EQUALITY and LIBERTY in the Golden Age of State Constitutional Law This page intentionally left blank EQUALITY and LIBERTY in the Golden Age of State Constitutional Law JEFFREY M SHAMAN 1 Oxford University Press, Inc., publishes works that further Oxford University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education Copyright © 2008 by Oxford University Press, Inc Published by Oxford University Press, Inc 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press Oxford University Press is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press, Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Shaman, Jeffrey M Equality and liberty in the golden age of state constitutional law / by Jeffrey M Shaman p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-19-533434-0 ((clothbound) : alk paper) Civil rights—United States—States Constitutional law—United States—States Equality before the law—United States—States Liberty I Title KF4749.S53 2008 342.7302—dc22 2007038783 Note to Readers: This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered It is based upon sources believed to be accurate and reliable and is intended to be current as of the time it was written It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional services If legal advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought Also, to confirm that the information has not been affected or changed by recent developments, traditional legal research techniques should be used, including checking primary sources where appropriate (Based on the Declaration of Principles jointly adopted by a Committee of the American Bar Association and a Committee of Publishers and Associations.) You may order this or any other Oxford University Press publication by visiting the Oxford University Press website at www.oup.com The author and publisher gratefully acknowledge permission for use of the following material: Excerpts from Jeffrey M Shaman, The Evolution of Equality in State Constitutional Law, 34 Rutgers Law Journal 1013 (2003); Excerpts from Jeffrey M Shaman, The Right of Privacy in State Constitutional Law, 37 Rutgers Law Journal 971 (2006) TO SUSAN, AGAIN This page intentionally left blank contents Preface xi Introduction: The New Judicial Federalism xiii Chapter One: Equality The Federal Model of Equality The State Conception of Equality 15 Special Privileges or Immunities 28 Equal Protection of the Laws 38 Conclusion 42 Chapter Two: Classifications 45 Racial Classifications 46 Gender Classifications 53 Classifications Based on Sexual Orientation Classifications Based on Age 70 Conclusion 76 61 Chapter Three: Rights and Privileges 79 Educational Financing 79 Economic Rights 86 Tax Laws 88 Damage Caps 93 Allocation of Economic Benefits 96 Regulatory Legislation 101 Special Entitlements 106 Criminal Law 107 vii Disparate Penalties 108 Prosecutorial Discretion 113 Disparate Treatment of Men and Women Juvenile Offenders 116 Conclusion 119 115 Chapter Four: The Right of Privacy 121 The Federal Model of Privacy 125 The State Conception of Privacy 136 The Right to Be Let Alone 138 The Millian Principle 143 The Inherent and Unalienable Cornerstone of Liberty 148 Penumbrae Redux 153 Spatial Privacy: The Home as Sanctuary 155 Constitutional Situs and Methodology 158 Conclusion 160 Chapter Five: Family Rights 163 Reproductive Freedom 163 Public Funding of Abortions 163 Abortion Rights of Minors 168 Informed Consent and Waiting Periods 171 Family Relations 174 Parental Rights 174 Adoption 176 Cohabitation as a Family 181 Chapter Six: Civil Unions and Marriage 185 Chapter Seven: The Right of Intimate Association 211 Sexual Relations Between Consenting Adults (Married or Not) Gay and Lesbian Sexual Relations 215 Public Health 222 Social Morality 224 Other State Interests 225 Conclusion 226 viii Equality and Liberty in the Golden Age of State Constitutional Law 211 Chapter Eight: The Right of Bodily Integrity 229 The Right to Refuse Medical Treatment and the Right to Die 229 The Right to Ingest Food, Beverages, or Other Substances 235 Chapter Nine: Backlash and Advancement 243 Table of Cases 255 Index 267 Contents ix Table of cases A Choice for Women, Inc v Florida Agency for Heath Care Administration, 872 So.2d 970 (Fla 3d DCA 2004), 57 Abbott v Burke (V), 710 A.2d 450 (N.J 1998), 247 Abington School District v Schempp, 374 U.S 201 (1963), xiii Adams v Hinkle, 322 P.2d 844 (Wash 1958), 107 Adams v North Carolina Department of Natural and Economic Resources, 249 S.E.2d 402 (N.C 1978), 36 Ah Lim v Territory, 24 P 588 (Wash.1890), 145, 236 Akron v Akron Center for Reproductive Health, 462 U.S 416 (1983), xv, 172–73 Alabama State Federation of Labor v McAdory, 18 So.2d 810 (Ala 1944), 35 Alaska Civil Liberties Union v State, 122 P.3d 781 (Alaska 2005), 69 Alaska Pacific Assurance Company v Brown, 687 P.2d 264 (Alaska 1984), 19 Alaska v Cosio, 858 P.2d 621 (Alaska 1993), 97 Alden v Maine, 527 U.S 706 (1999), xix Alvarez v Chavez, 886 P.2d 461 (N.M Ct App 1994), 18 Ambach v Norwick, 441 U.S 68 (1979), xviii, American Academy of Pediatrics v Lundgren, 940 P.2d 797 (Cal 1997), 164 Amurund v The Board of Appeals, 143 P.3d 571 (Wash 2006), 102 Anderson v Martin, 375 U.S 399 (1964), 5, 46 Anderton v City of Milwaukee, 52 N.W 95 (Wis 1892), 31, 32 Andrews v Willrich, 29 P.3d 880 (Ariz 2001), 113 Archer v Mayes, 194 S.E.2d 707 (Va 1973), 56 Arlington Heights v Metropolitan Housing Corp., 429 U.S 252 (1977), 47 Arneson v State, 864 P.2d 1245 (Mont 1993), 72–73, 100 Attorney General v Massachusetts Interscholastic Athletic Association, 393 N.E.2d 284 (Mass 1979), 55, 58 Baehr v Lewin, 852 P.2d 44 (Haw 1993), 57, 60, 124, 189, 208, 249 Baehr v Miike, 910 P.2d 112 (Haw 1996), 60, 189 Baker v Nelson, 191 N.W.2d 185 (Minn 1971), 61 Baker v State, 744 A.2d 864 (Vt 1999), 16, 20, 31, 44, 60–61, 66, 186, 207, 251 Ballard v Commonwealth of Virginia, 321 S.E.2d 284 (Va 1984), 117 Beaty v Truck Insurance Exchange, Cal Rptr 2d 593 (Cal Ct App 1992), 64 Bell v Low Income Women of Texas, 95 S.W.3d 253 (Tex 2002), 164 255 Belle Isle Grill Corp v City of Detroit, 666 N.W.2d 271 (Mich 2003), 101 Belle Terre v Borass, 416 U.S (1974), 181–82 Bellotti v Baird, 443 U.S 622 (1979), 130 Benson v North Dakota Workmen’s Compensation Bureau, 283 N.W.2d 96 (N.D 1979), 100–101 Best v Taylor Machine Works, 689 N.E.2d 1057 (Ill 1997), 94 Bierkamp v Rogers, 293 N.W.2d 577 (Iowa 1980), 37 Bing v Thunig, 143 N.E.2d (N.Y 1957), 229 Blair v Washington State University, 740 P.2d 1379 (Wash 1987), 59 Boddie v Connecticut, 401 U.S 371 (1971), 131, 132 Boerschinger v Elkay Enters., Inc 133 N.W.2d 333 (Wis 1965), 150 Bolling v Sharpe, 347 U.S 497 (1954), 4, 11 Bowers v Hardwick, 478 U.S 186 (1986), 12, 40, 61–62, 134–35, 211, 215–17, 219–20, 227 Bradwell v State of Illinois, 83 U.S (16 Wall.) 130 (1873), 53, 149 Brannigan v Usitalo, 587 A.2d 1232 (N.H 1991), 95 Breen v Carlsbad Municipal Schools, 120 P.3d 413 (N.M 2005), 98–99 Breese v Smith, 501 P.2d 159 (Alaska 1972), 237 Brown v Board of Education, 347 U.S 483 (1954), xiii, 5, 10, 39, 46, 82, 149, 247 Buck v Bell, 274 U.S 200 (1927), 39 Burch v Foy, 308 P.2d 199 (N.M 1957), 104 Butte Community Union v Lewis, 712 P.2d 1309 (Mont 1986), 21–22 Cabaniss v Hipsley, 151 S.E.2d 496 (Ga 1966), 140 Calder v Bull, U.S (3 Dall.) 386 (1798), 148 Campbell v Sundquist, 926 S.W.2d 250 (Tenn App 1996), 137, 153, 157, 216, 220–222, 223, 224, 225, 227, 236 Carson v Maurer, 424 A.2d 825 (N.H 1980), 95 Carter v Craig, 90 A 598 (N.H 1914), 150 Case of Tobin, 675 N.E.2d 781 (Mass 1997), 74 Ciak v State, 597 S.E.2d 392 (Ga 2004), 108 City of Cleburne v Cleburne Living Center, Inc., 473 U.S 432 (1985), 12, 40 City of Dover v Imperial Casualty & Indemnity Co., 575 A.2d 1280 (N.H 1990), 23 City of Santa Barbara v Adamson, 610 P.2d 436 (Cal 1980), 121, 182, 183 City of Seattle v Rogers, 106 P.2d 598 (Wash 1940), 107 Civil Rights Commission v Travelers Ins Co., 759 P.2d 1358 (Colo 1988), 56 Colchester Fire District No v Sharrow, 485 A.2d 134 (Vt 1984), 90 Collins v Day, 644 N.E.2d 72 (Ind 1994), 17, 34, 36, 100, 101 Columbus Board of Education v Penick, 443 U.S 449 (1979), 47 Committee of Educational Rights v Edgar, 672 N.E.2d 1178 (Ill 1996), 83, 84 Committee to Defend Reproductive Rights v Myers, 625 P.2d 779 (Cal 1981), 164–165, 166 Commonwealth v Bonadio, 415 A.2d 47 (Pa 1980), 213 Commonwealth v Campbell, 117 S.W 383 (Ky 1909), 137, 143–144, 217, 235 Commonwealth v Leis, 243 N.E.2d 898 (Mass 1969), 237 Commonwealth v Pennsylvania Interscholastic Athletic Association, 334 A.2d 839 (Pa 1975), 58 Commonwealth v Saunders, 331 A.2d 193 (Pa 1975), 115 Commonwealth v Smith, 173 S.W 340 (Ky 1915), 145, 236 Commonwealth v Tague, 751 N.E.2d 388 (Mass 2001), 113 256 Equality and Liberty in the Golden Age of State Constitutional Law Commonwealth v Wasson, 842 S.W.2d 487 (Ky 1992), xxii, 62, 123, 136–137, 145–47, 158, 159, 216, 218–220, 227 Commonwealth v Werner, 280 S.W.2d 214 (Ky 1955), 31 Conn v Gabbert, 526 U.S 286 (1999), 102 Conrad v State, 16 A.2d 121 (Del 1940), 93 Conservatorship of Drabick, 200 Cal App 3d 185 (Cal 1988), 230 