Continued part 1, part 2 of ebook Wood and wood joints: Building traditions of Europe, Japan and China presents the following content: wood joints and their evolution; wood joints as an expression of aesthetic values; structural timber construction in China; structural wood preservation - raised platform and cantilevered roof;...
Wood Joints and Their Evolution The role of the tool “Every tool serves to extend the activity with the hand.”1 Today this quote has only limited validity as tools take on many activities in their entirety and, in fact, not only manual operations We might be tempted to say that the human mind is the one single tool which is indispensable But the more the worker lets himself be degraded to the tool of the tool he devised, the less indispensable the tool characterizing and distinguishing him becomes When machine tools, grown to giant size, outgrow their supportive attendants, they begin to take over from their masters step by step As mankind is liberated more and more from manual work, the threat that we will let the chances for individual design and decision-making slip through our fingers becomes greater and greater At any rate, the development of wood joints would not have been possible without that marvellous tool – the human mind Further, some designs could even be realized without the use of any“artificial”tools – just resorting to hands and feet (Fig 217) A large sector which might be regarded as an example of this is wattlework Wattlework,2 refined to a very high degree, accompanied mankind into the present century There was nothing left to invent 217 This temporary sheep fold near Xanthi, Macedonia, Greece, was fenced off using loose brushwood and reeds simply placed in a row 218 Decorative wattle fencing – Sat S˛ugatag, Maramures˛, Romania 112 in the wattlework sector so the wattleworker was tempted into presenting his abilities in an aesthetically sophisticated way In Europe, the best specimens belong to the past, (Fig 218) while in Japan they are still found today (Fig 219) Pieces of wood – simply gathered and in no way processed – placed next to each other represent the archetypal form of jointing parallel with the grain (Fig 220) Although such windbreaks were relatively impervious, they were insufficiently stable, even for nomads Placing the vertical pieces further apart enabled horizontal pieces to be woven in between (Fig 221) Weaving the pieces into regular geometric forms brought a further gain in terms of stability (Fig 222) Suitably covered, such frameworks may even have offered rudimentary protection against the elements (Fig 223) At the start of the 20th century Finno-Ugric peoples were still building huts which although much heavier than those of the southern Europeans (to suit the extreme weather conditions of the north instead of the mild Mediterranean climate), were identical in terms of type of construction.3 During the Bronze Age and right up until the early Middle Ages, the inhabitants of the northern part of Ireland and the Celtic areas of Britain lived in double round houses made up of two circles of twin-leaf wattle walls The 300-mm “cavity” was filled with an organic material (however, a very specialized tool was used to build these structures) According to our present state of knowledge, what is unique about these houses is they remained without any plaster,4 as had already been common during the 219 Bamboo fence near Nagasaki, Japan 113 221 Wattle fencing forming part of a shepherd’s shelter near Komothini, Macedonia, Greece 220 The gaps between the beams over a passageway through a house in Coulommiers, Ỵle de France, are filled in with loose, unworked wooden sticks laid next to each other; these then carry a filling material 222 The framework of a primitive oneman hut near Komothini, Macedonia, Greece 223 Shepherd’s hut near Wrasna, Macedonia, Greece 114 225 The wattle gable is the last surviving reminder of the wattle house – Dunaszekcsö, Hungary 115 224 A lot of attention was paid to the building of “corn baskets” to store what was once the most important crop in many regions – Mara, Maramures˛, Romania Stone Age.5 Unplastered wattlework, if built properly, can be very stable and will always allow the passage of sufficient air (Fig 224) In Russia houses were built with wattlework up until about AD 500 Plotnik, the wattleworker, became and remained the expression for carpenter.6 Wattlework was still used for the production of, as a rule, uninhabited buildings in a large part of eastern Europe until well into the 20th century.7 The deeply rooted tradition of smearing daub on wattle walls is supposed to be the reason behind the custom of even covering log buildings with daub in many regions of Poland as well as in the Sudetenland and the Carpathian Mountains.8 In Italy and Spain too, this type of construction was no stranger,9 likewise in England and northern Europe.10 Perhaps the most obvious feature of wattlework structures is their oval or circular plan shape, in contrast to buildings which only use wattle as an infill material for the walls In a sense, rural buildings combining wattle walls with skeleton-framed, more solid walls represent a transitionary form While timberframed walls were filled in with (usually) plastered wattle panels, in those instances where the attic space needed to be separated for functional purposes the triangle formed by the roof timbers, i e the visible gable triangle, was itself built as a wattle wall.11 (Fig 225) The techniques had become so well developed that chimneys (Fig 226) and even ovens were constructed from wattlework!12 The introduction of tying members together was a fundamental extension of the concept (Fig 227) The quick assembly and easy dismantling secured for this jointing technique a virtually exclusive place in the scaffolding of the Middle Ages,13 in many places even surviving into the 20th century In this way it was possible to fasten not-very-strong pieces of timber, in curved forms as well In this way the volume of a tent-like hut could be increased by over 50 % Tied connections not require the pieces to be joined to be worked in any way (Fig 228) They even meet today’s standards and can be applied universally For example, the walls of Japanese timber-framed buildings are still filled with a lattice of tied bamboo strips finished with plaster.The older okabe wall integrated the vertical supports 227 “Stone-Age knots” tied in bass or coir rope (source: Reinerth, 1929, Fig 14) 228 Tied joints on a minka in Shirakawa mura, Gifu, Japan 116 117 229 Wattle-and-daub infill panels on a minka in Iwate Futsukamachi, Iwate, Japan 226 Wattlework chimney in the Bardejovské Kúpele Open-air Museum, Slovakia in the latticework so that they too disappeared behind the plaster, increasing the wall’s fire resistance and making it more airtight However, the aesthetic appeal of the so-called hanging wall (shinkabe), although much more complicated to build, guaranteed it a position in the repertoire, especially for prestige buildings.14 (Fig 229) Incidentally, the order in which weaving and tying have been dealt with here is in no way intended to reflect their appearance in a chronological sense The intention is merely to highlight the fact that two different techniques were employed The buried bases of posts in palisade walls were lashed together.15 So, using the tying method, people could also construct more massive fences Such fences ranged from very impervious (Fig 230) to more solid wall-like constructions, (Fig 231) depending on the materials used In log construction, besides joints at the corners, the layers of logs were often additionally secured by means of ties (Fig 232) Generally, and here too, it is assumed that jointing techniques were always first tried out on a small scale and practised before it was dared to use them on a large scale.16 (Fig 233) Walls with corners – called post-and-rail walls by Zippelius – were reconstructed for the Taubried Neolithic settlement in the Federsee Moor, Germany.17 (Figs 234 & 235) They stand independently owing to the pairs of posts bound together, while log walls require specific joints at the corners in order that they can be 231 Boarded fence near Uvdal, Numedal, Norway 118 230 Post-and-rail