ENCYCLOPEDIA STATISTICS IN BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE OF ENCYCLOPEDIA STATISTICS IN BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE OF Volumes 1-4 A Z Editors-in-Chief BRIAN S EVERITT Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College, London, UK DAVID C HOWELL University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, England Telephone: (+44) 1243 779777 Email (for orders and customer service enquiries): cs-books@wiley.co.uk Visit our Home Page on www.wiley.com All Rights Reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except under the terms of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP, UK, without the permission in writing of the Publisher Requests to the Publisher should be 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400, Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada M9B 6H8 Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of statistics in behavioral science / editors-in-chief, Brian S Everitt, David C Howell p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13 978-0-470-86080-9 (hardcover : set) ISBN-10 0-470-86080-4 (hardcover : set) Psychometrics – Encyclopedias I Everitt, Brian II Howell, David C BF39.E498 2005 150 5195 – dc22 2005004373 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN-13 978-0-470-86080-9 (HB) ISBN-10 0-470-86080-4 (HB) Typeset in 91/2 / 111/2 pt Times by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe, Chippenham, UK This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry in which at least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production To Mary-Elizabeth and Donna Editorial Board Editors-in-Chief Brian S Everitt 23, Hitherwood Drive London SE19 1XA UK David C Howell PO Box 770059 681 Sandhill Circle Steamboat Springs CO 80477 USA Editors BEHAVIORAL GENETICS Shaun Purcell Whitehead Institute Cambridge, MA USA DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS/GRAPHICAL PROCEDURES Pat Lovie Department of Mathematics Keele University Keele UK CATEGORICAL DATA ANALYSIS DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS AND SURVEYS Alexander von Eye Department of Psychology Michigan State University East Lancing, MI USA Roger Kirk Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Institute of Statistics Baylor University Waco, TX USA CLASSICAL TEST THEORY/ ITEM RESPONSE THEORY/ PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT FACTOR ANALYSIS AND STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELS Ronald K Hambleton School of Education University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA USA David Rindskopf Educational Psychology CUNY Graduate Center New York, NY USA viii Editorial Board HISTORICAL/INSTITUTIONAL Sandy Lovie Department of Psychology University of Liverpool Liverpool UK INTERVENTION STUDIES/OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES NONPARAMETRICS AND COMPUTATIONALLY INTENSIVE METHODS Cliff Lunneborg Departments of Statistics and Psychology University of Washington Seattle, WA USA SCALING Patrick Onghena Department of Educational Sciences University of Leuven Leuven Belgium Jan de Leeuw Department of Statistics University of California Los Angeles, CA USA LONGITUDINAL/MULTILEVEL MODELS STATISTICAL MODELS Sophia Rabe-Hesketh Graduate School of Education University of California Berkeley, CA USA Jose Cortina Department of Psychology George Mason University Fairfax, VA USA Anders Skrondal Department of Statistics London School of Economics and Political Science London UK STATISTICAL THEORY MULTIVARIATE METHODS TEACHING STATISTICS, SOFTWARE AND OVERVIEWS Sabine Landau Institute of Psychiatry Department of Biostatistics and Computing King’s College London UK Ranald Macdonald Department of Psychology University of Stirling Stirling UK Chris Spatz Department of Psychology Hendrix College Conway, AR USA Contents VOLUME A Priori v Post Hoc Testing ACE Model Adaptive Random Assignment Adaptive Sampling Additive Constant Problem Additive Genetic Variance Additive Models Additive Tree Additivity Tests Adoption Studies Age–Period–Cohort Analysis Akaike’s Criterion Allelic Association All-X Models All-Y Models Alternating Treatment Designs Analysis of Covariance Analysis of Covariance: Nonparametric Analysis of Variance Analysis of Variance: Cell Means Approach Analysis of Variance: Classification Analysis of Variance: Multiple Regression Approaches Ansari–Bradley Test Arbuthnot, John Area Sampling Arithmetic Mean Ascertainment Corrections Assortative Mating Asymptotic Relative Efficiency Attitude Scaling Attrition Average Deviation Axes in Multivariate Analysis 10 13 16 18 22 24 25 29 33 38 40 43 44 44 46 83 93 94 95 96 97 100 102 102 110 111 112 Bagging Balanced Incomplete Block Designs 115 118 50 52 56 66 Bar Chart Battery Reduction Bayes, Thomas Bayesian Belief Networks Bayesian Item Response Theory Estimation Bayesian Methods for Categorical Data Bayesian Statistics Bernoulli Family Binomial Confidence Interval Binomial Distribution: Estimating and Testing Parameters Binomial Effect Size Display Binomial Test Biplot Block Random Assignment Boosting Bootstrap Inference Box Plots Bradley–Terry Model Breslow–Day Statistic Brown, William Bubble Plot Burt, Cyril Lodowic Bush, Robert R Calculating Covariance Campbell, Donald T Canonical Correlation Analysis Carroll–Arabie Taxonomy Carryover and Sequence Effects Case Studies Case–Cohort Studies Case–Control Studies Catalogue of Parametric Tests Catalogue of Probability Density Functions Catastrophe Theory Categorizing Data 125 126 129 130 134 139 146 150 153 155 157 158 163 165 168 169 176 178 184 186 187 187 189 191 191 192 196 197 201 204 206 207 228 234 239 x Contents Cattell, Raymond Bernard 242 Censored Observations 243 Census 245 Centering in Linear Multilevel Models 247 Central Limit Theory 249 Children of Twins Design 256 Chi-Square Decomposition 258 Cholesky Decomposition 262 Classical Statistical Inference Extended: Split-Tailed Tests 263 Classical Statistical Inference: Practice versus Presentation 268 Classical Test Models 278 Classical Test Score Equating 282 Classification and Regression Trees 287 Clinical Psychology 290 Clinical Trials and Intervention Studies 301 Cluster Analysis: Overview 305 Clustered Data 315 Cochran, William Gemmell 315 Cochran’s C Test 316 Coefficient of Variation 317 Cohen, Jacob 318 Cohort Sequential Design 319 Cohort Studies 322 Coincidences 326 Collinearity 327 Combinatorics for Categorical Variables 328 Common Pathway Model 330 Community Intervention Studies 331 Comorbidity 333 Compensatory Equalization 337 Compensatory Rivalry 338 Completely Randomized Design 340 Computational Models 341 Computer-Adaptive Testing 343 Computer-based Test Designs 350 Computer-based Testing 354 Concordance Rates 359 Conditional Independence 359 Conditional Standard Errors of Measurement 361 Confidence Intervals 366 Confidence Intervals: Nonparametric 375 Configural Frequency Analysis 381 Confounding in the Analysis of Variance 389 Confounding Variable Contingency Tables Coombs, Clyde Hamilton Correlation Correlation and Covariance Matrices Correlation Issues in Genetics Research Correlation Studies Correspondence Analysis Co-twin Control Methods Counterbalancing Counterfactual Reasoning Counternull Value of an Effect Size Covariance Covariance Matrices: Testing Equality of Covariance Structure Models Covariance/variance/correlation Cox, Gertrude Mary Cram´ r–von Mises Test e Criterion-Referenced Assessment Critical Region Cross-classified and Multiple Membership Models Cross-lagged Panel Design Crossover Design Cross-sectional Design Cross-validation Cultural Transmission Data Mining de Finetti, Bruno de Moivre, Abraham Decision Making Strategies Deductive Reasoning and Statistical Inference DeFries–Fulker Analysis Demand Characteristics Deming, Edwards William Design Effects Development of Statistical Theory in the 20th Century Differential Item Functioning Direct and Indirect