Corfield v Coryell, F Cas 546 (C.C.E.D Pa 1823), 148 Corn v New Mexico Educators Federal Credit Union, 889 P.2d 234 (N.M Ct App 1994), 18 Cox v Brazo, 303 S.E.2d 71 (Ga 1983), 140 Cox v Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services, 656 So.2d 902 (Fla 1995), 178 Craig v Boren, 429 U.S 190 (1976), xiv, 6, 40, 53, 54 Crawford v Board of Education, 551 P.2d 28 (Cal 1976), 47, 48 Crego v Coleman, 615 N.W.2d 218 (Mich 2000), 16 Cruzan v Director, Missouri Department of Health, 497 U.S 261 (1990), 133, 229, 231 Cutinello v Whitley, 641 N.E.2d 360 (Ill 1994), 38 D’Amico v Board of Medical Examiners, 520 P.2d 10 (Cal 1974), 102 Dandridge v Williams, 397 U.S 471 (1970), xv, 6, 13 Darrin v Gould, 540 P.2d 882 (Wash 1975), 59 Davis v Davis, 842 S.W.2d 588 (Tenn 1992), 137, 150, 152, 154, 171–72, 175 Delta v Dinolfo, 351 N.W.2d 831 (Mich 1984), 182 DeMonaco v Renton, 113 A.2d 782 (N.J 1955), 101 Dennis v Moses, 52 P 333 (Wash 1898), 150 Diamond v Cuomo, 514 N.W.2d 1356 (N.Y 1987), 71 Doe v Commonwealth’s Attorney, 425 U.S 901 (1976), 12 Doe v Department of Social Services, 487 N.W.2d 166 (Mich 1992), 16 Doe v Director of Michigan Department of Social Services, 487 N.W.2d 166 (Mich 1992), 164, 167 Doe v Maher, 515 A.2d 134 (Conn 1986), 159, 164, 165 Doe v Sundquist, S.W.3d 919 (Tenn 1999), 178, 179 Does v State, 993 P.2d 822 (Or Ct App 1999), 178 Donaldson v Lungren, Cal Rptr 2d 59 (Cal 1992), 232 D.P v State, 705 So.2d 593 (Fla 1997), 74, 117 Duncan v Louisiana, 391 U.S 145 (1968), xiii Dundee Mortgage, Trust Investment Co v School District No 1, Multnomah County, 19 F 359 (C.C.D Or 1884), 35 DuPree v Alma School District No 30, 651 S.W.2d 90 (Ark 1983), 82, 84 Eidge v Bessemer, 51 South 246 (Ala 1909), 144 Eisenstadt v Baird, 405 U.S 438 (1972), 128, 129, 189 Ekern v McGovern, 142 N.W 595 (Wis 1913), 150 Elfbrandt v Russell, 384 U.S 11 (1966), xiv Engel v Vitale, 370 U.S 421 (1962), xiii Estate of Cargill v Rochester, 406 A.2d 704 (N.H 1979), 23 Etheridge v Medical Center Hospitals, 376 S.E.2d 525 (Va 1989), 94 Evans v Steelman, 970 S.W.2d 431 (Tenn 1998), 175 Ex parte Brown, 42 S.W 554 (Tex 1887), 144 Table of Cases 257 Ex parte Trahan, 591 S.W.2d 837 (Tex Crim App 1979), 115 Ex parte Tullos, 541 S.W.2d 167 (Tex Crim App 1976), 115 Farley v Engelken, 740 P.2d 1058 (Kan 1987), 94 Federal Maritime Commission v South Carolina State Ports Authority, 535 U.S 743 (2002), xix Fein v Permanente Medical Group, 695 P.2d 665 (Cal 1985), 94 Fischer v Department of Public Welfare, 502 A.2d 114 (Pa 1985), 167 Fitzgerald v Racing Association of Central Iowa, 539 U.S 103 (2003), 90, 91 Fletcher v Peck, 10 U.S (6 Cranch) 87 (1810), 148 Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services v Cox, 627 So.2d 1210 (Fla Ct App 1993), 177, 178 Foley v Connelie, 435 U.S 291 (1978), xviii Foley v Department of Fisheries, 837 P.2d 14 (Wash 1992), 102 Foster v Sunnyside Valley Irrigation District, 687 P.2d 841 (Wash 1984), 25 Frandsen v County of Brevard, 800 So.2d 757 (Fla 5th DCA 2001), 57 Franklin v Hill, 444 S.E.2d 778 (Ga 1994), 56, 57 Friehe v Schaad, 545 N.W.2d 740 (Neb 1996), 56, 57 Frontiero v Richardson, 411 U.S 677 (1973), xiv, 39, 53, 54 F.S Royster Guano Co v Virginia, 252 U.S 412 (1920), 45 Fullilove v Klutznick, 448 U.S 448 (1980), 11 Garton v State, 910 P.2d 1348 (Wyo 1996), 108 Gillette Dairy, Inc v Nebraska Dairy Products Board, 219 N.W.2d 214 (Neb 1974), 102 Goodman v Kennedy, 329 A.2d 224 (Pa 1974), 105 Goodridge v Department of Public Health, 798 N.E.2d 941 (Mass 2003), 124, 191–94, 200–202, 203, 205–8, 209–10, 249–51 Gora v City of Ferndale, 576 N.W.2d 141 (Mich 1998), 15 Gould v Gould, 61 A 604 (Conn 1905), 145, 236 Graham v Richardson, 403 U.S 365 (1971), 11, 40 Green v County School Board, 391 U.S 430 (1968), 247 Gregory v Ashcroft, 501 U.S 452 (1991), 71 Griffin v County School Board of Prince Edward County, 377 U.S 218 (1964), 247 Griffin v Illinois, 351 U.S 12 (1956), xv, 6, 12 Grinnell v State, 435 A.2d 523 (N.H 1981), 71 Griswold v Connecticut, 381 U.S 479 (1965), 122, 126, 127–129, 151, 152, 154, 156, 189, 193, 221 Gryczan v State, 942 P.2d 112 (Mont 1997), 147, 216, 220, 222–225, 227 Gutierrez v Glaser Crandell Company, 202 N.W.2d 786 (Mich 1972), 100, 101 Haas v South Bend Community School Corporation, 289 N.E.2d 495 (Ind 1972), 59 Hale v Portland, 783 P.2d 506 (Or 1989), 34 Harper v Virginia State Board of Elections, 383 U.S 663 (1966), xv, 6, 11, 12 Harris v McRae, 448 U.S 297 (1980), xv, 129, 163 Hatten v Rains, 854 F.2d 687 (5th Cir 1988), 70 Hawk v Hawk, 855 