fence near St Corona, NE Austria erected at all! The post-and-rail walls were, in principle, identical with the walls of some old Swedish houses In Swedish, connecting together two earthfast timber poles by means of a piece of branch wound around them, e g to build a fence, is called knut timra,“making a knot by carpentry” Elsewhere, doing carpentry work is first spoken of from the stage in the history of carpentry marked by the production of man-made forked supports or mortise-and-tenon joints Fundamentally similar assumptions were made for Japan with respect to the Neolithic Age During the Jomon period (10,000 to 300 BC)18 timbers were only lashed together,19 with those early peoples managing, basically, without tools Carpenters called this the “construction from the time of the myths” (tenchi gongen zukuri).20 But this does not mean to say that StoneAge man had no stone tools.21 For example, hewn ridge-supporting columns 450 mm in diameter have been found, even trunks worked into squared timber, which could be handled easier, using an axe and a forerunner of the chona However, mortise-and-tenon joints were unknown.22 The first important step in the use of tools was the utilization of forked branches.23 These were available in sufficient quantities but the moment they were set up in a row to carry one or more ridge beams, the desire grew to adapt their naturally grown shape or to fell trees which seemed suitable (Fig 236) To this, a tool to assist the hand was essential The proper use of tools enabled Stone-Age man to accomplish feats which we today can hardly fathom.The fewer technical aids were available to force the material to our bidding, the greater our understanding of the material had to be; for even the experience which later eases and assists the working process had to be gained first Ash wood from the transition between root and bole was specifically and exclusively chosen for the handle of a stone hatchet The blade was made from particularly hard stone To prevent the handle from splitting, the stone was placed in a “chuck” made from a stag’s antlers Handles were of different lengths to suit the particular purpose of the tool.24 With this tool in his hands, our Stone-Age worker was now in the position to fell trees, to split them and to produce forked posts resembling natural forked branches.25 The ability to split wood and cut it to the desired length expanded the possibilities of building 232 The log wall of a house in Børgo,Sogn, Norway, secured with a retaining pole 233 Post-and-rail fence construction (source: Bygden, 1925, Fig 2a) 119 very considerably.“To be able to immerse oneself in early forms of construction, it is recommended to also observe how modern work is carried out in a makeshift way by unskilled labour This will reveal some unsophisticated approaches from time to time.”26 Such comparative observations lead us to believe that the last witnesses of the once predominant weaving and tying technique were wooden fences, so much so in fact that this is not questioned by researchers.27 (Figs 237 & 238) The abilities referred to enabled people to redesign huts to become houses.28 So long as the inclined roof timbers were supported directly on the walls, they could not be satisfactorily fixed by simply tying them, neither over circular nor over rectangular layouts.The thrust of the rafters was even too great when a forked branch was over the ridge purlin.29 But if the forked branch was turned around and placed over the eaves purlin, this allowed a pitched roof to be connected to the walls During the Neolithic Age, three differently shaped chopping tools were available in Europe: the axe for felling trees, the hatchet for chopping up and finishing the wood, and the adze for whittling and producing holes.30 Now, among their capabilities, humans were in the position to work timber into squared sections,31 which enabled them to produce fork-like joints.32 Up until then they had been forced to tie a piece of wood in 234 Partial reconstruction of a post-andrail wall from the Taubried Neolithic settlement (drawn by Zippelius; source: Rhenish Ethnology Yearbook, 1954, Fig 12) 235 Fence construction as wall cladding to a column-and-beam structure (source: Bygden, 1925, Figs 7, 8, 10) 236 Builders no longer wanted to forego the principle of the forked branch Forked branches supporting jettied upper floors in Werdenberg, St Gallen, Switzerland 120 237 The appearance of wooden fences reflects the possibilities for building that Stone-Age peoples had at their disposal – Maihaugen in Lillehammer, Oppland, Norway the fork of a branch if they wanted to secure it; now though, the new joint not only secured the piece of wood it also provided restraint against torsion Various forms of mortise-andtenon joints could be fabricated.33 Doors were also possible, their spigots pivoting in lintel and sill.34 The transition to bronze tools brought about the next leap in the evolutionary progression.The superiority of the bronze tool lay primarily not in its being a much better material with which to work wood but rather in the fact that the tool-user was now able to determine the shape of the tool and significantly improve the fastening of the handle.35 The unanimous opinion is that bronze tools are responsible for the appearance of log construction in Europe.36 However, this type of construction would have been possible even earlier A trial has shown that, using a flint-head axe, 26 pine trees with a diameter of 200 mm can be felled in 1⁄2 hours.37 And the very first log joint – a semicircular notch on the top to receive the next log – would also have been manageable with stone tools Nevertheless, the important and now more easily solved requirement to provide each log with at least two joints matched exactly to their counterpart might not be the most insignificant reason for the late appearance of log construction During Japan’s Bronze Age (beginning about 300 BC) joints were still tied on the structures which had in the meantime been raised off the ground on stilts However, a good proportion of other joints already needed saw, chisel and axe for their fabrication.38 In the Iron Age (up to AD 300), axe, chona and chisel were used not only to produce mortise-and-tenon joints but also, closely related to these, the first joints for log construction.39 (Fig 239) In these the majority of the squared timbers were joined together into separate rings and there was only one single variation which interlocked the rings with each other Nevertheless, in order to attain a certain stability, the ensuing log construction had to be clamped by corner columns which were mortised into the half-lapped ring of sill and header As additional anchorage, tie-like beams were necessary in the longitudinal direction Cutting out a door was unthinkable with such a construction If you wanted to enter the store, you had to clamber through the triangle of the gable.40 (Fig 240) 238 Wooden fence in Stübing Open-air Museum, Steiermark, Austria 239 Conjectured jointing techniques for Japan’s first log buildings (according to: Nishi, Hozumi, 1985, Fig 98) 121 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 Wickede, 1990, p 156-157 ibid., p 157, fig 116 See also the figure on Plate CXXXVI in Needham, 2007 (1965), p 70, fig 376b Li, 2004, p 23, fig 1-6 Barbara von Wickede also notes this point.Wickede, 1990, p 158 Yang Hongxun’s opinion that the bronze parts from the Spring and Autumn Period had already relinquished some of their functional purpose in favour of decorative treatment would also seem to contradict the plausibility of their use as reinforcement for the wood construction Zhong, Chen, 1986, p 40 Thilo, 1977, p 121 Li, 2004, p 80, fig 3_12 ibid., p 111, fig 3_32 Hommel, 1969, p 227 Noble, 2007, p 117 Ruitenbeek, 1996, p 76 Eberhard, 1966, p 41 cf Hommel, 1969, p 238, fig 347 Handler, 2005, p 63 ibid., p 67 305 Bibliography -; 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Bemalte Durchsteckverbindungen in Surheim/Obb.; in:Volkskunst 3,Vol.1; Munich; 1978 Wickede, Barbara von; Architektur und Stadtanlagen; in: Ledderose, Lothar und Schlombs, Adele (ed.); Jenseits der Großen Mauer Der Erste Kaiser von China und seine Terrakotta-Armee; Gütersloh, München; 1990 