Effects Direct Maximum Likelihood Estimation Directed Alternatives in Testing Direction of Causation Models Discriminant Analysis 391 393 397 398 400 402 403 404 415 418 420 422 423 424 426 431 432 434 435 440 441 450 451 453 454 457 461 465 466 466 472 475 477 478 479 483 485 490 492 495 496 499 Contents Distribution-free Inference, an Overview Dominance Dot Chart Dropouts in Longitudinal Data Dropouts in Longitudinal Studies: Methods of Analysis Dummy Variables 506 513 514 515 518 522 Fisherian Tradition in Behavioral Genetics Fixed and Random Effects Fixed Effect Models Focus Group Techniques Free Response Data Scoring Friedman’s Test Functional Data Analysis Fuzzy Cluster Analysis xi 660 664 665 666 669 673 675 678 VOLUME Ecological Fallacy Educational Psychology: Measuring Change Over Time Effect Size Measures Eigenvalue/Eigenvector Empirical Quantile–Quantile Plots Epistasis Equivalence Trials Error Rates Estimation Eta and Eta Squared Ethics in Research Evaluation Research Event History Analysis Exact Methods for Categorical Data Expectancy Effect by Experimenters Expectation Experimental Design Exploratory Data Analysis External Validity Face-to-Face Surveys Facet Theory Factor Analysis: Confirmatory Factor Analysis: Exploratory Factor Analysis: Multiple Groups Factor Analysis: Multitrait–Multimethod Factor Analysis of Personality Measures Factor Score Estimation Factorial Designs Family History Versus Family Study Methods in Genetics Family Study and Relative Risk Fechner, Gustav T Field Experiment Finite Mixture Distributions Fisher, Sir Ronald Aylmer 525 527 532 542 543 545 546 547 549 553 554 563 568 575 581 582 584 586 588 593 595 599 606 617 623 628 636 644 646 647 649 650 652 658 Galton, Francis Game Theory Gauss, Johann Carl Friedrich Gene-Environment Correlation Gene-Environment Interaction Generalizability Generalizability Theory: Basics Generalizability Theory: Estimation Generalizability Theory: Overview Generalized Additive Model Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) Generalized Linear Mixed Models Generalized Linear Models (GLM) Genotype Geometric Mean Goodness of Fit Goodness of Fit for Categorical Variables Gosset, William Sealy Graphical Chain Models Graphical Methods pre-20th Century Graphical Presentation of Longitudinal Data Growth Curve Modeling Guttman, Louise (Eliyahu) Harmonic Mean Hawthorne Effect Heritability Heritability: Overview Heteroscedasticity and Complex Variation Heuristics Heuristics: Fast and Frugal Hierarchical Clustering Hierarchical Item Response Theory Modeling Hierarchical Models High-dimensional Regression 687 688 694 696 698 702 704 711 717 719 721 729 739 743 744 745 749 753 755 758 762 772 780 783 784 786 787 790 795 795 799 805 810 816 2194 Subject Index scatterplots (cont.) quantiles 3:1637 regression discontinuity design 4:1725 regression to the mean 4:1724 residuals 4:1746, 1747–8, 1749, 1752 resistant line fit 4:1756–8 robust statistics 4:1765 slicing inverse regression 4:1857, 1862–3 symmetry plot 4:1989 three dimensional 4:2031–2 trellis graphics 4:2060 see also multiscatter plots Scheff´ , Henry 4:1799–800, 1850 e Scheff´ method e complex comparisons 3:1320, 1320–1 multiple comparisons 3:1340 schizophrenia children of twins design 1:256–7 finite mixture distributions 2:653–6 independent pathway model 2:914 permutation tests 1:377–8, 379 subtype models 2:654–6 tetrachoric correlation 4:2027 Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) 4:2045 Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) internal validity 2:937 mathematical ability 3:1400 school-based research Burt’s intelligence tests 1:187–8 confounding variables 1:391–2 field experiments 2:650–1 linear multilevel models 2:1058 mental testing 2:875, 876 smoking prevention trials 1:480–1 Tucker3 model 4:2037–40 Schwartz, S.H 4:1792–3 scientific uncertainty 2:818–20 score test, survival analysis 4:1985 scores conditional standard errors of measurement 1:361–5 item response theory models 2:990, 991–4 measures of association 3:1191 one-group z-tests 1:207–8 regression to the mean 4:1724 t-scores 4:2067 transformation 1:365; 4:2056–8 see also difference scores; factor scores; propensity scores; true scores; z scores scoring free response 2:669–72 item analysis 2:958–66 test administration 3:1398–401 Scott, Walter Dill 2:915 scree plots exploratory factor analysis 2:611–2 principal component analysis 3:1582 screening data 1:298 screening techniques, telephone surveys 4:2000, 2001 SD see standard deviation SDT see signal detection theory SE see standard error search engines 2:938–9 Search of Excellence: Lessons from Americas’ Best-Run Companies 3:1634 seat-belt legislation, intervention analysis 2:947 secant update methods see quasi-Newton methods second derivatives 3:1167 second order processes factor analysis 4:1800–3 growth modeling 3:1302 regression analysis 4:1801 secondary research 2:938–9 security of tests 2:974–7 segregates, definition 2:841 segregation analysis Mendelian genetics 3:1199 Mendelian inheritance 3:1205–6 selected response (SR) items 2:959–61, 962 selection fairness of models 4:2004 mouse genetics study 4:1803–4 nonequivalent control group design 3:1410 regression discontinuity design 4:1726 survey sampling 4:1978, 1979 threats to external validity 2:589 time series models 4:2050–1 variables 4:2107–9 selection biases block random assignment 1:165, 166–7 evaluation research 2:564–5 nonequivalent control group design 3:1410–1 observational studies 3:1451 sensitivity analysis 4:1807–9 simple random assignment 4:1839, 1840 selective dropouts 1:515 selectivity see unobserved heterogeneity self-awareness 3:1396 self-fulfilling prophecy see expectancy effect self-organizing feature map (SOFM) 3:1388, 1391–2 self-selection 3:1453–4 SEM see standard error of the mean; standard error of measurement; structural equation modeling semantic equivalence 4:2022–3 semantics, information theory 2:925, 926, 927 semi-interquartile range 2:941 semiparametric regression model 2:1017 Semmelweis, Ignaz 2:829 sensation scales 3:1630–1, 1631 sensitivity family research 2:646 neuropsychological tests 3:1397 two by two contingency tables 4:2079 sensitivity analysis 4:1805–9 dropouts in longitudinal data 1:521 evaluation research 2:563 incomplete contingency tables 2:900 measurement errors 4:1806–7 missing data 3:1237 observational studies 3:1452, 1457–8, 1459; 4:1809–13 selection bias 4:1807–9 unmeasured confounding 4:1805–6 sequence effects 1:197–201 sequential analysis 2:890 sequential decision making 4:1815–9 Subject Index Bayesian approach 4:1817 fixed-length mastery tests 4:1817 frameworks 4:1815 measurement models 4:1816 notation 4:1815–6 number-correct scores 4:1818–9 optimizing rules 4:1816–7 posterior predictive distributions 4:1818 sequential mastery tests 4:1815–6 testing costs 4:1816 threshold loss 4:1816 sequential mastery tests (SMTs) 4:1815–6 Bayesian approach 4:1815–6 optimizing rules 4:1816–7 see also sequential decision making sequential MCPs see stepwise MCPs sequential quadratic programming (SQP) 3:1489 sequential selection 3:1534 sequential testing 4:1819–20 computerized classification tests 1:357 group-sequential methods 4:1820 Monte Carlo tests 3:1262 software 4:1820 sequentially acceptive step-up Bonferroni procedure 3:1314, 1328–9 sequentially rejective Bonferroni procedure 3:1314–5 set-theoretical structure 4:2082–3 setting, threats to external validity 2:589 SEU see subjective expected utility sex bias see gender sex-limitation models 4:1823–6 sex ratio stabilization 2:662 sexual behavior surveys 2:878–87 sexual orientation studies 3:1645, 1645–6 sexual selection 2:662 Shadish, W.R 2:936 shadow test 1:348 Shaffer’s sequentially rejective Bonferroni procedure 3:1314–5 Shannon, Claude E 3:1151; 4:1827 Shapiro–Wilks procedure distribution-free inference 1:510 multivariate normality 3:1375 shared environment 4:1828–9 ACE model 1:5–10 classic twin studies 4:1828 DeFries–Fulker analysis 