View factor, radiation heat transfer and, 576 VLE, see Vapor-liquid equilibrium VOCs, see Volatile organic compounds Vogel–Tammann–Fulcher equation, 15 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 1076 Volterra equation, 42, 132, 136 Volterra equations, methods of solution for, 132–136 degenerate (finite rank) kernels, 133 difference kernels, 133–134 generalized Abel integral equation, 135 kernel as function of dependent variable, 132–133 method of resolvent kernels, 134 numerical solution of Volterra integral equations of second kind, 135–136 separable kernels, 133 DK2204_book.fm Page 1912 Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM 1912 Volterra integral equations, 131–132 Volume reaction model, 776 VTPR, 12 W Weber number, 674, 689 Wegstein acceleration, 1339 Wet corrosion, 1805 Weymouth equation, 440 Albright’s Chemical Engineering Handbook Wheeler–Robell equation, 1146 White noise, 53 Wien’s displacement law, 570 Wilson’s local-composition equation, 336–338 Z Zeigler–Nichols tuning, 1246 Zeolites, 1131 ... ALBRIGHT’S CHEMICAL ENGINEERING HANDBOOK DK2204_book.fm Page ii Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM DK2204_book.fm Page iii Monday, October 20, 2008 2:15 PM Title Page ALBRIGHT’S CHEMICAL ENGINEERING HANDBOOK. .. Data Albright’s chemical engineering handbook / editor Lyle Albright p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-8247-5362-7 (alk paper) Chemical engineering Handbooks, manuals,... Albright’s Chemical Engineering Handbook 30 Chase, M W., Jr., ed., NIST-JANAF Thermochemical Tables, 4th ed., American Institute of Physics, Melville, NY, 1998 31 Society for Chemical Engineering