Winter, Heinrich; Das Bürgerhaus zwischen Rhein, Main und Neckar; Tübingen; 1961 Winter, Heinrich; Das Bürgerhaus in Oberhessen;Tübin gen; 1965 Wolf, Gustav; Haus und Hof deutscher Bauern – Schleswig-Holstein; Hildesheim; 1979 Xiao, Mo (ed.); Zhongguo jianzhu yishu shi; Beijing; 1999 Xie, Zhaozhe;Wu zazu (foreword 1616); Shanghai; 1935 Xu, Zongwei (ed.); Xizang chuantong jianzu daoze; Beijing; 2004 Yamada,Tahei (Ed.); Ohi takumi hinagata taizen;;1851 Yanagi, Soetsu; The Unknown Craftsman; Tokyo, New York, London; 1989 Yang, Xin; Jixian dulesi; Beijing; 2007 Zaloziecky,W.R.; Gotische und barocke Holzkirchen in den Karpathenländern; Vienna; 1926 Zhong, Yuanzhao and Chen, Yangzheng (eds.); History and Development of Ancient Chinese Architecture; Beijing; 1986 Zippelius, Adelhart; Vormittelalterliche Zimmertechnik in Mitteleuropa; in: Meisen, Karl (ed.); Rheinisches Jahrbuch für Volkskunde, Jg.; Bonn; 1954 Zwerger, Klaus; Verstecken und zur Neugier zwingen – Japanische Verbindungen als Rätselspiel; in: Detail 1994/3; Munich; 1994 Zwerger, Klaus;Wakare tsugi nitsuite; in: Ki no kenchiku 35;Tokyo; 1995 Zwerger, Klaus; Die “trennende Holzverbindung” in Japan; in: Deutsche Bauzeitschrift 7/96; Gütersloh; 1996 Zwerger, Klaus;Vanishing Tradition Architecture and Carpentry of the Dong Minority in China; Bangkok; 2006 310 Acknowledgements The patient understanding and support of my wife and my children were the prime prerequisites and my most valuable assets during the compilation of this book My first debt of gratitude I owe to them In addition, I should like to express my heartfelt thanks to the following persons and institutions for their generous assistance: Kunihiro Ando; Hisako Aoki; Japan Society for the Promotion of Science; Yonglin Li; Wenjie Liu; Aihiko Minamoto; Nihon minka en in Kawasaki; Ohashi, Yoshimitsu; Sakamoto, Isao; Takenaka daiku dogu kan in Kobe; Miyoko Uchimura; Yifang Wu And to all those other, mainly anonymous, persons who have contributed to this book through their advice and suggestions, thank you one and all My thanks go to the editor Andreas Müller for persistently probing the text in the interest of making complex passages more understandable and easier to read His sensitivity is to thank for the fact that, despite many interventions and linguistic refinements, this text still reads as my own About the Author Dr Klaus Zwerger, born in 1956 in Vienna, Austria, has been involved with the practical use of wood since 1975 He studied design theory, carried out research work at Tokyo University and is at present a lecturer at the Institute for Architectural Design and for Artistic Design at Vienna Technical University 311 Index of Persons and Buildings Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations Ahrens 80, 132, 160, 175 Amithaba hall 283 Ando 85, 86, 146 Anraku-ji sanjunoto 210 Artushof 128 Asano 196 Asparn a d Zaya Open-air Museum 178 Avalokitesvara 285 Baoguo si 299 Bardejovské Kúpele Open-air Museum 118 Barn in Cressing Temple 160, 232, 246 Bartholomew Church 191 Barton Farm 52 Baumgarten 98 Bedal, K 8, 127 Binding 44, 57, 129, 189 Bjerknes 132 Breymann 98, 216, 216 Brøndsted 47 Brown 62, 87 Brümmer farm 259 Brunskill 170, 171, 239, 251 Bryggen 32, 49, 49, 65 Bugge 148, 151, 151 Bunkazai kenzo butsu hozon gi jiutsu kyokai 96, 110, 146, 156, 159, 169, 202, 207, 225, 250, 257, 260 Bygdøy Open-air Museum 131, 139, 152 Chengling pagoda 266 Chiba House 30 Chion-in 138 Chogosonshi-ji 146 Christie 138 Church of St Genevieve 133 Church of St John the Baptist 231, 235 Church of the Assumption of the Virgin 62, 228 Church of the Resurrection 62 Church of the Transfiguration 62 Church of the Virgin Mary 128 Chuzu an 293, 293 Ciyun ge 283 Coxe 61 Daigo-ji 224 Daihoon-ji hondo 196, 197 Daisho-in 206 Deddens farmhouse 51 Deinhard 186 Deininger 255 De l’Orme 240, 240 Deutsches House 258 Deutsches Museum 65 Diderot 71 Dongyue miao Feiyun lou 280 Dule si Guanyin ge 278, 281, 283, 283, 285, 286, 287, 288, 294, 296 Dule si Shanmen 283 Eiho-ji kannondo 43 Eitzen 160 Ely Cathedral 168 Emperor Shenzong 297 Emperor Shundi 289 Emperor Yangdi 297 Emperor’s palace 277, 278, 296, 301 Emperor’s palace Taihe men 296 Emperor’s palace Wumen 275 Engaku-ji 209 Enjo-ji hondo 257 Enkyo-ji jogyodo 250 Enkyo-ji zikido 110, 110 Erixon 131, 142 Fletcher 23 Foeth House 50 Fogong si Shakyamuni-pagoda (see:Yingxian muta) Fogong si Shijia ta (see:Yingxian muta) Foguang si 273, 274, 277, 293, 299 Foguang si Dongda dian, F East hall 273, 273, 281, 292, 293 Forbidden City (see: Emperor’s palace) Freiburg Minster 233, 234 Fukuyama 153 Fumon-ji hojo 260 Funkenberg 47 Geier 105, 106 Gerner 60, 91, 92, 97, 98, 99, 223, 236, 250 Gierth 76, 174 Gilly 10 Gladbach 253 Goekmanns Spieker 170 Goths 59 Graubner 63, 91, 92, 94, 99, 167, 236, 251, 251, 257 Grubenmann 18, 34, 60, 61, 63, 63, 64, 65 Gruber 47 Guangsheng si 283, 283, 295 Häberle 62, 105 Hachiman-jingu haiden 93 Hanftmann 108 Hanging Monastery 266 Helms Museum 132 Henry VIII 241 Hewett 79, 168, 208, 209, 233, 236, 237 Heyn 45, 128 Himeji-jo 168 Himeji-jo otemon 261, 263 Hirose ke jutaku 33 Hodo-ji jikido 197 Holan 62, 214 Honmon-ji 50, 263 Hoki-ji sanjunoto 233 Hong Mai 297 Horin-ji sanjunoto 233 Horyu-ji 10, 32, 40, 63, 69, 127, 175, 291 Horyu-ji daihozoden 24 Horyu-ji daikodo 196, 196 Horyu-ji dempodo 192, 193 Horyu-ji gojunoto 175, 175, 220, 228, 233 Horyu-ji kondo 175 Horyu-ji toin denpodo 156 Hösseringen Open-air Museum Hozumi 121 Imanishi-Haus 262 Ise-jingu 20, 22, 23, 23, 36, 55, 65, 70, 249, 249 Ishiyama-dera hondo 157, 249 Ishiyama-dera tahoto 250 Itsukushima-jinja 42, 42, 59 Izumo-honden 153 Izumo taisha 137, 179 Jinci Shengmu dian 273, 273, 295 Jodo-ji 93 Jodo-ji jododo 158, 159, 159, 203, 203, 204 Kahnt 44 Kaihua si 292 Kaijusen-ji gojunoto 225, 225 Kaiyuan si Zhonglou 276 Kammerzell House 72, 181, 259 Kamosu-jinja 153, 153 Katsura Rikyu 241 Kawashima 45, 211, 219 Kenchiku bunka 66 Kencho-ji butsuden 208 Kencho-ji sanmon 60,126,197,202 Kibata jinja romon 156, 207 Killer 64 Kintai-Brücke 42 Kirk 55 Kiyomizu-dera 26 Klöckner 34 Kongorin-ji sanjunoto 225, 225 Kornhaus am Bauhof 184 Kosmas and Damian Church 86 Koune House 211 Koyama House 45 Kruke Farm 55 Kubel bridge 61, 64 Kublai Khan 282 Kükelhaus 58, 78 Kyuan-ji romon 169, 250 Kyuhonjin kinenkan 66, 108, 184 Leeds Castle 241 Li Jie 297, 298 Liang Sicheng 266, 267, 293, 296 Lincoln Cathedral 233 Linde dian 281 Linji si 266 Lissenko 48, 99, 126, 128, 141, 149 Loewe 14 Longxing si Dabei Pavilion 281 Longxing si Moni dian 292 Longxing si Zhuanlungzang dian 275, 292 Lord Bacon 32 Lower Saxony Open-air Museum, Museumsdorf Cloppenburg 50, 51, 162, 236, 241, 241, 253 Lu Ban 278, 299, 303 Mc Kay 239 Mechmann 44 Meiji mura 38, 131, 194 Messina Cathedral 231 Morse 67 Moser 124 Mudo-ji 220 Muro-ji hondo 20 Muramatsu 67 Museumsdorf Hösseringen 259 Muzeul Satului 85 Myoo-in gojunoto 224, 225 Nagoya-jo 264 Nakahara 166, 251 Nanchan si 272, 272, 276, 277 Neumeister 62, 105 Nihon minka en 14, 96, 165, 194, 217, 257 Nijo-jo 72 Nikko Tosho-gu 37, 72 Nikolai church 25 Nishi 121 Nishi Hongan-ji 72 Nishioka 16, 22, 26, 36, 40, 63, 65, 70, 233 Nohara House 165 Nyakuochi jinja 220 Okura-ji hondo 197 Old Vicarage 237 Opderbecke 28, 104, 251 Osakajo sakuramon 217 Oseberg ship 72 Ossenberg 44 Ostendorf 57, 57, 58, 160, 189, 190, 191, 191, 235 Pagoda of the Horyu-ji (see Horyu-ji gojunoto) Pagoda of the Kaijusen-ji (see Kaijusen-ji gojunoto) Pagoda of the Kongorin-ji (see Kongorin-ji sanjunoto) Pagoda of the Myoo-in (see Myoo-in gojunoto) Pagoda of the Yakushi-ji (Eastern) (see Yakushi-ji sanjunoto) Pagoda of the Yakushi-ji (Western) (see Yakushi-ji sanjunoto) Paine 175 Panoiu 228 Parent 196, 197, 201, 207 Petrescu 40 Phleps 63, 75, 98, 142, 148, 173, 214, 234, 258 Pilgrim’s Hospital of St Thomas 187 Place House 236, 237 Pöckstein Castle 104 Pundt 160 Quatmann farmhouse 241 Maier-Gomolka 189 Maihaugen 39, 121, 150 Maria Saal Open-air Museum 85 Masaharu 71 Matsui 167 Matsuzaki tenjin engi emaki 70 Mayflower 11 312 Reimers 143 Reinerth 116 Reuss 10 Reutlinger House 47 Richards 151 Rinshun kaku 62, 234 Rondelet 45, 133, 236 Rouen Cathedral 190 Rümlang bridge 63 Rumpf 162 Sakuta House 14 Sankeien 62, 234 Sasaki House 217 Schaffhausen bridge 18, 61, 239 Schepers 134 Schier 