1:475–6 events versus effects 4:1828 measurement 4:1829 partitioning effects 4:1829 twin designs 4:2071, 2072 shared genes 2:788–90 Shepard diagram 3:1284; 4:1830 Shepard, R.N 1:196 sibling interaction effects 4:1831–2 classical twin studies 4:1831 cooperation versus competition 4:1831 genotype–environment covariance 4:1831 MZ versus DZ variances 4:1831 parental rating biases 4:1831 siblings DeFries–Fulker analysis 1:475 gene–environment correlation 2:697 2195 social interaction models 4:1864–5 SIBTEST procedure differential item functioning 1:488 item bias detection 2:968 Siegel, Sidney 1:506 sign test 4:1832–3 assumptions 4:1832 distribution-free inference 1:508 example 4:1833 Friedman’s test 2:673–4 hypotheses 4:1832 large sample size 4:1833 paired observations 3:1509 procedure 4:1832 test statistic 4:1832 see also binomial tests signal detection theory (SDT) 4:1833–6 attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder 1:294 benefits 4:1836 bias measures 4:1836 discriminability measures 4:1835–6 false alarm rate 4:1834, 1835, 1836 mathematical psychology illustration 3:1159–60 receiver operating characteristics curves 4:1718–21, 1836 recognition tasks 4:1833–6 signal mixtures 2:908–9, 909 definition 2:907 maximum likelihood ICA 2:910–2 multiple signals 2:909–10 speech data 2:908 signal values, microarrays 3:1218–9, 1219 signals see source signals signed area measures 2:972 signed ranks test 4:1837–8 assumptions 4:1837 distribution-free inference 1:510 example 4:1837 hypotheses 4:1837 large sample sizes 4:1837 randomized block design 4:1681, 1681–2, 1684 test statistic 4:1837 see also Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney tests significance testing bootstrap inference 1:174, 175 confidence intervals 1:366–7, 367–8, 369 configural frequency analysis 1:383–5 covariance matrices 1:425 criticisms 2:533–4 Fisher 2:659 intraclass correlation 2:952–4 maximum likelihood estimation 3:1168–9 model testing and modification 4:1945 multiple testing 3:1338–43 Neyman–Pearson inference 3:1404–5 sampling distributions 4:1777 split-tailed tests 1:266–7 similarities multidimensional scaling 3:1281 proximity measures 3:1621–2, 1623 value scaling 4:1792–3 similarity transformations 3:1611 2196 Subject Index Simon, Herbert cognitive interviewing 4:1972 information processing 1:468 ‘satisficing’ solutions 1:469 Simon, Theodore 2:859 simple correspondence analysis 1:404–9 simple order alternative 1:495 simple random assignment 4:1838–40 simple random sampling (SRS) 4:1840–1 design effects 1:479, 480 heterogeneous populations 4:1840 limitations 1:13 with/without replacement 4:1840–1 simple regression 2:932 simple versus composite tests 4:1841–2 simplex model 2:1103 simplicity 3:1517–8 Simpson’s paradox 3:1466, 1511–2; 4:2080–1 simulated annealing 3:1490 simulation methods alternative comorbidity models 1:335 binomial-hypergeometric distribution 4:1847 categorical variables 4:1843–8 computational models 1:341–2 examinations 3:1398–9 graphical presentation 4:1848 hypergeometric distribution 4:1846–7 Markov Chain Monte Carlo statistics 3:1134–42 Monte Carlo statistics 3:1264–71 multinomial distribution 4:1847 multiple and parallel computing 4:1848 Poisson distribution 4:1846 product-multinomial distribution 4:1847 random number generation 4:1844–6 software 4:1843 structural equation modeling 4:1946 test administration 3:1398–9 simulators 1:478 simultaneous change modeling 4:1920 simultaneous confidence interval 4:1849–50 simultaneous equation modeling 2:893, 893–6 simultaneous MCPs 3:1326 simultaneous ordered classification 4:1706 simultaneous regression method 4:2108 simultaneous test procedures (STPs) 3:1312–3, 1313, 1320–1 simultaneous two-mode clustering 4:2082 single-blind procedures 1:303; 4:1854–5 single case designs 4:1850–3 alternating treatment designs 1:44–6; 4:1852 case studies 1:203; 4:1851 history and usage 4:1851 interrupted time series designs 2:941–2, 942, 942–3 multiple baseline designs 3:1306; 4:1850–3 phase designs 4:1852 randomization 4:1851–2 reversal designs 4:1759–60 sequential replication designs 4:1853 simultaneous replication designs 4:1853 single correlation coefficient, t tests 1:219 single correspondence analysis 1:404–9 single events, probability 3:1601 single imputation, missing data 3:1236 single linkage cluster analysis 2:800–1 alternative names 2:842 minimum spanning tree 3:1228 single linkage distance 1:307 single means 1:208 single observations, Monte Carlo P values 3:1261 single R2 1:223 single sample t-test 1:367, 367–8, 368–9 single scores, one-group z-tests 1:207–8 single stage process models 1:468 singleton sets 4:2094 singular value decomposition (SVD) 1:406, 412 see also N-analysis SIR see slicing inverse regression size-stops 1:290 skew-symmetric data 4:1787, 1788–9 skewness 4:1855–6 central moments 3:1259 distribution free tests 4:1987 kurtosis 2:1029 multivariate normality 3:1375 Pearson, K 4:1855 robustness of standard tests 4:1770 survival analysis 4:1980 trimmed means 4:2066–7 Skinner, B.F 4:1900 skipped correlations 3:1495 skipped estimators 3:1496 sleep deprivation, analysis of variance 1:56–8 slices, three-way data 4:2034 slicing inverse regression (SIR) 4:1856–63 contour and scatter plots 4:1857, 1862–3 dimensionality 4:1856–7 generalizations 4:1862–3 graphical regression 4:1862 large datasets 2:817 limitations 4:1862–3 multiple linear regression 4:1856–7, 1857–8 principle component analysis 4:1857–8 theoretical foundation 4:1858–61 slope estimation distribution-free inference 1:510 Theil slope estimate 4:2028–30 SMACOF algorithm 3:1282, 1285–7 small effect sizes 2:535, 537, 540 small-sample studies 3:1206–7, 1213–4 SMEs see subject matter experts smoking attitude scaling 1:103 binomial test 1:155 ethics in research 2:821 prevention trials, design effects 1:480–1 trend tests 4:2065–6 smoothing Bradley–Terry model 1:181 generalized additive models 2:719 nonparametric regression 3:1429, 1430 scatterplots 4:1747 see also scatterplot smoothers smoothness, functional data analysis 2:675, 676–7, 678 SMTs see sequential mastery tests Snedecor, George Waddell 2:834; 4:1863–4 snowball sampling 4:1868 Subject Index Sobel test 3:1195 social behavior, field experiments 2:651 social conditions, program effects 2:563–8 social interaction models 4:1864–5 sibling interaction effects 4:1831–2 social learning 1:457–8 social networks 4:1866–71 algebraic techniques 4:1869 cognitive structures 4:1868 cross-classified models 1:444–5 dyadic structures 4:1869–70 dynamic models 4:1870–1 ego-centered networks 4:1867–8 extradyadic local structures 4:1870 graph theoretic techniques 4:1869 history 4:1866–7 measurement 4:1867 methods 4:1868 models 4:1869–71 notation 4:1868–9 null models 4:1870 snowball sampling 4:1868 statistical techniques 4:1869–71 social psychology 4:1871–4 attitude scaling 1:102–8 social stratification, causation models 2:1063–5 social support–depression relationship 1:492–4 social validity 4:1875–6 socially undesirable traits 2:646 socio-emotional development, nonshared environment 3:1437 SOFM see Kohonen self-organizing feature map software 4:1880–5 additive tree models 1:25 Ansari–Bradley test 1:94 Bayesian statistics 3:1134 behavioral genetics 4:1876–9 binomial confidence intervals 1:154 bootstrap inference 1:176 case-cohort studies 1:205 central limit theory 1:254–5 classification and regression trees 1:289–90 cluster analysis 1:314; 2:841–2 confidence intervals 1:373–4; 4:1882 configural frequency analysis 1:388 covariance structure models 1:428, 429 discriminant analysis 1:502; 504 dropouts in longitudinal data 1:520 evaluating 4:1883, 1884 exact Smirnov test 2:1025 exploratory factor analysis 2:615 facet-theoretical data analysis 2:597–9 factor analysis 2:853, 857 finite mixture distributions 2:656–8 functional data analysis 2:678 generalized additive models 2:719–21 generalized estimating equations 2:724 graduate education 4:1994, 1995–6 growth curve modeling 3:1300, 1303–4 independence testing 