S.W.2d 573 (Tenn.1993), 153, 174, 179 Hemphill v Washington State Tax Commission, 400 P.2d 297 (Wash 1965), 88, 89 Henderson v Henderson, 327 A.2d 60 (Pa 1974), 55 Hernandez v Robles, 855 N.E.2d (N.Y 2006), 207, 208 258 Equality and Liberty in the Golden Age of State Constitutional Law Hershberg v City of Barbourville, 133 S.W 985, 986 (Ky 1911), 145, 155, 236 Hirabayashi v United States, 320 U.S 81 (1943), 11 H.L v Matheson, 450 U.S 398 (1981), 130 Hodgson v Minnesota, 497 U.S 417 (1990), 130 Holden v James, 11 Mass 396 (1814), 29 Hondroulis v Schuhmacher, 553 So.2d 398 (La 1988), 230 Hope v Perales, 634 N.E.2d 183 (N.Y 1994), 167 Horton v Meskill, 376 A.2d 359 (Conn 1977), 50, 83, 85 Howard v State, 527 S.E.2d 194 (Ga 2000), 227 Hughes v State, 653 A.2d 241 (Del 1994), Illinois Housing Development Authority v Van Meter, 412 N.E.2d 151 (Ill 1980), 35, 103 In re Adoption of S.J.D., 641 N.W.2d 794 (Iowa 2002), 178 In re Angel Lace, 516 N.W.2d 678 (Wis.1994), 177 In re Belmont Fire Protection District, 489 N.W.2d 1385 (Ill 1986), 38 In re Brown, 478 So.2d 1033 (Miss 1985), 230 In re Caulk, 480 A.2d 93 (N.H 1984), 230 In re Farrell, 529 A.2d 404, 410 (1987), 229 In re Guardianship of Browning, 568 So.2d (Fla 1990), 121, 158, 230 In re Guardianship of Grant, 747 P.2d 445 (Wash 1987), 230 In re Leach, 34 N.E 641 (Ind 1893), 53 In re Levy, 427 So.2d 844 (La 1983), 71 In re Milton, 505 N.E.2d 255 (Ohio 1987), 231 In re S.L.M., 951 P.2d 1365 (Mont 1997), 75, 118 In re T.W., A Minor, 551 So.2d 1186 (Fla 1989), 168, 169, 233 In the Interest of J.W.T., 872 S.W.2d 189 (Tex 1994), 175 In the Matter of Girard, 200 P.2d 593 (Cal 1921), 45 In the Matter of Lawrance, 579 N.E.2d 32 (Ind 1992), 230 In the Matter of S.J.D., 641 N.W.2d 794 (Iowa 2002), 180 In the Matter of T.K.J and K.A.K., 931 P.2d 488 (Colo App 1996), 177 Indiana Aeronautics Commission v Ambassadair, Inc., 368 N.E.2d 1340 (Ind 1977), 93 Industrial Claim Appeals Office of the State of Colorado v Romero, 912 P.2d 62 (Colo 1996), 74, 100 Injured Workers of Kansas v Franklin, 942 P.2d 591 (Kan 1997), 74 Isakson v Rickey, 550 P.2d 359 (Alaska 1976), 19, 103 Israel v West Virginia Secondary Schools Activities Commission, 338 S.E.2d 480 (W Va 1989), 4, 45, 56, 59, 60 Ivey v Bacardi Imports, Co., 541 So.2d 1129 (Fla 1989), 171 Jackson v Pasadena City School District, 382 P.2d 878 (Cal 1963), 47, 48 James v Valtierra, 402 U.S 137 (1971), xv, 12 Jarvis v Levine, 418 N.W.2d 139 (Minn 1988), 229 Jefferson v Hackney, 406 U.S 535 (1972), xv, 6, 13 Jegley v Picado, 80 S.W.3d 332 (Ark 2002), 154, 155, 216, 220, 221, 224, 225, 227 Kellems v Brown, 313 A.2d 53 (Conn 1972), 88 Kelly v State, 525 N.W.2d 409 (Iowa 1994), 15, 45, 96, 99 Keyes v School District No 1, 413 U.S 189 (1973), 47 Kimel v Florida Board of Regents, 528 U.S 62 (2000), xix Table of Cases 259 Knowles v State Board of Education 547 P.2d 699 (Kan 1976), 84 Korematsu v United States, 323 U.S 214 (1944), 11, 39, 40 Kotch v Board of River Pilot Commissioners, 330 U.S 522 (1947), 100 Krischer v McIver, 697 So.2d 97 (Fla 1997), 232–34, 235 Kukor v Grover, 436 N.W.2d 568 (Wis 1989), 83, 84 Lalli v Lalli, 439 U.S 259 (1978), 11 Lawrence E Tierney Coal Co v Smith’s Guardian et al, 203 S.W 731 (Ky 1918), 150 Lawrence v Texas, 539 U.S 558 (2003), 61, 62, 122, 126, 134, 147, 158, 177, 191, 211, 215, 216, 220, 227, 228 Leonard v Thornburgh, 489 A.2d 1349 (Pa 1985), 93 Lewis v Harris, 875 A.2d 259 (N.J 2005), 208 Lewis v Harris, 908 A.2d 196 (N.J 2006), 69 Lienhard v State, 417 N.W.2d 119 (Minn 1987), 23 Lindley for Lindley v Sullivan, 889 F.2d 124 (7th Cir.1989), 177 Lindsey v Normet, 405 U.S 56 (1972), xv, 6, 13 Linkus v Maryland State Board of Heating Ventilation, Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Contractors, 689 A.2d 1254 (Md 1997), 102 Little v Streater, 452 U.S (1981), 132 Lochner v New York, 198 U.S 45 (1905), 87 Lofton v Secretary of the Department of Children and Family Services, 358 F.3d 804 (11th Cir 2004), 177 Longanacre v Crabtree, 350 S.E.2d 760 (W.Va 1986), Loving v Virginia, 388 U.S (1967), xiii, 5, 46, 129, 131, 200, 203 Low Income Women of Texas v Bost, 38 S.W.3d 689 (Tex Ct App 2000), 55 Lujan v Colorado State Board of Education, 649 P.2d 1005 (Colo 1982), 56 Lynden Transport, Inc v State, 532 P.2d 700 (Alaska 1975), 19 MacCallum v Seymour, 686 A.2d 935 (Vt 1996), 17, 43 Madden v Kentucky, 309 U.S 83 (1940), 88 Maher v Roe, 432 U.S 464 (1977), 129, 163, 164 Malabed v North Slope Borough, 70 P.3d 416 (Alaska 2003), 51, 52 Mandell v Haddon, 121 S.E.2d 516 (Va 1961), 