98, 99, 129 Schnell 107, 184, 191 Schoberhaus 44, 48 Schübler 44, 106, 133 Seike 23, 66 Senyo kaku 12, 183 Seurasaari Open-air Museum 151 Shanhua si 295 Shanhua si Sansheng dian 295 Shaolin si 293 Shigi-san engi 146 Shikoku minzoku hakubutsukan Open-air Museum 24, 37, 39, 46 Shimoki ke no jutaku 46 Shinyodo 195 Shokei-yashiki residence 94 Shoren-in 12 Sirelius 148, 227 Soper 175 Soribashi 42, 42 St Cyriak 57, 57 St Mary’s Collegiate Church 11, 107 St Nicolas 256 St Ouen 190, 190 St Paul’s 227 St Piat 190, 190 St Sophia’s Cathedral 59 St Stephan’s Cathedral 231 St Wendreda 238 Strzygowski 151 Stübing Open-air Museum 18, 46, 121, 217, 254 Sumiya 260, 262 Sumiyoshi 157, 166, 167 Suzuki 71, 201, 250, 260, 263 Taimadera hondo 96 Taimadera mandarado 196, 196 Taisan-ji hondo 110, 110 Takayama-jinya 250 Takenaka daiku dogu kan 262 Tanaka 20, 66, 66, 166, 251, 252 Tanzhaus in Rothenburg 191 Taut, Bruno 21, 67, 249 Teraoka 233 Tewkesbury Abbey 190, 190 Théatre d’Argentine 236 The Chantry in Sudbury 173 Thomas Aquinas 246 Tian Wang dian 276 Tiantai’an 272, 272 Todai-ji 32, 65, 175, 232, 239 Todai-ji daibutsuden 174, 175, 228 Todai-ji honbo kyoko 146 Todai-ji hondo 96 Todai-ji kaisando 110, 110 Todai-ji nandaimon 33, 109, 203, 205, 229 Todai-ji shoso-in 23, 137, 137 To-ji kodo 24, 200 To-ji kondo 25, 201 Tomatsu House 38 Tomyo-ji hondo 225, 226 Toshodai-ji kyozo 146 Town Hall in Michelstadt 186 Toyoda House 226 Toyonaka minka shuraku Openair Museum 28, 124 Trotzig 80 Uhde 227 Ulm Minster 185 Viking Ship Museum 48, 72 Viollet-le-Duc 134 Vitruv 36, 45 Walker’s Manor House 109 Wang Anshi 297, 298 Wang-residence 297 Warth 103 Watanabe 153 Wehlburg farmstead 241 Werner 99 Wells Cathedral 251 Wheat Barn in Cressing Temple 160, 227, 233 Winter 107, 170 Wohnunger farm 241 Wulfila 59 Xia si Shanmen 283, 295 Yakushi-ji 16, 22, 26, 36, 70 Yakushi-ji sanjunoto 17, 199, 202, 228, 233,278 Yanagi 246 Yingxian muta 278, 287, 287, 288, 289, 294, 295 Yongle gong 283 Yongle gong Longhu dian 300 Yongle gong Sanqing dian 274, 274, 278 Yongshou si 292 Youxian si 299 Zeniarai benten 23 Zhenguo si 276 Zhenguo si Wanfo dian 295 Zippelius 98, 99, 119, 120 Zizobu-ji hondo 110, 110 Zuisen-ji 37, 72 Zuisen-ji hondo 21 Zuisen-ji taishido 72, 206 Index of Places Ainokura 221 Amami Oshima 28, 211 Amanoiwato 33 Åmotsdal 14 Aozawa 49, 126 Appenzell 10, 61 Astrup 162 Aurach 127 Ayaori 44 Baisha San Yuan Cun 275 Bamberg 169 Beaune 256 Beijing 275, 277, 278 Berga 31 Bergen 21, 32, 49, 49, 143 Berveni (Börvely) 231 Bỵrsana 212 Bithälm 63 Bogdan Vodaˇ 27, 140 Bưhưnye 50 Børgo 119 Borgund 159 Bouttoncourt 125 Bradford on Avon 52 Bras¸ ov 34 Brunkeberg 213 Brunswick 37 Budal 131 Caˇlines˛ti 152, 256 Calw 523 Canterbury 171, 187 Changjiang 269, 271 Chartres 190 Cicỵrlaˇu 228 Ciucea 74 Coburg 258 Coulommiers 114 Cressing Temple 108, 160, 161, 233, 227, 246 Cuneaz 176 Da˛brówka Łubian´ska 124 Dacun 277 Daigo machi Kamigo 147 Datong 295 Dazui 277, 290 Dingxing 283 Dinkelsbühl 184, 258 Dresden 10 Dunaszekcsö 115 Ebnat 63 Eggen am Kraigerberg 85 Eidsborg 30 Ellmau 255 Elsten 241 Ely 168 Erlitou 275 Ernstbrunn 168 Esslingen 128, 172, 247, 253 Evolène 86, 147 Fantoft 21 Farnham 109 Feld 148 Ferenci 46 Forsthof 154 Fortun 124 313 Frankfurt am Main 107, 170, 191, 191 Freiburg 234 Freising 231 Fricˇka 124 Frindsbury 55 Galgenuel 24 Gaschurn 24 Gdanˇsk 45, 128, 191 Geschinen 135 Gjellerud 136 Goricˇko 81 Gossau 63 Gössl 14 Grafenbach 255 Great Coxwell 187 Greenstead near Ongar 78, 79 Greschitz 53 Grönloh 162, 237 Grub 63, 64, 177 Grundlsee 39 Gudbrandsgard 221 Hagi 26, 29, 164, 218, 246 Hanase 218 Hannover 189 Hasleiten 61, 255 Haus near Schladming 256 Haus near Tengling 105 Häverö 151, 151 Headcorn 237 Heddal 17, 18, 20, 49 Helle 149 Heppenheim 103, 223 Herisau 64 Herˇmanice 154 Herrnsheim 186 Hervartov 34, 98, 102, 145 Hidis˛elu de Jos 144 Himeji 263 Hindseter 148 Hirata 66, 108, 184 Hirschfelde 31 Hodslavice 140 Hola 43 Hongdong 283, 283 Hopperstad 137, 138 Hösseringen 165 Hronsek 27, 218 Hundwil 28 Hunyuan 266 Hurum 159 Huta 148 Ikaalinen 151 Imai cho 222, 226, 262 Inami machi 21, 37, 72 Inovce 26 Itchusonkijiya 46 Iwakuni 39, 42 Iwate Futsukamachi 30, 118, 126, 235 Iwate Kamigo 155 Javorina n Rimavicou 151 Jingsheng 277, 297 Jonsdorf 228 Jordans 11 Jurici 87 Kamakura 23, 60, 126, 202, 208, 209 Kaminashi 194 Kaupanger 80, 159 Kawagoe 47 Kawasaki 33 Kezˇmarok 34, 35 Keihoku cho 47 Kent 236 Kibitsu 49 Kimsha 128 Kirchberg 247 Kiscsány 11 Kishi 62 Kitakata 100, 182, 212 Köfels 30, 81 Kola 62 Komothini 114 Kondopoga 62, 228 Kramsach 216 Kurashiki 45, 185 Kyoto 12, 24, 25, 26, 72, 137, 138, 195, 200, 201, 224, 260, 262 Oberglatt 63 Obernberg 231 Okinoerabu 194 Osaka 217 Oslo 11, 48, 72, 132 Øverbø 63, 213, 215 Øye 123 Peper Harow 153 Petrová 134 Pfullendorf 44 Pingliu 269 Pingpu 269 Pingqiu 270 Pingshun 272 Pingyao 276 Poarta Salajului 152 Potoky 29 Potterne 163, 259 Primmersdorf 13, 185 Taubried in the Federsee Moor 118, 120 Tewkesbury 190, 190, 191 Thürntal 12 Tokyo 50, 54, 54, 95, 263 Toldern 176 Tonoshi 224 Topola 36, 147 Toro 36 Torpo 19, 48, 132, 219 Trautenfels 256 Trocˇany 34, 214 Tsuruga 124 Überlingen 47 Ulm 185 Umhausen 16 Unterried-Lehn 149 Upleadon 241 Urnes 27, 36, 73, 82 Uvdal 118 Quedlinburg 165 Ladomirová 28 Laiyuan 283 Längenfeld 136 Langesthei 123 Laufen 76 Liberk 185 Lijiazui 267, 268, 289, 290 Lillehammer 39, 121, 150 Lincoln 233 Lindau 60 Lisieux 154 Ljavlja 141 Lomen 159 London 227 Loucˇná Hora 144 Lübeck 129 Lüneburg 235 Lüneburg Heath 259 Lukov-Venecia 86 Luoshui 277 Mainz 106, 107 Malé Ozorovce 16, 56, 101 Mapang 270, 271 Mara 116 March 238 Marienburg 58, 107 Markgröningen 122, 173 Marthalen 44, 45, 153 Menslage 50 Messina 232 Michelstadt 82, 186, 524 Mixnitz 141 Miyajima 12, 94, 183, 206, 251 Molzegg 145 Munich 11, 65 Murau 18 Muro mura 20 Nagasaki 113 Nagoya 38, 264 Nara 16, 17, 23, 33, 109, 110, 137, 137, 146, 174, 175, 196, 199, 202, 205, 220, 229 Neuberg a d Mürz 59, 188 Niederneunforn 215 Nottuln 170 Novgorod 59 Oberaurach 255 Obercunnersdorf 31 Rauland 215 Reckingen 81 Ringebu 106 Rome 236 Rothenburg 154, 180, 191, 191, 223 Rouen 189, 190 Ruicheng 274, 283, 300 Ruská Bystrá 22 Rusky Potok 145 Sádek 150 Sagrad 123 Sakaide 37 Sat S˛ugatag 36, 112 Saureggen 254 Schaffhausen 61, 65 Schapdetten 100 Schlatt 10 Schleusingen 174 Schwende 29 Shanxi 266, 276, 277, 280, 292, 295 Shirakawa mura 15, 31, 82, 117, 182, 230 Shizuoka 36 Sibiu 34 Sighetu Marmat˛iei 21, 85 Silte 80, 80 Slavonov 57 Sodoshima 24 Sogn Giusep 125 Solvorn 20 St Corona 119, 130 St Gallen 63 Stall 218 Stará Halicˇ 43, 102 Steinheim am Main 107 Strasbourg 72, 181, 259 Strengen 29 Sudbury 173, 181 Suganuma 192 Sulz 214 Sulzburg 57, 57 Sˇumiak 30 Surheim 255 Vågåmo 150 Vienna 178, 231, 235 Vinaders 125 Vitanov 232 Wädenswil 61, 63, 64 Wallhof 192 Wanrong 280 Ware 236, 237 Wasungen 105 Werdenberg 120, 152 Westendorf 130 Wettingen 34 Woolpit 53, 239 Wrasna 114 Wutai-Mountains 272 Xanthi 112 Xi’an 302 Xinjiang 268 Yakushima Island 228 Yamatohama 194 Yaojiagang 301 Yingxian 287, 287 Yokohama 62, 219 Yuci 292 Zábreˇz 140 Zaunhof 10, 11 Zˇdiar 254 Zepo 268 Zhengding 266, 276, 281, 292, 292 Zhengyang 289 Zuberec 11, 140 Zwischenwässern 104 Taira mura 135 Taiyuan 273 Tamugimata 102 Tarrant Crawford 239 314 Subject Index A-frame construction (see: cruck c.) abutment 236, 236 bridled 88, 110, 166, 234, 235, 236, 239 sallied 236 under-squinted 236 adze 70, 71, 120 “after-the-sun” timber 16 aigaki 92, 95 air circulation (see: ventilation) air humidity 21, 23 air-drying (see: drying process) airtight (see: protection against weather) aka matsu 35 alder 32, 36 amado 26 ambar 49 anchor beam 55, 62, 125, 160, 162, 170, 269, 269 ang 292, 293, 295, 296 false ang 295, 296 angled jointing nail (see: nail) annual rings 33 Ansdach 27, 141, 141 Änse 149 arched forms of construction 43, 63 ari-kake 95 ari-kake-shiguchi 100 ari-shiguchi 95 ari-tsugi 92 arolla pine 37 artificial drying (see: drying process) ash wood 119 assembly 62, 62, 100, 104, 142, 160 Asuka period 71 attack by insects 21, 23, 32 by fungi 18, 19, 23, 32, 35 availability of wood 32, 42, 44 axe 18, 26, 53, 54, 67, 70, 70, 71, 76, 119, 120, 122, 127, 128, 147 azeki-sumi-kumite 146 azekura 122, 137, 137 balloon frame 170 bamboo 37, 116, 219 bamboo fence 113 bamboo floor 39 