2:907 interaction plots 2:934 item and ability parameters 3:1276–7 2197 item response theory models for dichotomous data 2:987 Jonckheere–Terpstra test 2:1008 kernel smoothing 2:1017 latent transition models 2:1035 linear models 2:1053, 1058; 3:1572–3 log-linear models 2:1091 marginal maximum likelihood estimation 3:1172, 1173, 1174 marginal models for clustered data 3:1131 mediation 3:1196 Mendelian inheritance 3:1206 meta-analysis 3:1214; 4:1881 microarrays 3:1218–9, 1220 missing data 3:1238 mixture models 4:1922, 1923–4, 1925 multiple comparison procedures 3:1310, 1316 multiple indicators multiple causes models 4:1955–7 multiple linear regression 3:1338 multipoint linkage analysis 2:1074 multivariate linear models 3:1572–3 nonlinear mixed-effects models 3:1415 nonparametric item response theory 3:1424, 1424–5, 1425 partial least squares 4:1937 path analysis history 2:872–3 permutation based inference 3:1541; 4:1680 Pitman test 3:1549 polychoric correlation 3:1555 power 3:1561–2, 1568–9, 1569, 1572–3; 4:1881–2 primary research tools 2:939 principal component analysis 3:1589 problems 4:1883 projection pursuit 3:1616–7 qualitative data 4:1882 questionnaire design 4:1976 Rasch log-linear models 2:1095 resampling 2:1005 runs test 4:1771 scoring, item analysis 2:959 sequential testing 4:1820 simulation methods for categorical variables 4:1843 structural equation modeling 1:432; 4:1882, 1907, 1930, 1944, 1945, 1946, 1947–51 survival analysis 4:1985, 1986 telephone surveys 4:2000–1 test dimensionality 4:2017, 2017–8, 2018–9 two-mode clustering 4:2085 see also Statistical Analysis Systems software SOL see stochastic ordering in the latent trait Somers’ d 3:1190–1 source signals definition 2:907 maximum likelihood ICA 2:910–2 mixing effects 2:908–9 multiple signals 2:909–10 speech data 2:908 spacings, latent growth modeling 4:1920 spam filters, receiver operating characteristics curves 4:1718–21 spanning trees 3:1223–8 2198 Subject Index spatial ability assessments 1:386–7 spatial regression 4:1731 Spearman, Charles Edward 4:1886–7 behavioral statistics 2:828 Brown relationship 1:186 correlational measurement 2:838, 839, 840 factor analysis 1:188; 2:628–36, 842–3, 851–2, 853 intelligence measurement 2:858, 859; 4:1800, 1802 psychometric testing 2:876 Thomson’s criticism 4:2030–1 Spearman–Brown coefficient 1:186; 4:1733–4, 1734 Spearman’s rho 3:1191; 4:1886, 1887–8 Brown 1:186 distribution-free inference 1:509, 510 hypothesis testing 4:1888 Kendall’s coefficient of concordance 2:1011 Kendall’s tau comparison 2:1012; 3:1421 outlier detection 3:1495 rank based inference 3:1419–20; 4:1688 see also nonparametric correlation specific conclusions 3:1342 specification, structural equation modeling 4:1942, 1946 specificity family research 2:646 Hill’s criteria of causation 2:819 neuropsychological tests 3:1397 two by two contingency tables 4:2079 spectral representation 4:2052–3 speech data, independent components analysis 2:908 speeded tests 4:1735 spelling scores, repeated measures designs 2:527–9 sphericity repeated measures analysis of variance 2:527–8, 528, 530; 4:1737–8 test 4:1888–90 spline functions 4:1797–8 spline transformations 3:1284 splines functional data analysis 2:676 nonparametric regression 3:1429 split-ballot experiments, questionnaire design 4:1974 split functions, classification and regression trees 1:288–9 split-half reliability estimates 4:1733–4 split-plot factorial designs analysis of variance 1:75–7 carryover and sequence effects 1:198, 200 split-tailed tests classical statistical inference 1:263–7 confidence intervals 1:265, 266–7 decision rules 1:264–5 equal-tailed tests 1:265–7 one-tailed tests 1:265–7 two-tailed tests 1:265–7 sponsors, questionnaires 4:1978 spotting, microarray designs 3:1218, 1220 spread measures empirical quantile–quantile plots 2:543–4 exploratory data analysis 2:587 SPSS 4:1880 binomial tests 1:161–3 discriminant analysis 1:502; 504 one-way independent means ANOVA 1:88 permutation test 4:1680 see also software spurious state dependence 4:1895 spuriousness, mediation 3:1196 SQP see sequential quadratic programming square root of reliability 4:1735 square root transformations 4:2057 square root of the variance see standard deviation square tables 4:1787 squared distances 4:2041 squared ranks test 1:510 squared residuals 3:1496 squeeze diagrams 4:1724 SR see selected response items SSB see sum of squares between groups SST see sum of squares total SSW see sum of squares within groups stability Bayesian statistics 1:148 log-linear Rasch models 2:1093–6 stag hunt game 2:691 stage migration 1:240 standard deviation (SD) 4:1891, 1891–2 dependent variables 3:1336 item analysis 2:963–4, 964 median absolute deviation 3:1193 Monte Carlo integral evaluation 3:1266 variance 1:431 z-tests 1:207 standard error of the difference 4:1773 standard error of estimation 4:2007–8 standard error of the mean (SEM) 4:1891 sample size 4:1773 standard error of measurement (SEM) conditional 1:361–5 reliability estimation 4:1734, 1735 standard error (SE) 4:1891, 1891–2 bootstrap inference 1:173 maximum likelihood estimation 3:1167, 1168 model identifiability 3:1251 random effects models 3:1211 sample size 4:1773–5 sampling distributions 4:1777 survival analysis 4:1983 standard normal density function 1:231 standard setting see performance standards standard tests, robustness 4:1769–70 standardization causation statistical models 2:1065 coefficient alpha, internal consistency 2:935 item bias detection 2:968 meta-analysis 3:1208, 1208–10 parameter estimation 2:605 tests 4:1820–3 standardized canonical function coefficients 1:193, 194 standardized covariance 1:431, 432 standardized effect sizes 1:371–2, 374 standardized P-DIF statistic 1:487 Subject Index standardized Pearson residual 2:750 standardized regression coefficients 3:1336, 1521; 4:1892 standardized residuals 1:395, 396 standardized scores stanine scores 4:1893 T -scores 4:2067 transformations 4:2057–8 see also z scores standards fairness in test design 4:2004 questionnaires 4:1975–6 Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing 1:361, 365 Stanford–Binet intelligence test 2:859, 877 stanine scores 4:1893 star plots 4:1893–4 state dependence 4:1895 state-space models 4:2054 state vectors 3:1144–5 stationary vectors see steady state vectors Statistical Analysis Systems (SAS) software 4:1880 battery reduction 1:126 multiple comparison procedures 3:1310, 1316 Rasch log-linear models 2:1095 statistical inference 1:472–5 statistical models 4:1895–7 causation 2:1061–71 Statistical Package for the Social Sciences see SPSS statistical packages see software statistical significance practical significance comparison 1:299; 2:534 substantive significance comparison 1:85 statistical theory development 1:483–5 steady state vectors 3:1145 stem and leaf plot 4:1897–8 exploratory data analysis 2:587 step-down analysis see layering methods step-down MCPs 3:1313 see also stepwise MCPs step-length constant 1:380, 380–1 step-up Bonferroni procedures 3:1328–9 step-up MCPs 3:1313, 1314 see also stepwise MCPs Stephenson, William 4:1898–9 stepwise MCPs 3:1312–3, 1328 closure principle 3:1315–6 complex comparisons 3:1320 see also step-down MCPs; step-up MCPs stepwise regression method neuropsychology 3:1396 variable selection 4:2109 stereotype threat effects 1:491 sterility 2:881 Stern, William 2:859 Stevens’ Law 4:1901 Stevens, S.S 4:1900–2 measurement 3:1179, 1180, 1181; 4:1785–6 psychometrics 2:877 psychophysical scaling 3:1631 stimulus differences, psychophysical scaling 3:1630–1 stimulus sampling theory (SST) 2:862, 863 2199 stochastic complexity (SC) 3:1241–2 stochastic independence 1:359 stochastic ordering in the latent trait (SOL) 3:1423 stochastic processes Bernoulli, Daniel I 1:152 categorical random variable usage 4:1843 dropouts in longitudinal data 1:519 information theory 2:926 missing data 3:1236 STPs see simultaneous test procedures strategic dominance 2:690 strategies, game theory 