36 Massachusetts Board of Retirement v Murgia, 427 U.S 307 (1976), xv, 6, 12, 13, 71 Mathews v Lucas, 427 U.S 495 (1976), 11 McCusker v Workmen’s Compensation Board, 639 A.776 (Pa 1994), 97 McLaughlin v Florida, 379 U.S 184 (1964), 38 McMinn v Town of Oyster Bay, 488 N.E.2d 1240 (N.Y 1985), 182, 183 Meech v Hillhaven West, Inc., 776 P.2d 448 (Mont 1989), 31 Meyer v Nebraska, 262 U.S 390 (1923), 125–26, 129, 151 Michael H v Gerald D., 491 U.S 110 (1989), 133, 175, 176 Miller v Heffernan, 378 A.2d 572 (Conn 1977), 88 Miller v Rosenberg, 749 N.E.2d 946 (Ill 2001), 38 Mills v Atlantic City Department of Vital Statistics, 372 A.2d 646 (N.J Super 1977), 180 Mills v Habluetzel, 456 U.S 91 (1982) xv, 11 Mississippi University for Women v Hogan, 458 U.S 718 (1982), 40 M.L.B v S.L.J., 519 U.S 102 (1996), 132 Moe v Secretary of Administration, 417 N.E.2d 387 (Mass 1981), 165 Moore v City of East Cleveland, 431 U.S 494 (1977), xiv, 131, 132, 181, 202 260 Equality and Liberty in the Golden Age of State Constitutional Law Morrison v Sadler, 821 N.E.2d 15 (Ind 2005), 208–9 MRM, Inc v City of Davenport, 290 N.W.2d 338 (Iowa 1980), 101 Murphy v Edmonds, 601 A.2d 102 (Md Ct App 1992), 94 Nale v Robertson, 871 S.W.2d 674 (Tenn 1994), 153 Nelson v Miller, 480 P.2d 467 (Utah 1971), 71 New Mexico Right to Choose/NARAL v Johnson, 975 P.2d 841 (N.M 1998), 165 New York Times Co v Sullivan, 376 U.S 254 (1964), xiv Nixon v Commonwealth, 839 A.2d 277 (Pa 2003), 102 North Ottawa Community Hospital v Kieft, 578 N.W.2d 267 (Mich 1998), 16 Nyquist v Mauclet, 432 U.S (1977), 11 O’Connor v Donaldson, 422 U.S 563 (1975), 226 Ohio v Akron Center for Reproductive Health, 497 U.S 502 (1990), 130 Olmstead v United States, 277 U.S 438 (1928), 138, 139, 151 Olsen v Nebraska, 313 U.S 236 (1941), 87 Olsen v State ex rel Johnson, 554 P.2d 139 (Or 1976), 25, 26 O’Neill v Bane, 568 S.W.2d 761 (Mo 1978), 71–72 Orr v Orr, 440 U.S 268 (1979), Ortwein v Schwab, 410 U.S 656 (1973), 6, 132 Oxx v Vermont Department of Taxes, 618 A.2d 1321 (Vt 1992), 90 Oyoma v California, 332 U.S 633 (1948), 11 Pace v State, 648 So.2d 1302 (La 1995), 56 Page v Welfare Commissioner, 365 A.2d 1118 (Conn 1976), 55 Palmore v Sidoti, 466 U.S 429 (1984), xiii, 10 Pan-Alaska Construction, Inc v State, 892 P.2d 159 (Alaska 1995), 19 Pauley v Kelly, 255 S.E.2d 859 (W Va 1979), 84 Pavesich v New England Life Insurance, 50 S.E 68 (1905), 137, 139–143 People v Boyer, 349 N.E.2d 50 (Ill 1976), 116 People v Brown, 95 N.E.2d 888 (Ill 1950), 104 People v Calvaresi, 534 P.2d 318 (Colo 1975), 108 People v Ellis, 311 N.E.2d 98 (Ill 1974), 56, 115 People v Hofsheier, 129 P.3d 29 (Cal 2006), 108 People v Johnson, 369 N.E.2d 898 (Ill 1977), 104 People v Kimbrough, 644 N.E.2d 1137 (Ill 1994), 111 People v Onofre, 415 N.E.2d 936 (N.Y 1980), 213, 214 People v Salinas, 551 P.2d 703 (Colo 1976), 55, 168 Perez v Sharp, 198 P.2d 17 (Cal 1948), 194 Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v Feeney, 442 U.S 256 (1979), Phillips v Wisconsin Personnel Commission, 482 N.W.2d 121 (Wis 1992), 61, 64 Pierce v LaFourche Parish Council, 762 So.2d 608 (La 2000), 74, 100 Pierce v Society of Sisters, 268 U.S 510 (1925), 126, 129 Piggly-Wiggly of Jacksonville v City of Jacksonville, 336 So.2d 1078 (Ala 1976), 105 Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v Danforth, 428 U.S 72 (1976), 130 Planned Parenthood of Middle Tennessee v Sundquist, 38 S.W.3d (Tenn 2000), 153, 171–73 Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v Casey, 505 U.S 833 (1992), 126, 130–31, 135, 169, 171–74 Table of Cases 261 Plessy v Ferguson, 165 U.S 537 (1896), 149 Plummer v Donald M Drake Co., 320 P.2d 245 (Or 1958), 25 Plyer v Doe, 457 U.S 202 (1982), 18 Poelker v Doe, 432 U.S 519 (1977), 129, 163 Police Department of the City of Chicago v Mosley, 408 U.S 92 (1972), 19 Powell v Pennsylvania, 127 U.S 678 (1888), 46 Powell v State, 510 S.E.2d 18 (Ga 1998), 136, 137, 141, 143, 147, 216, 220, 221, 224, 225, 227 Prince v Massachusetts, 321 U.S 158 (1944), 129 Puget Sound Gillnetters Association v Moos, 603 P.2d 819 (Wash 1979), 35 Racing Association of Central Iowa v Fitzgerald, 648 N.W.2d 555 (Iowa 2002), 90, 91 Racing Association of Central Iowa v Fitzgerald, 675 N.W.2d (Iowa 2004), 90, 92 Railroad Co v Morris, 65 Ala 193 (1880), 32 Ralph v City of Wenatchee, 209 P.2d 270 (Wash 1949), 107 Rasmussen by Mitchell v Fleming, 741 P.2d 674 (Ariz 1987), 124, 230 Ravin v State, 537 P.2d 494 (Alaska 1975), 124, 156, 237–40 Reece v Grissom, 267 S.E.2d 839 (Ga 1980), 140 Reed v Reed, 404 U.S 71 (1971), 