bamboo lattice 39 bamboo roof 219, 219, 220 bargeboard 62, 62, 249, 251 bargeboard joint 251, 257 bark 17, 20, 239, 240, 264 barn 11, 11, 20, 24, 30, 52, 55, 55, 80, 82, 100, 109, 134, 140, 161, 162, 182, 187, 227, 232, 232, 233, 237, 246, 268 Baroque period 30, 57, 106, 192 bay (see: jian) beam, tie beam 11, 14, 48, 55, 55, 57, 61, 62, 64, 100, 108, 109, 124, 160, 161, 162, 165, 170, 170, 173, 175, 175, 180, 182, 183, 183, 185, 186, 187, 189, 190, 190, 191, 196, 204, 227, 228, 232, 256, 269, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 279, 281, 282, 283, 287, 290, 292, 293, 296 ring of beams 130, 280, 282, 291, 292 two-rafter beam 272, 273 three-rafter beam 300 four-rafter beam 271 six-rafter beam 271, 273, 300 slanting beam 283 bell-tower 16, 56, 101, 102, 137, 138, 151, 151, 153, 233, 234 bevelled shoulder (see: tenon) billet-wood houses (see: Scheitholzhäuser) birch 34, 37 birch bark 37, 39 bird’s beak 293 birdsmouth joint 89, 91 block 17, 62, 92, 95, 196, 201, 201, 202, 203, 227, 267, 290, 291 large 62, 196 small 196, 201, 207 board joints (see: edge to edge joints) board sawyer 54 boarded fence 118 bolster 247 bowed timber (see: timber) box-frame construction 160, 160 brace, bracing 11, 79, 82, 89, 104, 153, 154, 157, 165, 187, 190, 193, 234, 246, 246, 248, 260, 282, 288, 296, 296 camel’s-hump-shaped b 271, 272, 273, 282 diagonal 10, 44, 50, 82, 89, 100, 103, 153, 154, 155, 165, 186, 279, 283, 285, 285, 287, 288, 294 horizontal 153, 159, 203 longitudinal 63, 106, 110, 183, 183, 187, 240 ornamental 258 transverse 55, 107, 110, 183, 183 bracket 37, 48, 58, 72, 132, 134, 151, 152, 159, 165, 172, 173, 175, 196, 197, 200, 201, 203, 204, 256, 272, 273, 288, 290, 292, 293, 298 cloud pattern 175 multiple 173, 173 quadrant 49, 159 bracket complex, bracket set 17, 196, 206, 207, 273, 285, 289, 290 breaking resistance (see: loading capacity) brick 266, 276, 277 bridge 10, 10, 16, 29, 42, 43, 61, 63, 63, 64, 65, 239, 289, 289, 290 bridge pier 289, 289 bronze, bronze tool 121, 300, 301 Bronze Age 113, 121, 129 bronze plinth 279 bronze sleeve 301 brushwood 112 Buddhism 32 building joiner 92 building manual 278, 298, 299 built-up beams 63, 63, 102, 103 Bundwerk 154, 154, 239 bur 136 burning (see fire) butt joint 88, 89, 91, 92, 94, 250 butterfly spline 21, 299 cabinetmaker 92, 95, 125, 251, 256, 257, 261 cabinetmaker’s joints 92, 98 cabinet making 302 cai 298, 299 camphor tree 12 cantilever arm (see: ang) cantilever bridge 289, 289 cantilevering 58, 134, 151, 152, 153, 171, 172, 174, 175, 196, 201, 203, 207, 212, 256, 270, 270, 275, 279, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 293 carpenter’s hair 102 carpenter’s marks 59, 59 carving 19, 35, 37, 72, 72, 73, 152, 173, 253, 254, 256, 258, 259 carving tool 71 Cathedral of Timber Construction 232 cedar 14, 35, 36 cell structure 26 central axis 267, 280, 299 central column of the pagoda 22 chigaidana 65 chigiri-tsugi 237 Chinese fir 270, 278 chisel 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 121, 125, 127, 130 chona 70, 71, 119, 121, 127 chop (see: timber) chopping tool 120 chuandou 268, 269, 270, 271, 275 church 11, 22, 26, 27, 34, 35, 43, 53, 55, 57, 61, 64, 78, 79, 86, 98, 102, 125, 127, 128, 134, 140, 140, 141, 141, 150, 159, 185, 185, 186, 191, 192, 214, 227, 228, 239, 239, 256 church roof 57, 141, 232 church roof truss 63, 65, 85, 134, 154 cladding 21, 22, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 120, 153 climatic conditions (see: weather) closed truss (see: truss) cog joint, cogging 95, 98, 132, 143, 145, 172, 174, 186, 201 collar beam 45, 47, 52, 55, 88, 106, 184, 185, 186, 187, 190, 190, 191, 192, 240 collar purlin 185, 186, 186, 187, 191 column 10, 11, 12, 13, 18, 19, 20, 23, 23, 24, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 35, 37, 37, 46, 50, 55, 55, 58, 61, 62, 69, 79, 80, 81, 93, 94, 96, 100, 100, 108, 109, 110, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 132, 137, 139, 150, 153, 153, 155, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 160, 161, 162, 162, 165, 166, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 179, 185, 186, 189, 190, 192, 196, 200, 201, 203, 204, 211, 211, 213, 214, 215, 216, 216, 225, 228, 228, 234, 234, 239, 241, 241, 249, 249, 257, 261, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 282, 283, 285, 287, 288, 288, 290, 290, 291, 292, 293, 293, 294, 295, 296, 296, 297, 298, 299, 299, 302 slotted c 269 base end of the c 23, 24, 153, 173, 189, 213, 214, 216, 217, 225, 260, 261, 262, 275, 276 column capital 19, 61, 110 crosswise forked c 135, 138 ring of columns 270, 273, 279, 282, 287, 288 row of c 157, 159, 192, 193, 226, 273, 277, 287, 300 setting up at an angle 55 column and beam construction 26, 43, 46, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 89, 120, 122, 123, 128, 137, 138, 141, 149, 151, 153, 160, 162, 214, 253, 268, 269, 270, 271 column capital 19, 61, 110 column grid 267, 273, 282 column interval 267, 276, 280, 281 combustibility (see: fire) common beech 44 common truss (see: truss) composite truss frame 63, 106 compressive strength (see: loading capacity) condensation 301 coniferous wood 16, 33, 34, 35, 36 corn basket 116 corner column 11, 16, 20, 72, 79, 80, 86, 121, 132, 138, 156, 173, 214, 214, 215, 228, 274, 276, 291, 292, 293, 293 doubled corner c 302 corner joint 90, 92, 95, 123, 128, 142, 216, 223, 225, 225, 254 courtyard house 269, 277 cowshed 10, 43, 123, 124, 135, 239, 254, 268, 299 craft guild 59, 60 crooked timber (see: timber, bowed) cross-cut saw 75 cross-halving joint (see: halved j.) crosshead axe 125 cross-section 10, 18, 21, 44, 57, 60, 90, 98, 100, 107, 110, 110, 127, 129, 130, 135, 143, 148, 166, 173, 190, 217, 231, 232, 269, 269, 273, 273, 274, 282, 293, 294, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 300, 302 basket-like 141 circular 160 division of the 250 hexagonal 145 in the shape of an equilateral triangle 145 oval 144 rectangular 144, 207 round 143 square 145, 160, 185 tapering on all sides 142 trapezoidal 137, 142, 216 trough-like 219 crossed-spar roof 180 crown end 18, 19, 21, 94, 184, 269, 270, 279, 282, 287, 292 crown post 186, 187 cruciform cut-out (see: column, crosswise forked) cruck, c frame, c roof construction 47, 50, 51, 52, 160, 187 Cultural Revolution 266 curved timber (see: timber, bowed) curved wall 78, 141 cypress 32, 35, 36, 37, 278 cypress bark 38 315 da muzuo 302 daibutsuyo 155, 157, 159, 159, 174, 175, 201, 203, 207 daikoku-bashira 165, 165, 166, 241 daiku 58 daimochi tsugi 234 daisen 166, 167, 236 daito 196 damp (see: humidity) protection against d 80, 136, 276 Danzig fir 34 daub 30, 37, 82, 116, 226 daub covering, d shell 30, 82, 134, 134, 135, 228, 248 deciduous wood 33, 36, 37, 67, 68, 75, 125, 128 decoration 14, 27, 37, 44, 71, 74, 102, 112, 127, 155, 171, 220, 248, 248, 253, 254, 258, 258 dendrochronology 8, 165 detachable joint (see: joint) Deutschhaken 144 development of multistorey construction 170 diaojiaolou 270, 270 Dippelbaum 26 direction of joint 91 direction of the grain (see: fibres) direction of the wood (see: fibres) divided joint 250 divider 71 dogu 68 Dong minority 268, 269, 270, 279 dou (see: block) double tenon 225 dougong 276, 279, 290, 290, 291, 292, 292, 293, 293, 294, 295, 295, 296, 296, 297, 299, 299, 301 doukou 297, 298 dovetail (joint) 58, 61, 89, 92, 92, 96, 98, 99, 107, 110, 110, 132, 135, 155, 185, 190, 192, 237, 247 dovetailed ends of logs 96, 99, 122 dovetailed key 96 dovetailed trench 89 mitred corner d 95 multiple stopped d 247 secret d 95, 251 dovetailed jointing (see: dovetailed ends of logs) dowel 34, 62, 68, 103, 144, 148, 150, 221, 253 dowel connection 294 down brace 57, 102, 154, 154, 170, 190, 260 dozuki 92, 94 dragjärn 130 dragon beam 170 drain channel, drainage 26, 27, 27, 48, 80, 80, 216, 219 drawboring 122 drawknife 129, 130 drill 68, 71, 72, 122 drum tower 270, 270, 271, 271 drying crack, drying shrinkage 278, 279 drying process 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 21, 22 durability of wood 32 earth 266, 268, 276, 278, 280 earth housing 285 earthquake 44, 60, 100, 155, 211, 274, 275, 280, 289, 292, 293, 294 earthquake resistant 267, 293 eaves 28, 43, 47, 48, 87, 135, 147, 174, 175, 177, 180, 184, 191, 193, 194, 196, 197, 199, 203, 207, 212, 249, 