2:688–93 stratification 4:1902–4 adaptive sampling 1:14–5 causation statistical models 2:1061, 1063–5 item pools 2:977 matched pair designs 3:1155, 1254 National Crime Victimization Survey 1:479–80 nuisance variables 3:1441–2 observational studies 3:1456–7 propensity score 3:1617, 1618 randomization 4:1903–4 sampling 3:1267–8; 4:1902–3, 1979 see also matching stratified binomial error 1:363 stratified proportional hazards models 4:1984 strength of association 2:532, 536–8 stress multidimensional scaling 3:1282–4, 1285–7, 1288 multidimensional unfolding 3:1290 proximity measures 3:1624–5 Tucker3 model 4:2037–40 strip adaptive cluster sampling 1:15 stripes, residual plots 4:1749 Strong true score theory 1:363 Stroop data 4:1736–8, 1738, 1739 structural decision making models 1:468 structural equation modeling (SEM) 4:1934–41 adoption studies 1:30–2 Akaike’s information criterion 1:38–9 all-X models 1:43–4 categorical variables 4:1905–9 complex theoretical models 1:294–5, 296 confirmatory factor analysis 2:600, 602–3, 605 confirmatory tetrad analysis 4:1940 covariance 1:428, 429–30, 431, 432 educational psychology 2:530–2 example 4:1946 exploratory factor analysis 2:606–16 factor analysis 2:855 goodness of fit indices 2:745–8 graphical chain models 2:755 growth curve modeling 3:1296–304 history 2:869–74 Hyblock 4:1940–1 identification 2:893 industrial and organizational psychology 2:918, 919 latent growth curve analysis 4:1912–21 latent responses 4:1905–6 liability threshold models 2:1046 mediation 3:1196, 1197 mixture models 4:1922–6 2200 Subject Index structural equation modeling (SEM) (cont.) model selection 3:1251–3 moderation 3:1258 multilevel 4:1927–31 nonstandard cases 4:1931–3 oblique Procrustes analysis 3:1612 overview 4:1941–7 partial correlation coefficients 3:1522 partial least squares 3:1523–4; 4:1934–7 path analysis 3:1529, 1531 personality research 3:1639 reproduced matrices 4:1743 residuals 4:1754–6 sex-limitation models 4:1823–6 social psychology 4:1874 software 4:1878, 1882, 1944, 1945, 1946, 1947–51 substantive plausibility 4:1910–2 test validation 4:1951–7 Tetrad 4:1937–40 twin designs 4:2073 validity theory 4:1953 structural zeros 4:1958–9 incomplete contingency tables 2:899 quasi-independence 3:1646, 1646–7 structure coefficients 1:193, 194, 195 Student see Gosset, William Sealy Studentized bootstrap confidence intervals 1:173, 175 Studentized range 3:1340 Studentized residuals 2:1045–6; 4:1753–4 students cross sectional design 1:453 discriminant analysis 1:503–5 Student’s t test density function 1:232–3 Gosset, William Sealy 2:753–4 historical material 2:827 Monte Carlo simulation 3:1265 robustness 4:1770 stumps classifier 1:168, 169 subclassifications, propensity score 3:1618 subcohorts 1:204 subgame-perfect equilibria, game theory 2:692 subject matter experts (SMEs) performance standard setting 4:1821 validity theory 4:2106 subject specific models 2:723 subject tasks, psychophysical scaling 3:1628–9 subjective biases Bayesian statistics 1:147 randomization 4:1671 subjective expected utility (SEU), decision theory 1:470; 2:689, 691 subjective probability foundations 3:1595, 1596, 1598–9 judgment 4:1960–6 subpopulations differential effects 3:1435 model fit assessment 3:1243 reliability not invariant 4:1734 subsampling nonrespondents 3:1435 subspaces, multivariate analysis 1:113–4 substance use, shared environment studies 4:1828 substantive expert reviews 4:1971 substantive plausibility 4:1910–2 subtype models 2:654–6 success measure 3:1575–6, 1577 success probability 1:155 suffering, ethics in research 2:557–8 sufficient statistics 2:553; 3:1173 suggestive targets 4:1709, 1710, 1710–1, 1711 sum of cross products 1:191 sum of squares between groups (SSB) 1:53 sum of squares total (SST) 1:53 sum of squares within groups (SSW) 1:53 sums of squares (SS) 4:2089–92 between-subjects ANOVA 1:210, 213 mixed ANOVA 1:216–7 type I 4:2090–1 type II 4:2091 type III 4:2091 type IV 4:2091–2 within-subjects ANOVA 1:211, 214–5 summary measure analysis 1:520; 2:1099–100; 4:1968–9 sunflowers, scatterplots 4:1799 supervised classification 3:1356–7 supervised pattern detection 1:462 Suppes, P 3:1179–80, 1180 support vector machines 4:1665 suppression canonical correlation analysis 1:195 direct and indirect effects 1:491 surveys census 1:246 generalizability 2:702–3 history 2:832, 878–9 Mahalanobis 3:1112 mail surveys 3:1114–6 panel studies 3:1510–1 questionnaire design 4:1969–77 sampling procedures 4:1977–80 see also stratification selection methods 4:1978, 1979 sexual behavior 2:878–87 simple random sampling 4:1840–1 telephone surveys 4:1999–2001 surveys 1:246 see also questionnaires survival analysis 4:1980–6 bootstrap inference 1:175 generalized linear mixed models 2:734 psychophysical scaling 3:1628 relative risk 2:648 test statistics 4:1983–4, 1985 see also event history analysis SVD see singular value decomposition swamping 3:1383 Swiss banknote data, projection pursuit 3:1615–6 symbols, confirmatory factor analysis models 2:600–2, 602 symmetric distributions effect sizes 1:422–3 nonparametric confidence intervals 1:376, 378 symmetric lambda coefficient 3:1187, 1188 symmetric maps 1:409 symmetric uncertainty coefficient 3:1187, 1188 Subject Index symmetry distribution free tests 4:1987–8 McNemar test 3:1253 plots 3:1637; 4:1989–90 syndicated research providers 2:938 synergistic interactions 2:933 systematic adaptive cluster sampling 1:15 systematic assignment 3:1308 systematic equating error 1:286 t scores 4:2067 t tests 1:208–9 effect size measure conversion 2:538 jackknife procedure 2:1006–7 matched pairs 3:1157, 1253 neuropsychology 3:1393–4 partial correlation 1:219–20 regression coefficient 1:222–3 single correlation coefficient 1:219 single sample 1:367, 367–8, 368–9 see also Student’s t test tabu searches 3:1489–90 take the best heuristic 2:797–8 Tanimoto coefficient 3:1623 Tanner measure 1:381–2, 385 target information function 4:2008 target population clinical trials 1:302 sampling distributions 4:1775 target types, rater agreement 4:1707, 1709–11 targets, microarrays 3:1217–8 task comparability 4:2002 tau see Kendall’s tau tau-equivalent measurements 4:1991–3 taxometric procedures 3:1639 taxonomies Carroll–Arabie 1:196–7 cluster analysis 2:840–1, 841 decision making strategies 1:468–9 discriminant analysis 2:841 Taylor, Frederick 2:915 TCF see test characteristic function teacher expectations data, meta-analysis 3:1208, 1208–13 teaching practices, covariance structure models 1:428–9 Teaching of Psychology 4:1998, 1999 Teaching Sociology 4:1999 teaching statistics 4:1994–7, 1997–9 Teaching statistics: A bag of tricks (Gelman and Nolan) 4:1998 technical issues, information theory 2:925–6 TEDS see Twins Early Development Study telephone messages, information theory 2:925, 926 telephone surveys 4:1999–2001 advanced letters 3:1435 advantages 4:2000–1 disadvantages 4:2001 sampling procedures 4:1979 Terman, Lewis intelligence measurement 2:858, 859 mental testing 2:876–7 Terpstra, T.J see Jonckheere–Terpstra test 2201 test bias detection 4:2001–6 test characteristic function (TCF) 2:985 test construction 4:2007–10 automation 4:2011–4 item response theory models for dichotomous data 2:987–8 test dimensionality assessment 4:2014–20 confirmatory analyses 4:2019–20 definitions 4:2014–6 dimensional structure 4:2019 essential versus local independence 4:2019 methods 4:2016–9 polytomous item responses 4:2020 test of discordancy 3:1384 test information function 2:988; 4:1735, 2007–10 test-retest reliability 4:1733 test score linking (equating) 2:989 test theory, functional data analysis 2:675–6 test translation see translation of tests testing carryover effects 1:199–200 confirmatory factor analysis models 2:603–5 costs, sequential decision making 4:1816 covariance structure models 1:428 fit, Rasch Modeling 4:1693–4 generalizability theory 2:711–7 multiple testing 3:1338–43 parameters, binomial distribution 1:155–6 procedures, Mackie’s theory