11 Regents of the University of California v Bakke, 438 U.S 265 (1978), 39 Right to Choose v Byrne, 450 A.2d 925 (N.J 1982), 165 Rivera v Gerner, 448 A.2d 508 (N.J 1982), 23 Roberson v Rochester Folding Box Co., 71 N.Y.S 876 (N.Y Sup Crt., App Div 1901), 141 Robert Herman Church v Illinois, 646 N.E.2d 572, 579 (Ill 1995), 104 Roberts v United States Jaycees, 468 U.S 609, (1984), 133 Robinson v Cahill, 303 A.2d 273 (N.J 1973), 25, 84, 85–86, 247 Robinson v Cahill, 339 A.2d 193 (N.J 1975), 84 Roe v Wade, 410 U.S 113 (1973), xiv–xvi, 126, 128, 129–31, 163, 164, 171, 189 Romer v Evans, 517 U.S 620 (1996), 12, 40, 62, 196, 215 Rose v Council for Better Education, Inc., 790 S.W.2d 186 (Ky 1989), 84, 248 Ross v Denver Department of Health and Hospitals, 883 P.2d 516 (Colo Ct App 1994), 64 Ross v Moffit, 417 U.S 600 (1974), Rutgers Council of AAUP Chapters v Rutgers, 689 A.2d 828 (N.J 1997), 20 San Antonio Independent School District v Rodriguez, 411 U.S (1973), xv, xix, xx, 6, 10, 12, 13, 81 San Francisco Unified School District v Johnson, 479 P.2d 669 (Cal 1971), 47 Schilling v Bedford City Memorial Hospital, Inc., 303 S.E.2d 905 (Va 1983), 56 Schlesinger v Ballard, 419 U.S 498 (1975), 59 Schloendorff v Society of New York Hospital, 105 N.E.2d 92 (N.Y 1914), 229 Schroeder v Binks, 113 N.E.2d 169 (Ill 1953), 104 Schweiker v Wilson, 450 U.S 221 (1981), 12 Scott v Commonwealth, 443 S.E.2d 138 (Va 1994), 84 Seattle School District No v State, 585 P.2d 71 (Wash 1978), 84 Seeley v State, 940 P.2d 604 (Wash 1997), 240–41 Serrano v Priest (I), 487 P.2d 1241 (Cal 1971), xix, 81, 82, 84 Serrano v Priest (II), 557 P.2d 929 (Cal 1976), xix, xx–xxi, 21, 81, 82 Seymour v Holcomb, 790 N.Y.S.2d 858 (N.Y Sup Crt 2005), 208 Shapiro v Thompson, 394 U.S 618 (1969), xv, 6, 12 Sharpless v Mayor of Philadelphia, 21 Pa 147 (1853), 33 262 Equality and Liberty in the Golden Age of State Constitutional Law Shaw v Reno, 509 U.S 630 (1993), xv Sheff v O’Neill, 678 A.2d 1267 (Conn 1996), 48–50 Sherbert v Verner, 374 U.S 398 (1963), xiv Simat Corp V Arizona Health Care Cost Containment System, 56 P.3d 28 (Ariz 2002), 164 Simmons v Simmons, 900 S.W.2d 682 (Tenn 1995), 153 Singer v Hara, 522 P.2d 1187 (Wash Ct App 1974), 61, 64, 185, 209 Sioux City Bridge Co v Dakota County, 260 U.S 441 (1923), 40 Skag-Way Department Stores, Inc v City of Omaha, 140 N.W.2d 28 (Neb 1966), 105 Skeen v State, 505 N.W.2d 299 (Minn 1993), 84 Skinner v Oklahoma, 316 U.S 535 (1942), 127, 128, 129 Snetsinger v Montana University System, 104 P.3d 445 (Mont 2004), 69 Sosna v Iowa, 419 U.S 393, (1975), xviii Southwest Washington Chapter, National Electrical Contractors Association v Pierce County, 667 P.2d 1092 (Wash 1983), 55 Standhardt v Superior Court, 77 P.3d 451 (Ct App Ariz 2003), 209 Stanley v Georgia, 394 U.S 557 (1969), 129, 133, 156, 239 Stanton v Stanton, 421 U.S (1975), State v Adams, 522 P.2d 1125 (Alaska 1974), 19 State v Anderson, 558 P.2d 307 (Wash Ct App 1976), 240 State v Baker, 405 A.2d 368 (N.J 1979), 182 State v Brown, 648 So.2d 872 (La 1995), 113 State v Chevalier, 744 A.2d 597 (N.J Super A.D 2001), 56 State v Ciuffini, 395 A.2d 904 (N.J Super Ct 1978), 216 State v Clark, 630 P.2d 810 (Or 1981), 26, 27, 114 State v Denney, 101 P.3d 1257 (Kan 2004), 110 State v Edmonson, 630 P.2d 822 (Or 1981), 27, 114 State v Erickson, 574 P.2d (Alaska 1978), 18, 19, 110, 124 State v Frazier, 631 N.W.2d 432 (Minn 2001), 113 State v Freeland, 667 P.2d 509 (Or 1983), 45, 114 State v Fuller, 374 N.W.2d 722, 726 (Minn 1985), 136 State v Gilman, 10 S.E 283 (W Va 1889), 144 State v Gilmore, 511 A.2d 1150 (N.J 1986), 56 State v Grey, 413 N.W.2d 107 (Minn 1987), 227 State v Kam, 748 P.2d 372 (Haw 1988), 239 State v Kantner, 493 P.2d 406 (Haw 1972), 237 State v Lee, 465 P.2d 573, 578 (Haw 1970), 239 State v Limon, 122 P.3d 22 (Kan 2005), 109 State v Ludlow Supermarkets, Inc., 448 A.2d 791 (Vt 1982), 105 State v Mallan, 950 P.2d 178 (Haw 1998), 239 State v Manussier, 921 P.2d 473 (Wash 1996), 113 State v McAfee, 385 S.E.2d 579 (Ga 1989), 230 State v Mohi, 901 P.2d 991 (Utah 1995), 23, 44, 75, 119 State v Morales, 826 S.W.2d 201 (Tex App 1992), 216, 224 State v Morales, 694 A.2d 758 (Conn 1997), 117–18 State v Mueller, 671 P.2d 1351 (Haw 1983), 227 State v Pilcher, 242 N.W.2d 348 (Iowa 1976), 213 State v Price, 237 N.W.2d 813 (Iowa 1976), 227 State v Russell, 477 N.W.2d 886 (Minn 1991), 5, 111–13 State v Salgado, 778 A.2d 24 (Conn 2001), 113 Table of Cases 263 State v Saunders, 381 A.2d 333 (N.J 1977), 211–12 State v Smith, 766 So.2d 501 (La 2000), 227–28 