269, 272, 273, 274, 274, 275, 277, 279, 280, 280, 281, 283, 287, 290, 291, 292, 292, 293, 295 curved line of the eaves 193, 277, 293 eaves brackets 48 edges of the eaves 43, 249 eaves corner 43, 195, 202, 205, 207, 207, 208, 257, 257, 278 eaves purlin (see: inferior purlin) ebonist 251 ebony 241 edge-to-edge joint 89, 91, 96, 129, 146, 217 Edo period 33, 36, 65, 75, 247, 251, 257, 260, 264 Einfirsthöfe 16 elder 39 elements (see: weather) elm 32, 36 end grain of wood 14, 23, 25, 26, 46, 89, 122, 145, 213, 214, 215, 221, 223, 248, 251, 253, 254, 254, 255, 257, 278 end grain of the nail 125 engawa-no-keta 92, 157, 157 evolution from post-and-beam to column-and-beam construction 79 faỗade 30 farmhouse 39, 54, 241, 259, 290 felling (see: timber) felling time 18 female side of the joint 89, 165, 166 fen 298, 298 fence 44, 46, 50, 112, 118, 120, 120, 121, 231, 231 feng shui tree 278 fibres 37, 39, 75, 129 long fibred wood 68 orientation of 10, 10, 16, 17, 23, 26, 52, 70, 94, 103, 104, 113, 160, 162, 166, 226, 232, 248, 250 saturation of 21 Figurenschrot 254 file 67 fillet, dovetailed 89 filling (see: wall infill) findalslaft 142 finger jointing 90 fir 32, 33, 34, 35, 239 fire 21, 21, 43, 49, 55, 134, 135, 266 fire resistance 118, 134 Five Dynasties, period of 276, 295 flint-head axe 121 floated timber 68 flood (see: wood and water) flush, flush joint 90, 91, 95, 97, 201 flying rafter 92, 193, 201, 207, 250 forked branch 42, 46, 50, 119, 120, 120, 121 forked joint (see: tenon j.) forked post, f support 50, 50, 51, 89, 110, 119, 135, 176, 215 form of joint 89, 91, 92 fortified church 63 foundation 275, 276, 292, 299 frame saw 128 framework 109, 112, 114, 160, 227 Franzưsisches Schl 234, 236 frictional resistance (see: joint subjected to) fudomado 60 fungal attack (see: attack) fusuma 260 gable 49, 62, 62, 64, 121, 147, 148, 149, 172, 180, 184, 185, 212, 220, 241 gable pole 226 ganlan 269 gassho zukuri 230 geitsfuss 71, 71 gimlet 67 gong 267, 290, 291, 292, 293, 295, 297, 298 angular gong 295 Gongbu gongcheng zuofa 298, 298 gooseneck tenon 89, 92, 95, 110, 166, 201, 237, 239 Gothic 20, 53, 57, 183, 239 gouge 127, 129 grain (see: fibres) grain store, granary 13, 49, 108, 161, 162, 168, 233, 254 grandmother’s room 267, 268, 277, 277 grass turfs 226 green timber 18, 20, 22, 34, 106 groove 14, 14, 20, 26, 48, 53, 62, 71, 80, 80, 86, 100, 129, 142, 149, 150 V-shaped 20 W-shaped 150 grooved logs 31 grooved shingle 129, 217, 218, 219, 219 growing conditions 16 growth abnormalities 10, 14 growth ring 11 H-Schrot 254 hagi 96 half-timbers 20, 78, 79, 219, 228 Hallenhaus 160, 165 halved joint 88, 89, 97, 98 cross halved j 100, 138 longitudinal bevelled halved j 88 halved lap joint 102, 121, 201, 214, 221, 224, 239, 292, 293, 294 halved lap with tenon 213, 214, 215, 216 halved tree 20 hammer 54, 67 hammer beam 187, 240 hammer beam roof 52, 53, 238, 239, 240 hammerheaded key tenon 239 Han dynasty 266, 290, 291, 292, 301, 302 hanegi 196, 198 hanger 190 hanging roof (see: purlin roof) hardwood (see: deciduous wood) hatchet 26, 70, 71, 120, 130, 130 Haubarg 211 haybarrack 87, 87 hayloft, haystack 123, 216, 217 hazelnut 36 head beam, header 22, 25, 55, 55, 62, 79, 80, 88, 92, 108, 110, 110, 121, 132, 153, 155, 160, 160, 161, 162, 162, 165, 170, 170, 182, 187, 225, 225, 227, 236, 237 heartwood 16, 19, 20, 21, 34 heartwood side 20 Heidenbalken 149 Hemudu culture 301 hidden end grain 258 hidden rafter (see: rafter) hidden rafter construction 196 hidden roof 11, 176, 193, 196, 197, 207 hikari-osa 130 hinoki 35 hip 29, 193, 195, 207 hip rafter 193, 280 hipped roof 276 hipped-and-gabled roof 276, 283, 291 hisashi 193, 193, 196 hisashi columns 192, 196 hole 11, 23, 48, 70, 71, 72, 88, 100, 122, 123, 165, 211, 213, 216, 217, 226, 234 housing 97, 154, 155, 225 housing recess 88 hozo-sashi 95 human figure 154 humidity 14, 23, 23, 30, 54, 80, 80, 104, 219, 250, 268, 271 hygroscopic equilibrium 104 inago-zashi 96, 96 inclined roof members 48, 99, 120, 165, 176, 180, 183, 191 indented beam 63, 64, 102, 103 inferior purlin 48, 64, 80, 92, 120, 176, 196, 201, 249, 270, 271, 275, 278, 290, 290, 291, 293, 295 insulation layer 39 intercolumnar bay 267 intermediate purlin 177, 271, 273, 293 interrupted tie beam 184, 256 iron 57, 57, 64, 85, 122, 129, 192 Iron Age 36, 121, 122, 134 iron strap 55, 96, 233, 299, 300 iron tool 128 isuka-tsugi 75, 251, 252 itakura 137 jamb wall 183 Japanese roof (see: wagoya gumi) Japanese style (see: wayo) jetty out 31, 49, 62, 63, 88, 107, 120, 123, 151, 170, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 215 jian 267, 272, 280, 282, 297 Jin-dynasty 266, 278, 282, 295 joiner 57 joint detachable 85, 87, 92 fixed 85 movable 85 permanent 85, 87, 92 316 joint subjected to bending moment 110, 154, 211 compression 89, 108, 143, 221, 233, 234, 236 frictional stress 142, 253 lateral stress 55, 88, 89, 110, 235, 236 shear 89, 103, 103, 104, 105, 180, 190, 236 tension 55, 88, 89, 105, 107, 110, 110, 122, 123, 129, 154, 157, 157, 165, 166, 166, 168, 190, 234, 236, 237, 252 torsion 121, 165, 219, 225 joist 165, 170 Jomon period 119 Jomon-sugi 228 jowl(ed column) 108, 162, 163 juniper 34 Jupiterschnitt 97, 236, 236 Jurchen 295 kabuto-ari-kake 92 kai-no-kuchi-tsugi 92, 233, 233 kake 92 kakezukuri 157, 249 kakikome 95 kakushi-ari 95 kama 92, 95, 166, 237 kanawa-tsugi 235, 236 kashigi-oire 94 kawa 264 kayaoi-no-tsugite 92 Kegelwand 148, 150 kesho taruki 194, 198 keyaki 37, 37 king post 178, 182, 183, 183, 184, 186, 189, 190, 191, 231, 233 king strut 185, 191 king-post-house 170 kinning 143, 143 Kitayama sugi 14 kiwari 58 kiwari jutsu 61, 208 Klingeisen 129 Klingschrot 61, 97, 129, 130, 144, 253, 254, 254, 255 kneebrace 162, 172, 211 knife 70 knut timra 119 kodama 12 koguchi-kakoshi 257, 258 konozu-zashi 157, 166, 167 Kopfschrot 135 koshikake-kama-tsugi 100 Kugelschrot 254, 255 kura 136, 137, 155 kuri 36 kverke 142 kyoro gumi 160 L-joint 89, 91, 95, 215 lap joint 57, 79, 88, 91, 95, 98, 102, 102, 105, 106, 122, 123, 127, 129, 134, 153, 154, 154, 155, 180, 190, 191, 213, 247, 247, 248, 253, 253, 258 cross 248 cross-halved-and-housed 137 dovetailed 102, 129, 154 halved and tabled 16, 224, 225 helmet-shaped end 92 multiple stopped 186 notched 154, 250 single dovetail 102 with hidden notches 250 with stopped housing 129 lap joint housing 11, 123, 127, 129, 247 Lapp tent 227 larchwood 20, 34, 35, 37 bark of the l 39 lattice girder 154, 154 lay-shingle boarding 219 lengthening (see: splicing) lengthening joint (see splicing j.) “letters of hire” 61 lever arm 283, 293 Liao dynasty 280, 283, 285, 295 light 277 lintel 121 load distribution 283, 290, 292, 301 load of the rafters 178, 250 load of the roof 44, 46, 55, 62, 64, 107, 127, 150, 177, 183, 184, 189, 214, 228, 251 loading capacity of timber in bending 10, 11, 42, 54 in compression 10, 10, 11, 33, 55, 62, 227, 228, 289 in shear 10, 102, 190, 191 in tension 10, 33, 289 loess soil 266 loft 14, 63, 85, 136, 149, 213, 216 log 14, 20, 20, 21, 30, 62, 85, 86, 102, 122, 130, 131, 135, 142, 143, 144, 147, 148, 148, 149, 149, 150, 218, 228, 254, 254, 268, 287, 289, 289 ring of logs 22, 61, 118, 121, 130 log building 19, 21, 22, 23, 27, 30, 34, 36, 43, 55, 57, 62, 71, 78, 79, 81, 82, 86, 90, 98, 102, 116, 118, 121, 121, 122, 123, 124, 128, 129, 130, 133, 135, 136, 137, 137, 140, 141, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 148, 149, 151, 152, 212, 214, 227, 228, 228, 248, 253, 254, 277, 298 corner of a l 61, 62, 97, 141, 142 multistorey l 227 log building technique 98, 149 log cabin (see: log building) log church 28, 143, 144, 145, 147, 152 log construction (see: l building) log construction joint 91, 98, 121, 122, 129, 130, 131, 143 log jointing 91, 98, 121, 121, 122, 129, 130, 131, 142, 254, 288, 289, 290 log pier 150 log wall 61, 85, 118, 119, 122, 142, 144, 146 Lu Ban jing 278, 299, 303 lumberjack 75, 87, 141 lying frame 55 ma 55 ma-ki 36 mado 58 magusa 58 makito 201 male part of the joint 94, 165, 166 mallet 67, 71 Malschrot 254 manual sawyer 54 maple 21 matsu 34, 264 mawari amado 85 mechigai 92 mechigai-kama-tsugi 239 medieval (see: Middle Ages) medrag 130 Meiji era 65, 69, 133 Meisterwitz 261 Memel fir 34 metal strap, (see: iron strap) metal strap, iron strap 233 Middle Ages 43, 58, 79, 102, 106, 113, 