of causality 2:957–8 reliability 2:838 sequence effects 1:199–200 structural equation modeling 4:1944–5 survey questions 4:1971–5 testlet-based computer-adaptive testing 1:348–9 tests administration 3:1398–401 content specifications 1:283 item exposure detection 2:974–7 purification 2:973 randomization 4:1674–80 testwise error rates 2:547, 548 tetrachoric correlation 4:2027–8 ascertainment corrections 1:98–9 genetics research 1:403 history 2:840 liability threshold models 2:1046 measures of association 3:1191 probit models 2:731 test dimensionality 4:2017 Tetrad methodology 4:1937–40 see also confirmatory tetrad analysis textbook confidence intervals 1:373–4 Textbook of Experimental Psychology (Myers) 2:824 Theil slope estimation 4:2028–30 asymmetric uncertainty coefficient 3:1187, 1188 symmetric uncertainty coefficient 3:1187, 1188 theoretical/analytical model consistency 1:297 theoretical constructs 3:1182 theoretical quantile 3:1636 theta maximum 4:2009 theta values 3:1171, 1172, 1172–3, 1173 Thiel-Sen estimator 3:1496 Thomson, Godfrey Hilton 1:186; 4:2030–1 2202 Subject Index Thorndike, Edward 1:362; 2:760–1; 3:1447 threats internal validity 2:936–7 quasi-experimental designs 3:1642 reactivity 4:1717 regression discontinuity design 4:1725 three-dimensional scatterplots 1:187; 4:2031–2 three-mode analysis 4:2032–43 categorical data 4:2036 cluster models 4:2036–7 component models 4:2034–5 see also Tucker3 model examples 4:2037–42 factor models 4:2035 hierarchies 4:2036 logistic item response model 3:1422, 1423 methods 4:2034–7 three-parameter logistic (3PL) model 3:1147 thresholds loss 4:1816 measures 2:649 models 4:1906 ordered response category Rasch models 4:1704–5 Thurstone, Louis Leon 4:2045–6 attitude scaling 1:103–5; 4:1790–1, 1791–2 Bradley–Terry model 1:182–3 Coombs 1:397 factor analysis 2:628, 844–5, 853 law of comparative judgment 4:1787 Primary Mental Abilities scales 4:1800–3 Thurstone thresholds 2:998 ties Bradley–Terry model 1:183, 184 correction, Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney tests 4:2119 Jonckheere–Terpstra trend test 4:2065 monotonic regression 3:1261 Tukey quick test 4:2069 time factor, growth curve modeling 3:1297, 1298 time origins, survival analysis 4:1980 time series analysis 4:2046–54 bootstrap inference 1:175 data 4:2046 educational psychology 2:531–2 graphical chain models 2:755 interrupted designs 2:941–5 intervention analysis 2:946–7 line graphs 2:765–8 longitudinal data analysis 1:515 model fitting 4:2050–1 models 4:2047–9 objectives 4:2046–7 prediction 4:2052 principal component analysis 3:1583 quasi-experimental designs 3:1643 single case design distinction 4:1851 time to event data 4:1980 time trends 1:33–8 time varying covariates 2:568, 571 time warping functions 2:677 TL see traditional linear test designs tobacco products Kendall’s tau 3:1420 Spearman’s rho 3:1419 Togerson, W.S 1:16–7 tolerance diagnostic collinearity 1:327 variance inflation factor 4:2055–6 tonal memory CAT examinations 3:1399 tongue length data, nonlinear mixed-effects models 3:1414–5 total effects 1:490–1 total sum-of-squares-and-products matrix 3:1372 traditional concepts, measurement 3:1176–8 traditional linear (TL) test design 2:975, 977 traditional multi-trait multi-method-confirmatory factor analysis (MTMM-CFA) model 3:1345 traditional validity categories 4:2104–5 training set 3:1230 trait validity 2:623–7 transfer function 2:946 transferability, demand characteristics 1:477 transformations 4:2056–8 data 3:1282–4 measurement 3:1179–80 multidimensional scaling 3:1281, 1282–4, 1284, 1288 nonlinear models 2:954–5 symmetric distributions 1:376 symmetry plot 4:1989 transition matrix 3:1144 transition models 2:1101 transitive property, paradoxes 3:1516 transitivity of preference 1:469 translation of tests 4:2021–6 back-translation 4:2022 conceptual equivalence 4:2023–6 decentering 4:2023 exploratory factor analysis 4:2024 item response theory 4:2025–6 multicultural teams 4:2023 parallel blind technique 4:2022–3 random probe technique 4:2023 semantic equivalence 4:2022–3 ultimate test 4:2022 Transmission Disequilibrium Test 1:42 trapezoid method 4:1721 treatment effects attrition 1:110–1 inbred strain study 2:896–7, 897 intention to treat 2:928–9 interrupted time series designs 2:942, 945 multiple baseline designs 3:1307 observational studies 1:198 treatment groups block random assignment 1:165–7 stratification 4:1904 treatments imbalance 4:1839 multiple baseline designs 3:1306 observational studies 3:1453–4 ordering 1:419–20 tree models 4:2059–60 additive trees 1:24–5 classification and regression trees 1:287–90 minimum spanning tree 3:1223–8 Subject Index proximity measures 3:1626–7 ultrametric trees 4:2094–5 trellis graphics 4:1795, 2060–3 trembling-hand equilibria 2:692 trend tests counts 4:2063–6 proportions 4:2063–6 repeated measures analysis of variance 2:528, 528–9 trends, multivariate analysis 3:1358–9 triangular decomposition see Cholesky decomposition triangular inequalities 3:1622; 4:2093 see also ultrametric inequality trimmed means 4:2066–7 exploratory data analysis 2:587 multiple comparison procedures 3:1318–9 outlier detection 3:1494 robust testing procedures 3:1327–8; 4:1768 two-way factorial, distribution-free methods 4:2088 Trivers, Robert 2:661–2 true components 3:1181–2 true models 3:1239 true negative rate see specificity true positive rate see sensitivity true scores correlation 4:1735 models 1:427; 2:842–3 questionnaire design standards 4:1975, 1976 reliability 4:1733, 1735 true state dependence 4:1895 true zero point 4:1786 trust region 3:1486 Tryon, R 2:841 Tschermak, Erich 3:1198, 1202 Tucker, Ledyard 4:2034–5 Tucker3 model 4:2034–5 coping data 4:2037 example 4:2037–40 fit to data 4:2037–8 interpretation 4:2038–40 Tukey, John Wilder 2:925; 4:2067–8 box plots 1:176 exploratory data analysis 2:586–7 honestly significant difference method 3:1340, 1340–1; 4:1849–50 jackknife procedure 2:1005–6, 1006 multiple comparison procedures 3:1313 Tukey–Kramer MCP 3:1313–4 Tukey quick test 4:2069 tuning, misclassification rates 3:1232 Tversky, Amos 4:2070–1 decision making strategies 1:469 frequency probability 3:1598 heuristics and biases 4:1961–4 measurement 3:1179–80, 1180 twentieth century, statistical theory development 1:483–5 twin designs 4:2071–4 ACE model 1:6 adoption design 4:2071 assumptions 4:2072–3 2203 Burt 1:188; 2:860 Cholesky decomposition 1:262–3 common pathway model 1:330–1 correlations 4:2072–3 direction of causation 1:496–7 dominance 1:514 gene–environment correlation 2:697 gene–environment interaction 2:699 heritability 2:788–90 independent pathway model 2:913–4 liability threshold models 2:1046 nonshared environment 3:1436–7 personality research 3:1639 rater bias models 4:1716 reared apart design 4:2074–5 requirements 4:2072–3 shared environment 4:1828–9 software 4:1877–9 terminology 4:2071 tetrachoric correlation 4:2027 Twin Moms project 3:1437, 1438 twinning 4:2071 twins co-twin control method 1:415–8 concordance rates 1:359 genetics research 1:402–3 social interaction models 4:1864–5 Twins Early Development Study (TEDS) 4:2074 two-block partial least squares 3:1524–5 two by two contingency tables 1:393, 394; 4:2076–81 distribution-free inference 1:507–8 Fisher’s exact test 2:578–80 liability threshold models 2:1047 Mantel–Haenszel methods 3:1120–1 marginal independence 3:1127–8 two-dimensional contingency tables 1:394 two events, probability 3:1601–3 two-factor designs 4:2033 factor analysis 2:853–4 generalizability theory 2:714–6 two-factor theory of intelligence 2:843; 4:1886 two-group Pitman randomization test 3:1549–50 two-mode clustering 4:2081–5 nested clustering 4:2082–3, 2084–5 overlapping clustering 4:2083, 2085 partitioning 4:2082, 2083–4 software 4:2085 two-parameter logistic (2PL) model graded response models 2:991, 993 latent variable models 4:1906, 1907 Rasch modeling 4:1697 two-period two-treatment (2x2) crossover design 1:451 two-sample tests Hodges–Lehman