State v Walsh, 713 S.W.2d 508 (Mo 1986), 61 State v Williams, 61 S.E 61 (N.C 1908), 144 State v Wylie, 516 P.2d 142 (Alaska 1973), 19 State Administrative Board of Election Laws v Supervisors of Elections of Baltimore City, 679 A.2d 96 (Md 1996), State ex rel Bacich v Huse, 59 P.2d 1101 (Wash 1936), 35, 107 State ex rel Hammond v Hager, 503 P.2d 52 (Mont 1972), 100, 101 State ex rel Roy Allen S v Stone, 474 S.E.2d 554 (W Va 1996), 175 State ex rel Warren v Nusbaum, 208 N.W.2d 780 (Wis 1973), 33 Sugarman v Dougall, 413 U.S 634 (1973), xviii, 11 Superintendent of Belchertown State School v Saikewicz, 370 N.E.2d 417, 427 (Mass 1977), 231 Tanner v Oregon Health Sciences University, 971 P.2d 435 (Or Ct App 1998), 17, 65–66, 185, 186, 189, 203 Terrett v Taylor, 13 U.S (9 Cranch), 43 (1815), 148 Texas Co v Cohn, 112 P.2d 522 (Wash 1941), 88 Texas State Employees Union v Texas Department of Mental Health & Mental Retardation, 746 S.W.2d 203 (Tex 1987), 154 Thiede v Town of Scandia Valley et al., 14 N.W.2d 400, (Minn 1944), 150, 151 Thornburgh v American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists, 476 U.S 747 (1986), xv, 122, 169 Trimble v Gordon, 430 U.S 762 (1977), 11, 40 Troxel v Granville, 530 U.S 57 (2000), 131, 174 Truillo v City of Albuquerque, 965 P.2d 305 (N.M 1998), 18 Tucker v News Pub Co., 397 S.E.2d 499 (Ga 1990), 140 Union Pacific Railway Co v Botsford, 141 U.S 250 (1891), 229 United States v Alton, 60 F.3d 1065 (3d Cir.1995), 113 United States v Carolene Products Co., 304 U.S 144 (1938), 10, 40 United States v Fonts, 95 F.3d 373 (5th Cir 1996), 113 United States v Kras, 409 U.S 434 (1973), 6, 132 United States v Reidel, 402 U.S 351 (1971), 239 United States v Virginia, 518 U.S 515 (1996), 40 United States Department of Agriculture v Moreno, 413 U.S 528 (1973), 40, 62, 225 Vacco v Quill, 521 U.S 793 (1997), 13, 232 Valley Hospital Association v Mat Su Coalition for Choice, 948 P.2d 963 (Alaska 1997), 164 Vance v Bradley, 440 U.S 93 (1979), xv, 6, 12, 70, 71 Vanzant v Waddel, 10 Tenn 260 (1829), 31, 32 Von Eiff v Azicri, 750 So.2d 510 (Fla 1998), 174 Vornado, Inc v Hyland, 390 A.2d 606 (N.J 1978), 105 Washington v Davis, 426 U.S 229 (1976), 47 Washington v Glucksberg, 521 U.S 702 (1997), 13, 133, 231–32 Washington v Heiskell, 916 P.2d 366 (Wash 1996), 74, 117 264 Equality and Liberty in the Golden Age of State Constitutional Law Washington National Insurance Co v Board of Review of New Jersey Unemployment Compensation Commission, 64 A.2d 443 (1949), 101 Washington Statewide Organization of Stepparents v Smith, 536 P.2d 1202 (Wash 1975), 35 White v State, 661 P.2d 1272 (Mont 1983), 23, 95 Wilkerson v Department of Health and Social Services, 993 P.2d 1018 (Alaska 1999), 102 Williams v State, 895 P.2d 99 (Alaska 1995), 19, 97 Williams v Zbarez, 448 U.S 358 (1980), xv, 129, 163 Williamson v Lee Optical of Oklahoma, Inc., 348 U.S 483 (1955), 26, 87, 103 Winfield v Division of Pari-Mutual Wagering, 477 So.2d 544 (Fla 1985), 169 Younger v Harris, 401 U.S 37 (1971), xviii Zablocki v Redhail, 434 U.S 374 (1978), xiv, 61, 131 Zant v Prevatte, 286 S.E.2d 715 (Ga 1982), 230 Table of Cases 265 This page intentionally left blank Index Abortion See Family rights Age discrimination, 70–74 Alito, Samuel, xvi American Law Institute, 148, 211 Autonomy See Privacy, right of Backlash, 243–53 Bodily integrity, right of right to ingest food, beverages, or other substances, 235–41 right to refuse medical treatment and right to die, 229–35 Brandeis, Louis, 138–39, 151 Brennan, William, xvii, 164, 176 Civil union, 68–76, 124, 161, 189, 201, 206–7, 245, 251 Classifications age, 12, 14, 70–75, 100 gender, xiv, 6, 10–11, 14, 17, 26, 39–40, 53–61, 200–203, 252 (see also Sexual discrimination) mental illness, 12, 14 mental retardation, 12–14 race, 2, 3, 10–11, 16, 24, 32, 39, 46–53, 65, 76, 127, 185, 190–92, 203, 246–47, 252 (see also Racial discrimination) sexual orientation, 12, 14, 17, 43, 60, 61–70 wealth, 12, 14, 81, 82 Cooley, Thomas, 45, 149 Criminal law disparate penalties, 108–13 disparate treatment of men and women, 115–16 juvenile offenders, 116–19 prosecutorial discretion, 113–15 Death with Dignity Act, 232 Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), 208, 249 Domestic partnership See Civil union Dual sovereignty, xix, 136, 216, 243 Economic rights allocation of economic benefits, 96–101 damage caps, 93–96 Lochnerism, 86–87 regulatory legislation, 101–6 special entitlements, 106–7 tax laws, 88–93 Educational financing, xix–xxi, 79–86, 247–249 Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), xxii, 2, 54–55,115, 165–67, 244, 252 Equality See also Classifications equal protection of the laws, xiii–xv 1, 3, 4, 15–16, 32, 34, 38–42, 109, 190, 214–15, 243 federal model, 8–15, 53, 76, 88, 96, 97, 102, 112 special privileges or immunities, 28–38 state conception, 15–28 state constitutions, 1–6 state development, 44–46 Exacting scrutiny, 11, 39, 55, 222 See also Heightened scrutiny; Strict scrutiny 267 Family rights abortion rights of minors, 168–71, 252 adoption, 18, 57, 125, 176–81 cohabitation as a family, 181–83 family relations, 174–76, 205 informed consent and waiting periods, 171–73, 229, 252 parental rights, 132, 153, 161, 174–76, 254 public funding of abortions, 163–68, 252 reproductive freedom, 121, 161, 163–68, 252 Fourteenth Amendment, xiii–xvi, 1, 4–5, 20, 25, 34–35, 38, 41, 46, 48, 87, 122, 126, 129, 130–31, 135–36, 151, 158, 163, 177, 199, 215, 228, 232, 240 Fundamental rights, xv, xx, 6, 12–15, 41, 79, 119, 126, 128, 131–32, 150–51, 159, 189, 190, 222, 224, 240 Gender discrimination See Sexual discrimination Heightened scrutiny, 13, 15, 17, 39, 43, 61, 63, 76, 79, 117, 200 See also Exacting scrutiny; Intermediate scrutiny; Strict scrutiny Intermediate scrutiny, 10–13, 18, 22, 24, 39–40, 43, 56–59, 73, 76, 99–100, 159–60, 167 See also Heightened scrutiny Intimate association, right of gay and lesbian sexual relations, 215–21, 251 sexual relations between consenting adults, 211–15, 251 Levels of scrutiny federal model, 8–15, 53, 76, 88, 96, 97, 102, 112 right of privacy, and, 121–25 state approach, 19–30 Marriage, 44, 60–70, 124–46, 189–210, 236, 249–52 See also Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) Mill, John Stuart, 140, 144, 146, 213, 217 Minimal scrutiny, xiii, xv–xvi, 7–12, 16, 20, 24–25, 37–39, 66, 72, 80, 82, 88–93, 95, 97, 126–34, 143, 148–49, 151, 197, 214, 268 216–17, 230, 248, 263, 306 See also Rationality review Model Penal Code, 148, 211 New Judicial Federalism, xiii–xxii, 7–8, 16, 42, 81, 243–53 O’Connor, Sandra Day, xvi Penumbra theory See Privacy, right of Privacy, right of constitutional amendments, xxii, 30, 51, 54, 208, 250 constitutional situs and methodology, 158–60 cornerstone of liberty, 148–53 federal model, xiv–xviii, 125–36 Millian principle, 143–48 penumbra theory, 122, 127–28, 152–54, 159, 221–22 right to be let alone, 138–43 spatial privacy, 155–58, 222 state conception, 113–43 state development, 123–24 Quasi- (or semi-) suspect classification, 10–12, 14, 54, 64, 79, 117–118, 202 Racial discrimination, 5, 38–39, 40, 46–53, 76–77, 246–47, 252 See also Classifications, race Rationality review, xviii, 9, 14, 17–19, 22–23, 43, 56, 64, 71–74, 89–96, 98, 100, 103, 107–8, 110, 112, 116–17, 120, 160, 178, 194–95, 208, 244 See also Minimal scrutiny Rehnquist, William, xv–xvi, 131 Roberts, John, xvi Same-sex marriage See Marriage Sexual discrimination, 6, 54–56, 251–252 See also Classifications, gender Sexual orientation, discrimination based on, 60–70, 185–86, 194–97, 249–251 Scalia, Antonin, xvi School financing See Educational financing Semi-suspect classification See Quasi(or semi-) suspect classification Sexual relations between consenting adults, 211–13 Equality and Liberty in the Golden Age of State Constitutional Law Sexual relations of same-sex couples, 60–64, 215–21 Sodomy, 61, 109, 124, 134, 141, 145, 147, 154, 211–23, 227–28 Strict scrutiny, 9–13, 17, 19, 21, 23, 34, 40, 43, 47, 52, 54–58, 60–61, 75–76, 82, 84–85, 95–96, 112, 118, 127, 159–60, 165–66, 172, 185, 189–90, 194–95, 200, 202, 244 See also Exacting scrutiny; Heightened scrutiny Suicide, physician-assisted, 234–35 Suspect classification, 10–15, 17, 26–27, 39–40, 46, 53–56, 61–65, 71, 73–76, 79, 81–82, 96, 99, 117–118, 166–167, 185, 190, 194, 202, 218 United States Supreme Court, xv–xxii, 4–5, 8, 15, 26, 37, 48, 53, 58, 61, 80–82, 90–92, 103, 122, 125, 136, 138, 151, 160–68, 174, 181, 189, 193–96, 203, 214–16 Warren, Earl, viii, 5, 46 Warren, Samuel, 138 Index 269 .. .EQUALITY and LIBERTY in the Golden Age of State Constitutional Law This page intentionally left blank EQUALITY and LIBERTY in the Golden Age of State Constitutional Law JEFFREY M... found in the state constitution, the principle of equality is an integral part of the state? ??s constitutional law, inherent in the due process clause of the West Virginia Bill of Rights.23 And the. .. by the law of the land or the judgment Equality and Liberty in the Golden Age of State Constitutional Law Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Federal Constitution.25 The state