116, 127, 131, 155, 170, 175, 180, 184, 227, 231, 239, 246 Ming dynasty 266, 276, 279, 279, 294, 297, 299, 299, 300 minka 15, 31, 33, 34, 44, 47, 75, 80, 102, 117, 118, 126, 165, 182, 193, 212, 212 mitre 22, 62, 95, 221, 224, 225, 251, 257 miya-daiku 59 Miyajima tsugi 92, 251, 252 model 63, 65, 65, 92, 126, 132, 257, 260, 262, 263, 271, 278, 290, 290, 291, 294 moisture (see: humidity) moisture content 20, 279 mokoshi 193, 207, 209 monopitch roof 27, 132 monsoon 268, 270, 271 mortise 45, 55, 79, 80, 102, 103, 125, 132, 136, 150, 155, 185, 189, 197, 192 open mortise 88 mortise and tenon joint 89, 100, 119, 121, 122, 123, 125, 127, 132, 153, 154, 154, 155, 170, 213, 214, 216, 221, 234, 253, 258 key haunch 110, 260 keyed 157, 166 oblique dadoed 168, 186 stepped and keyed 166 Mosuo 267, 277 moya 192, 193, 193, 207, 209 moya column 192, 193, 196 mu jiang 302 mulberry tree 278 multiple-stopped-lap joint (see: lap joint with multiple rebates) munafuda 59 Muromachi period 70 mysteriousness 60, 61, 208 naijin-keta-yuki-gagyou-tsugite 95, 96 nail 11, 20, 34, 48, 57, 68, 104, 104, 105, 122, 122, 123, 124, 126, 154, 155, 165, 165, 180, 190, 217, 233, 236, 248, 253, 253 angled jointing n 123, 217, 218 turned 253 nail-shingle boarding 219 nailing plate 234, 236 nanmu 278 natural curve (see: timber bowed) Neolithic Age 36, 79, 118, 119, 120, 120, 132, 213, 228 nimaikama 157 noboribari 183, 184 noboribari-gumi 183 normal assembly 127, 160, 161, 162, 162, 165, 182 north side of wood 16, 20 notaruki 194 notch 62, 79, 90, 91, 102, 103, 130, 135, 142, 145, 162, 173, 174, 247, 292, 294 barefaced undersquinted 80 hidden 102 notched joint 88, 95, 97, 98, 185 noyane 193 nusumi-geiko 69 oak 23, 32, 34, 36, 36, 37, 44, 55, 78, 227, 228, 231 oblique joint 89, 91 oire 94 oire-ari-kake 92 okabe 116 okkake-tsugi 92 okkake-daisen 236 okuri-tsugi 94 onion tower 27, 141, 149 open truss (see: truss) orioki gumi 160 ornamentation (see: decoration) osa-jogi 130 otaruki 175, 201, 202, 207, 293 overhanging floor house (see diajiaolou) padstone 23, 24, 130, 131, 216, 278, 292 pagoda 17, 22, 92, 168, 175, 199, 224, 225, 228, 266, 278, 287, 288, 288, 289, 295 pagoda column 168, 233, 233 pair of pincers 67 palace, palace building 271, 275, 277, 279, 280, 294, 297, 299 palisade wall 79, 80, 118 panel 82 panel infill 82, 122, 258, 259 partition wall 76, 148, 148, 150, 150, 249, 254, 255 passing brace 153, 170, 184, 189, 191 paulownia 39 pectination 90, 97, 98, 99, 102, 122, 135, 141 dovetail shaped 62, 128, 143, 144, 144, 253 halved and tabled 144, 144 peg 104, 122, 123, 123 period of Mongol rule 282 persecution of the Buddhists 266, 272, 273 pillar 108, 109, 116, 122, 149 pin 236 pine 17, 32, 33, 34, 35, 55, 121, 231, 239, 264, 264, 278, 279 pit-saw 128, 302 pitched roof 141, 270, 271, 273, 276, 278, 280, 287 pith 20, 21, 21 plane 59, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 129 plank infill 81, 137, 149 plaster support 123, 124 platform 275, 276 platform frame similar construction 168, 170, 171 pliability of wood (see: loading capacity of timber) 317 plotnik 116 plum tree 39 plumb-line 71, 71 pole 82 polygonal structure 43, 140, 140, 141, 151, 210 poplar 37 porch 27, 212 position of joint 91 post 12, 21, 23, 79, 79, 80, 108, 118, 127, 135, 136, 153, 160, 216, 240 row of p 119, 178, 269 post-and-beam construction 80, 89, 137, 192, 281 post-and-rail fence 119 post-and-rail walls 118, 119, 120 post-and-truss construction 160, 160, 268 poval 27, 141, 141 prefabrication 298, 300 preservation (see: protection) prestige building 271, 274, 277, 290, 298 princess post 183 principal rafter (see: rafter) principal spar (see: spar) principal truss (see: truss) prohibition 232 projecting end of a log 24, 98, 99, 142, 143, 147 projecting end of the tie beam 26, 180 proportion 10, 61 laws of p 58 protection 23, 23, 24, 26, 27, 27, 28, 39, 78, 79, 80, 113, 135, 136, 141, 141, 157, 171, 196, 212, 212, 214, 215, 221, 221, 257, 268, 269, 270, 271, 275, 276, 277, 277, 278, 278, 279, 302, 303 purlin 43, 55, 107, 157, 176, 178, 183, 183, 193, 196, 207, 268, 268, 269, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 275, 277, 278, 278, 279, 282, 283, 293, 296 divided p 157 purlin roof 47, 176, 176, 178, 180 puzzle joint 261 pyramid roof 37, 149 qiau 267 Qing dynasty 267, 276, 277, 278, 279, 279, 294, 297, 298, 299, 299, 300 queen post 100, 176, 178, 183, 183, 184, 186, 188, 189 queen strut 186, 191 inclined qu post/strut 107, 176, 184, 185, 186, 186 vertical qu post/strut 176, 184, 186, 186, 191, 212 radiocarbon dating 288 rafter 24, 28, 43, 80, 99, 122, 124, 128, 176, 177, 180, 192, 193, 196, 201, 203, 207, 250, 277, 278, 278, 280, 281, 283, 301 arranged in a fan formation 203, 204, 207, 209 arranged in a parallel formation 207, 209 exposed 92, 194, 196 hidden 194 rafter spacing 58 rafting 23 rail 25, 27, 82, 100, 109, 155, 157, 157, 192, 241, 248 rain (see: weather) rainy season (see: monsoon) “rainbow beam” 192 rainwater drips (see: protection) raised header assembly 55, 62, 160, 161, 162, 165, 269 raised storehouse (see: storehouse) rammed earth wall 266 ranma 260 raulandslaft 143 reafforestation programme 239 rebate 89, 110, 123, 166, 224, 236 dovetailed r 169, 224 reeds 112 repair joint 91 resin content 33, 37 resistance to deformation 32 resistance to the weather (see: weather) resonant spruce 37 retaining pole 119, 147, 148 retaining wall 270 reversed assembly 160, 161, 165, 182, 187 rib 49 ridge 16, 52, 89, 122, 149, 170, 177, 180, 180, 183, 184, 186, 192, 251, 252, 269, 277 ridge covering 20, 124, 125, 126 ridge line 193, 277 ridge beam, r pole, r purlin 59, 64, 80, 94, 119, 120, 124, 126, 147, 149, 176, 176, 178, 182, 184, 271, 272, 273, 278, 296 ridge supporting column 119, 149, 165, 176, 180, 184, 228, 296 rift sawn wood 11 Riga fir 34 ring of logs (see: log) Romanesque (see: Roman time) robinia 279 Roman time 42, 63, 71, 103, 186 roof arc of the roof, curve of the r 280, 293 roof construction 27, 46, 57, 57, 125, 125, 155, 180, 184, 185, 191, 192, 193, 203, 268, 271, 274, 275, 279, 283, 292, 300 300 roof covering 43, 48, 180, 193, 194, 217, 219, 220, 300 roof load 55, 62, 280 roof pitch, r slope 26, 50, 52, 149, 193, 194, 196, 207, 217, 256, 274, 275, 277 roof space 55, 180, 185, 201, 211 roof truss 34, 55, 57, 61, 64, 104, 106, 129, 133, 183, 186, 189, 235, 236 with upright queen struts 55 with inclined queen struts 55 root end 18, 19, 94, 184 rotating (see: warping) round buildings 43 “Rumanian chamber” 85 ryokan 44, 45 ryusui-tsugi 92, 260, 260 sampo-zashi 165, 166, 167, 168 Samurai class 36 Samurai sword 68 166 sao-hikki-doko 166, 166 sao-tsugi 92, 166 sapwood 19, 20, 20, 21 sapwood side 20 sashiawase-komisen-uchi 157 sashizuke gumi 160 sasu-gumi 180 saw 26, 26, 54, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, 121, 128, 129, 147, 236, 246, 302 crosscut saw 302 frame saw 302 fret saw 302 grooving saw 302 handsaw 302 one-man saw 302 pit-saw 302 teeth of s 52, 69, 75, 302 veneer saw 302 sawyer 54 scaffold 116, 133 scarf joint 68, 91, 92, 110, 236, 253 dadoed rabbeted edge halved 92 edge and face halved 90 edge and face halved obliqued 251 edge-halved 88, 166, 234 face and edge halved 92 halved and dovetailed bridling 89 halved and tabled 16, 88, 110, 224, 225, 282 mortised 91 splayed 250 splayed and tabled 234 splayed and tabled with tongue 234, 236 splayed, tabled and keyed with tongue and bridled and squared abutment 234 splayed, tabled and keyed with sallied abutment 236 stop-splayed 88 tabled 106, 236 with oblique shoulders 236 Schäftungen 251 Scheitholzhäuser 231, 232 Schindelbaum 14 Schindeleisen 129 Schließen 26 Schrot joint 255 scissors (see: St Andrew’s cross) screw 233 sealing the joint 131, 141, 143, 143, 166, 217 sealed wall 22, 30, 61, 82, 85, 98, 99, 118 secondary spar 186, 187, 191, 233 secrecy (see: mysteriousness) secret dovetail (see: dovetail) secret jointing 251 secret notches (see: notch, hidden) section (see: fen) securing the wall 150 self-weight of timber 11, 146, 184, 186 settlement gap 21, 22, 62, 62 settling of wood 21 shachisen 157, 166, 225, 234, 236, 251 Shang dynasty 279 shear section of the tenon (see: joint subjected to shear) shear strength of wooden nails (see: joint subjected to shear) shed 39, 43 shelter (see: protection) sheng 