estimator 2:888 Pitman permutation test 3:1548–9 runs test 4:1771 two-stage decision making strategies 1:470 two-stage MCP 3:1314 two-tailed tests confidence intervals 1:368 critical regions 1:441 P values 3:1501–2, 1514–5 2204 Subject Index two-tailed tests (cont.) split-tailed tests 1:265–7 textbook presentation 1:274–5, 275–7 two-way cross classifications 1:441–4 two-way factorial, distribution-free methods 4:2086–9 aligned ranks test 4:2087–8 BDM method 4:2088 bootstrap tests 4:2087 hypotheses 4:2088–9 permutation tests 4:2086–7 rank transform 4:2087 trimmed means tests 4:2088 Winsorized scores 4:2088 two-way frequency tables 4:1959 biplots 1:163, 164 two-way random effects models 2:949 type I errors analysis of variance 1:55 control 3:1310–2 definition 2:547 mid-p values 3:1222 Neyman–Pearson inference 3:1404–5, 1405–6 post hoc testing 1:2 probability 3:1559–60 testwise/experimentwise error rates 2:547–8 type I sums of squares (SS) 4:2090–1 type II errors analysis of variance 1:55 Bonferroni correction 2:548 control 3:1310 definition 2:547 Neyman–Pearson inference 3:1404–5, 1405–6 type II sums of squares (SS) 4:2091 type III sums of squares (SS) 4:2091 type IV sums of squares (SS) 4:2091–2 types/antitypes, configural frequency analysis 1:382, 385–6 typology of pain study 4:2040–2 U-L discrimination index 2:965 UCI see unobserved conditional invariance UCPAE see Uniform Certified Public Accountant Examination UD see unidimensionality UK see United Kingdom ULS see unweighted least squares ultimate test 4:2022 ultrametric inequality 3:1624, 1625; 4:2093–4, 2094 ultrametric tree models 4:2084–5, 2094–5 unaffected outcomes 3:1460 unbalanced designs 1:86 unbiasedness 4:1670–1 uncertainty decision making strategies 1:466, 470 Hill’s criteria of causation 2:818–20 judgments 4:1966 Theil’s uncertainty coefficients 3:1187, 1188 unconditional descriptive statistics 2:962 unconditional mean imputation 1:519 unconstrained local optimization 3:1482–5, 1486–7 uncorrelated scores 2:642–4 underidentified model distinction 4:1942 underlying deficits approach 1:335, 336 undirected graphs 3:1223–5, 1226, 1228 unequal-n designs 1:90 unfolding methods attitude ranking 1:107 Coombs 1:397 unfolding models multidimensional unfolding 3:1289–93 optimal scaling 3:1481 Unger, Franz 3:1199 unidimensional item response theory models 2:996–1003; 3:1171 unidimensional Newton algorithm 2:1088–90 unidimensional scaling 3:1285, 1288; 4:2095–7 unidimensional tests 3:1272 unidimensionality (UD) assumption 2:987 internal consistency 2:934–5 nonparametric item response theory 3:1422, 1422–3, 1423, 1424, 1425 versus reliability 4:1993 unidirectional tests, see also one-tailed tests Uniform Certified Public Accountant Examination (UCPAE) 3:1398 uniform density function 1:232 uniform differential item functioning 1:486, 487 uniform priors 2:924 uniformities of coexistence 3:1178 unique cases 1:202 unique factor minimization 2:640–4 uniqueness, factor analysis 2:846, 847 uniqueness theorem 3:1180 unit of analysis categorical data sampling 4:1779 covariance 1:424 evaluation research 2:563–4 unit covariance 3:1615 unit diagrams 1:442 unit normal deviate residuals 4:1752 unit variance 3:1581–2 unit-weight linear models 2:797–8 United Kingdom (UK) Brown 1:186 Burt 1:187–9 de Moivre 1:466 factor analysis 2:851–7 Fisher 2:658–9 Galton 2:687–8 Thomson 4:2030–1 women’s athletics records 1:423–4, 424 United Nations female life expectation data 3:1426–7, 1429 United States of America (USA) 2:891–2 Bush 1:189–90 Campbell 1:191–2 case-cohort studies 1:205 Cox 1:432–3 crime trellis graphics 4:2060, 2063 Deming 1:478–9 Hotelling 2:889–90 McCarthyism 2:1065–6 mental testing 2:876–7 roll call data 3:1293 Subject Index Stevens 4:1900–2 stratification 2:1063–5 Thurstone 4:2045–6 Tukey 4:2067–8 Tversky 4:2070–1 univariate models 3:1609 univariate nonresponse 3:1235 univariate normal probability density function 3:1164 univariate outliers 4:1751 universe scores 2:705, 706, 711, 717 universes of admissible observations 2:705 universities, mental testing 2:875 unknown risks 4:1762 unmeasured confounding 4:1805–6 unmixing matrices 2:910, 911, 911–2 unmixing signals 2:909–10 unobserved conditional invariance (UCI) methods 1:486 unobserved heterogeneity 2:573–4 unordered categorical variables 3:1183–8 see also nominal categorical variables unrelated data 2:908 unreliability see measurement error unrestricted randomization comparative trials 1:11 versus random allocation rule 4:1838–40 unsaturated models 2:1103 unsupervised classification 3:1356, 1357 unweighted least squares (ULS) 4:1943–4, 1944 unweighted means 1:62–3 up-and-down-blocks algorithm 3:1260–1 Urban, F.M 4:2097–8 Urban weights 4:2097, 2098 urinary tract infections (UTI) 4:2080–1 USA see United States of America UTI see urinary tract infections utility theory 4:2098–101 Allais 4:2100 assumptions 4:2099–100 Bernoulli 4:2098–9, 2101 certainty equivalent method 4:2100 decision making strategies 1:468 Kahneman 4:2101 ordinal utility 4:2099 St Petersburg paradox 4:2098–9 vague conclusions 3:1342 validation nonlinear models 3:1418 structural equation modeling 4:1910–2, 1946, 1951–7 validity coefficient 4:1952 correlational measurement 2:838 criterion-referenced assessment 1:436, 437, 439 demand characteristics 1:477 generalization 2:919 inference, test scores 4:1952 internal validity 2:936–7 interrupted time series designs 2:943–4 measurement 3:1181–2 mental testing 2:877 2205 neuropsychological assessment instruments 3:1395–7 norm-referenced assessment 1:435 questionnaire design 4:1971, 1975–6 reversal design 4:1759 social 4:1875–6 test bias detection 4:2002, 2006 test scores 4:1952 threats reactivity 4:1717 resentful demoralization 4:1744–5 types/antitypes, configural frequency analysis 1:385 validity theory applications 4:2103–7 classical test models 1:280–1 construct-irrelevant variance 4:2106 construct validity 4:2103–6 contemporary view 4:1952–3 content validity 4:2104–5 criterion-related validity 4:2104–5 differential item functioning 4:2106 fundamental characteristics 4:2105 subject matter experts 4:2106 test validation 4:2105–6 traditional views 4:1952, 2104–5 value added histograms 4:1897–8 value similarity structures 4:1792–3 van der Waerden scores 1:510; 3:1439, 1440 VAP see ventilator associated pneumonia variability Neyman–Pearson inference 3:1406 reliability estimation 4:1734 sampling distributions 4:1777 types 2:553 variable metric methods see quasi-Newton methods variables discriminant analysis 1:502; 505 extension in factor analysis 2:855–6 hierarchical selection 4:2109 large dataset problems 2:816–7 logistic regression 2:1079 misclassification rates 3:1232 multiple linear regression 3:1333 random forests 4:1665–6 regression 4:2108, 2109 selection 4:2107–9 simultaneous regression method 4:2108 stepwise regression method 4:2109 variance 4:2110 between-subjects t test 1:208–9 calculation 4:2110 comparisons 1:218–9 components 4:2110–3 see also linear multilevel models counterintuitive examples 4:2112 covariance 1:191, 431–2, 431 cross-classified and multiple membership models 1:441–9 definition 4:2110 design effect comparison 1:481–2 dominance 1:513–4 epistasis 2:545 essays 4:2111 2206 Subject Index variance (cont.) estimation case-cohort studies 1:205 generalized estimating equations 2:722, 722–3 function, generalized linear models 2:740 generalizability theory 1:364; 2:705, 706, 707–8; 4:2111 generalized linear models 4:2113 heteroscedasticity 2:790–1, 791–3, 794 intraclass correlation 2:949–51 latent values 4:2113 least squares estimation 2:1042–4 maximum likelihood estimation 3:1167 measures, outlier detection 3:1494, 1495, 1496 modeling 2:790–1, 791–3 Monte Carlo estimators 3:1266–70 multiple comparison procedures 3:1316–7, 1318–21 path analysis history 2:870–1 random effects models 3:1211 rater bias models 4:1716 reduction 3:1267–70 sampling distributions 4:1777 scoring, item analysis 2:962 word recall data 4:2110 variance inflation factor (VIF) 1:327; 4:2055–6 variance-covariance matrices correlation 1:400–1 structural equation modeling 4:1942, 1942–3, 1943 variation distances 3:1627 variation independence 3:1464 variation measures 3:1188 varimax rotation 2:848 VARMA see multivariate ARMA varying occasions design 3:1296, 1297, 1298 vector random variables 1:233 vector weights 3:1613 vectors of coefficients 3:1581, 1581–2 Venn diagrams 3:1601 Venn, J 3:1598 ventilator associated pneumonia (VAP), two by two contingency tables 4:2079 verbal ability tests administration 3:1400 second order factor analysis 4:1800, 1800–1, 1801, 1801–2 vertical cultural transmission 1:458 vertices conditional independence 1:360–1 geometric correspondence analysis 1:406–7, 409 graphs 3:1294 Victorian attitudes, sexual behavior 2:879–80 Vietnam military service data, co-twin control method 1:416–8 VIF see variance inflation factor violations of assumptions 3:1336–8 Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavior Development 1:8–9 Vispoel’s tonal memory CAT 3:1399 visual data inspection 1:46 visual stimulus experiments 1:389, 390–1 visualization dissimilarity proximity measures 3:1624–7 multivariate analysis 3:1353–4 vocabulary ability tests scatterplot smoothers 4:1796–8 second order factor analysis 4:1800, 1800–1, 1801, 1801–2 volunteer bias questionnaire focus groups 4:1972 sexual behavior surveys 2:882–3 von Eye et al approach, prediction analysis 3:1577–8 von Helmholtz, Hermann 2:759; 3:1178 von Humboldt, Alexander 2:759 von Mises see Cram´ r–von Mises test e Voronoi diagrams 3:1292–3 voting ensembles, boosting 1:168–9 de Vries, Hugo (Marie) 3:1198, 1201–2 vulnerable populations 2:559–60 Wald, Abraham 3:1432–3 Wald distributions 4:1668 Wald tests 1:227 heteroscedasticity 2:792 model modification 4:1945 runs test 4:1771 survival analysis 4:1985 Wald–Wolfowitz runs test 1:509 Walsh averages 4:2115–6 Boos test 4:1987 confidence intervals 4:2115–6 Hodges–Lehmann estimator 2:887–8; 4:2115 medians 4:2115–6 Walsh test 1:510 Ward’s method hierarchical cluster analysis 2:802 k-means algorithm 2:1022 wave nonresponse 1:516 see also dropouts ways, definition 4:2033 weakly stationary sequence of random variables 4:2048, 2052–3 Weber function 3:1630 Weber–Fechner Law 4:1901 WebQTL database, microarrays 3:1220–1 websites confidence intervals 1:373 GPOWER software 3:1569 Kolmogorov 2:1023 linear models, permutation methods 2:1053 Wechsler intelligence scales 2:877 weight functions 3:1427 weighted configurations 3:1612–3 weighted deviation model 4:2012–3 weighted kappa 4:1714–5 weighted least squares (WLS) 2:1044 structural equation modeling 4:1943–4, 1944 weighted means analysis of variance cell means approach 1:62–3 multiple regression approaches 1:85–6 weighted trees 3:1626–7 weighted undirected graphs 3:1224–5, 1228 weighted voting, boosting 1:169 weighting analysis 3:1235–6 Subject Index Weinberg morbidity tables 2:648 Welch, B.L 2:841 Welch procedure 3:1317 Wellings, Kaye 2:886–7 What are the chances? (Holland) 4:1998 When Battered Women Kill (Browne) 3:1634 Whewell, William 2:759 Whitney see Mann–Whitney ‘Who Said What’ task 4:2059–60 Wiener, Norbert 4:2116–7 artificial intelligence 4:2116 cybernetics 4:2116–7 Wilcoxon, Frank 4:2117–8 Biometrics 4:2117 Festinger test development 4:2117 permutation procedures 4:2117 ranked data 4:2117 Wilcoxon rank sum tests see Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney tests Wilcoxon signed ranks tests asymptotic relative efficiency 1:102 distribution-free inference 1:510 Hodges–Lehman estimator 2:887 matched pair designs 3:1157 randomized block design 4:1681, 1682 survival analysis 4:1984 see also signed ranks test Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney tests 3:1327; 4:2117, 2118–21 assumptions 4:2118 asymptotic properties 4:2120–1 computation 4:2120 continuity correction 4:2119–20 distribution-free inference 1:508–9, 509, 510 linear rank tests 4:2120 paired observations 3:1506, 1508–9 permutation based inference 3:1440; 4:2119 randomization based tests 4:1678 rank based inference 4:1688–9 ties correction 4:2119 U -test formulation 4:2120 see also Hodges–Lehmann estimators; Kruskal–Wallis test; nonparametric methods; randomized block design Wiley, D.E 1:428–9, 429 Wilks’ lambda 3:1355, 1361, 1363 Wilks, S.S 2:865, 865–6, 866–7 Williams squares 1:452 Winsorized robust measures 4:2121–2 multiple comparison procedures 3:1318, 1319 two-way factorial, distribution-free methods 4:2088 Winsorizing data group variances 3:1327–8 mean 4:2121–2 outlier detection 3:1495 variance-covariance matrix 3:1376 Wisconsin Card Sorting Test 3:1396, 1397 withdrawal designs 2:944, 945 within-case designs ANOVA F test 4:2122, 2123, 2123–4 distribution free methods 4:2122–5 error rates 4:2122 inter-case ranks 4:2124 2207 nonparametric procedures 4:2123–4 numeric example 4:2124 rank scores type procedures 4:2122–3 raw scores 4:2124 resampling 4:2123–4 within-group centering 1:248–9 within-group variation 2:526 within-judge variability 2:950–1 within-pair comparisons 1:415, 416, 417–8 within-person level model individual growth modeling 4:1914 latent growth modeling 4:1915–7 see also Rasch modeling within-subjects designs 2:586 multiway ANOVA 1:214–6 one-way ANOVA 1:211–2 t test 1:209 within-subjects effects carryover and sequence effects 1:198, 200 crossover design 1:451–2 WLS see weighted least squares women athletics records 1:423–4, 424 marriage satisfaction 3:1438 sexual behavior surveys 2:879–81, 885–6 Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) 1:325 word frequency effects fixed effects 4:1657–8, 1659 random effects 4:1658–60 Word Grouping (WORG) ability tests 4:1800, 1800–1, 1801, 1801–2 word recall data 4:2110 word sequences, information theory 2:926 WORG see Word Grouping working correlation matrix 2:724–5 World War I Brown, William 1:186 psychometric testing 2:877 World War II Hotelling 2:890 mathematical psychology development 3:1158 World Wide Web see internet research methods wrapper methods, variable selection 3:1534 Wright, Sewall Mendelian genetics 3:1203 path analysis history 2:869–71, 872 Wundt illusion 1:177 Yahoo 2:938 Yates’ chi-square test 1:224 Yates’ correction 4:2127–9 Binomial distributions 4:2128 contingency tables 1:394 Fisher’s exact tests 4:2127, 2128–9 hypergeometric distributions 4:2127, 2128–9 Yates, Frank 4:2129–30 Yerkes, Robert M 2:859 Youden square designs 1:73 Yule, George Udny 4:2130–1 causation 2:1061, 1061–3 correlational measurement 2:839–40, 840 Kendall collaboration 2:1009 magnitude of correlation 3:1446–7 2208 Subject Index Yule, George Udny (cont.) maximum likelihood methods 4:2131 Mendelian genetics 3:1203 path analysis history 2:869 Pearson influence 4:2130–1 Yule’s Q 3:1185, 1446–7, 1447 z scores 4:2131–2 definition 4:2131 outliers 4:2131 see also standardized scores z tests 1:207–8 correlation where p not equal to 1:220 independent correlations comparison 1:220–1 nonindependent correlations comparison 1:221–2 proportions 1:226–7 zero intercept 4:1786 zero mean principal component analysis 3:1581–2 projection pursuit 3:1615 zero-effect hypotheses 4:1743–4 zero-order correlations 1:220; 3:1519 outlier detection 3:1496 zeros, contingency tables 4:1958–9 zygosity co-twin control method 1:415, 416, 416–8 determination 4:2071 .. .ENCYCLOPEDIA STATISTICS IN BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE OF ENCYCLOPEDIA STATISTICS IN BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE OF Volumes 1-4 A Z Editors -in- Chief BRIAN S EVERITT Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College,... content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books Library of Congress Cataloguing -in- Publication Data Encyclopedia of statistics in behavioral science / editors -in- chief, Brian... psychology Decision-making has become decision science, involving people from economics, marketing, and other disciplines Learning theory has become cognitive science, again exploring problems that