267 shepherd’s shelter 114 shiguchi 92, 94, 96, 166 shiho-ari 261, 263 shiho-matsu-kawa 260, 261, 264 shiho-zashi 165, 166 shingle 14, 20, 26, 27, 29, 29, 30, 37, 53, 82, 91, 182, 217, 276 shinglemaker 16, 129 shinkabe 118 Shinto shrine (see: shrine) shinzuka 182 shinzuka-gumi 180, 182 shiplapped boards 89 shiribasami-tsugi 236 Shoin style 33 shoji 260 shoulder plane 70 shrine 10, 11, 20, 36, 37, 43, 58, 70, 86, 95, 95, 136, 153 shrinkage of wood 16, 21, 22, 39, 48, 55, 62, 62, 82, 104, 106, 135, 137, 142, 154 shrub 36 sill 11, 25, 27, 34, 65, 80, 80, 87, 121, 214, 225, 278, 287 sill beam 11, 16, 23, 26, 33, 37, 79, 80, 80, 87, 101, 102, 106, 123, 135, 136, 137, 138, 145, 153, 160, 171, 172, 173, 213, 214, 214, 215, 216, 225, 228, 235, 281, 281, 299 sill corner 90, 95, 215, 225, 226, 257 sill ring beam 122, 136, 137, 290 sill-and-column construction 80 sinkelaft 143 skeleton (frame) construction 78, 79, 80, 116, 133, 268, 269, 277 slot 72, 82, 100, 155, 157, 157, 162, 165, 214, 269, 302 “Slovakian chamber” 85 smith 57 snap-line with spool and inkpot 71 snow load 212 “snow truss” 212 sods of grass 39 soffit 92, 203 softwood 33, 67, 75 sogi 92 solid wood 20, 248 “solid wood” 90 Song dynasty 266, 273, 278, 280, 281, 282, 283, 292, 293, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299 south side of wood 16, 20 spandrel 152 spar 11, 44, 45, 48, 52, 88, 89, 99, 127, 129, 132, 132, 162, 180, 182, 184, 185, 186, 187, 189, 190, 190, 191, 191, 192, 232, 233, 240 spar roof 44, 176, 176, 180, 186 spar splices 189, 233 318 spar triangle 181 spigot 121 spirit level 71 splicing 110, 233, 233, 234, 234, 235, 237, 274, 282 splicing joint 89, 91, 92, 148, 150, 184, 217, 233, 236, 250, 250, 274, 282 spline joint 237 splitting of wood (see: timber, chopped) Spring and Autumn period 300 sprocket 180, 181, 193 spruce 16, 33, 34, 35, 37 spruce bark 39 St Andrew’s cross 186, 187, 248 stabbur 136, 215, 216 stability (see: stiffening) stable (see: cowshed) staddle (see: raised storehouse) “standing”rafter 80 standing roof (see: spar roof) stave church 10, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 27, 30, 36, 48, 48, 49, 49, 73, 80, 80, 82, 106, 123, 132, 132, 137, 137, 138, 159, 160, 192, 193, 213, 214, 216, 219, 228, 239 stave construction, – structure 22, 80, 82, 139, 228 stave construction joint 91 stave wall 34, 79, 80, 82, 89, 91, 217, 219 steel 68, 72, 75, 127, 232 step joint 91, 94, 102, 103, 104, 180, 260 multiple 103, 258 toe of st 103, 103 heel of st 103, 103 with housed obliqued tenon 89 stiffening 142, 173 longitudinal 47, 109, 160, 182, 186, 187, 193 transverse 109, 160 vertical 186 stilt, support 81, 131, 135, 135, 136, 136, 137, 221, 221 stone 82, 226, 270 Stone Age 34, 116, 116, 119, 121 stone padstone, st plinth, st slab 216, 275, 276, 276, 279 stone hatchet 119 stone tool 119, 121, 275, 300, 302 storehouse 11, 30, 30, 62, 85, 121, 131, 134, 134, 136, 141, 185, 216, 253, 254, 291, 299 elevated, raised 46, 134, 135, 135, 136, 136, 137, 153, 194, 221, 221 storm door (see: amado) straining beam 47, 64, 178, 186, 191 straw roofing (see: thatching) strut 103, 107, 154, 184, 233, 270 diagonal strut 273, 283, 292 strut frame 63 stub tenon 89, 92, 103, 213 cross-shaped 233 sugi 35 sugi kashira 14 Sui dynasty 281, 291, 293, 297 suitsuke-zan 95, 96 Sukiya style 33, 260 sukiya-daiku 59, 60 sumi-isuka-tsugi 252 sumi-tome-ari 95 sumikiri-isuka-tsugi 252 sumitsubo 71, 71 summer church 30 support 35, 46, 94, 107, 137, 184, 201, 234 L-shaped 32, 47, 49, 49 supporting member 282 suspended post (see: truss post) suspended roof construction 192 svalgang 27, 30, 106, 137, 214, 215, 216 sweet chestnut 36, 37 swelling capacity of w 37, 54 sword-cutler 68 T-joint 89, 91 tabling 97 tail beam 171 tail rafter 175, 201 tailiang 267, 268, 271, 273, 274, 275 Taisho era 60 takakura 28, 194 Tang dynasty 272, 272, 273, 273, 276, 279, 281, 292, 295, 295, 299 tanner 239 taoism 268 taper of wood 52 tatami 54, 61 tea-house style 37, 59 teazle tenon 55, 127, 211 temple, temple hall 10, 11, 16, 17, 20, 43, 43, 58, 60, 62, 70, 71, 72, 86, 95, 95, 137, 159, 192, 193, 228, 232, 239, 268, 271, 272, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 276, 277, 279, 279, 280, 290, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 299, 299, 302 tenchi gongen zukuri 119 tenjo-no-sarubou-saobuchi-notsugite 92 tenon, tenon joint 55, 57, 68, 71, 86,87,88,89,91,95,100,100,102, 103, 104, 107, 108, 110, 110, 123, 127, 128, 129, 132, 135, 155, 162, 173, 175, 186, 190, 201, 213, 214, 214, 215, 216, 221, 224, 225, 233, 236, 253, 270, 271, 278, 282, 299, 300 asymmetric 107 barefaced 213 bevelled (shoulder) 89, 103, 103, 165 buried 79 dovetailed keyed 155 forked 89, 91, 153, 162, 165, 214 keyed 108, 109, 123, 124, 125, 125, 127, 147, 191 keyed through 89, 108, 165, 211 length of a t 299 long t 92, 166 oblique 103, 103, 190 of reduced width 211 plugged 89 recessed 301 reversed forked 214, 269, 288 scarf t 91 short t 92 through 123, 125, 156, 159, 160, 162, 165, 165, 203, 204, 207 triangular 225 wegded 87, 125 X-shaped 216, 216 tenon hole 88 tensile strength of a joint (see: joint subjected to t s.) tension joint (see: joint subjected to tension) tera-daiku 59 termite attack (see: attack) textbook 65, 104, 233 texture 11,35,36,37,70,71,249,258 thatching 55, 182, 218, 249, 300 three-dimensional joint, threeway j 106, 108, 223 throat of the joint 129, 142, 143, 145, 166 thrust of inclined columns 16, 101 thrust of the rafters 120 thrust of the roof 55, 180, 211 thrust of the spars 162, 180 tie 118, 159 tie beam (see: beam) tied joints 37, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121, 300 tile 280, 301 timber bowed 10, 14, 15, 14, 33, 34, 44, 44, 47, 48, 48, 49, 50, 52 buried 23 conversion of 12, 128 crossgrained 34 felling of 18, 19, 23, 53, 61, 239 forked (see: forked post) girdling of 17 hand planed 26 hewn, chopped 18, 26, 37, 52, 69, 119 “laid dry” 30 left hand 16 left round 98 machine planed 26 sawn 26, 50, 52 second hand 11 split 16, 53, 55, 219, 228, 232 squared 54, 98, 119 tapered (see: taper of wood) unsquared 34 warmth of 12 winding 16, 17, 16, 20, 34, 54, 102, 102, 104, 108, 145, 154, 155 timber protection (see: protection) timber-frame construction 11, 14, 30, 31, 37, 50, 79, 80, 82, 88, 100, 116, 180, 227, 241, 248, 258, 270 Tiroler Haken 144 tithe barn (see: barn) todasuke 95 toko-bashira 241, 257, 258 tokonoma 65, 247, 257 Tokugawa era 65, 68, 260 tome 95 tongue-and-groove joint 80, 81, 82, 89, 91, 149, 150, 217 top of the column (see: column capital) top notcher 302 torii 23 town hall 58, 63, 122, 127, 172, 173, 186, 247, 253 transportation of buildings 11, 87 triangulation 106, 132, 155, 180, 186, 259 trimmer 168, 168, 170 triple bracket (see: bracket, multiple) tropical wood 33, 37 truss 52, 107, 268, 269 closed 57, 186 common 45 open 57, 186 principal 45 truss post 10, 12, 57, 57, 58, 63, 89, 103, 104, 106, 154, 176, 185, 186, 190, 191, 191, 192 two part 12 truss-post construction 56, 196, 268, 269 try-square 71, 71 tsugi 92, 94, 96, 166 tsugite 92 tsukami-ari 95 tungoil tree 279 tuojiao 283, 292, 297 twin-leaf roof 134, 193 twin-leaf wattle walls (see: wattle wall) twisting of wood (see: timber, winding) tying (see: tied joints) tying beam 149, 150 type of joint 90, 91, 94 typhoon 28, 33 Umgebinde 26, 31, 227 Umgebinde column 154 unka-tsugi 260, 260 up brace 50, 51, 154, 154, 164, 170, 186, 246, 260 ventilated timbering 123, 142 ventilation 23, 26, 30, 116, 131, 134, 221, 221, 269, 269, 277, 278, 290 ventilation slot 24, 222, 269, 269, 277, 279, 290 veranda 27, 212, 212, 213, 215, 216 vertical queen strut truss (see: queen strut) Vertiefung 62 Viking forts 228 Viking ship 48, 228 visible rafter (see: rafter, exposed) W-shaped grooves (see: grooves) wagoya-gumi 109, 180, 183, 183 wakare-tsugi 94, 95 wall column 290, 291, 292, 292, 293, 293, 295 wall infill 79, 80, 82, 259, 280 wall-plate 185 wall protection 276 wall purlin (see: inferior purlin) warehouse (see: storehouse) warikusabi 166, 167 warm church (see: winter church) warping of wood (see: timber, winding) Warring States period 300 watari-ago 95 water drainage system (see: drain channel) water vapour 193 wattle fencing 36, 112, 114 wattle gable 115, 148 319 wattle house 115 wattle wall 116, 140, 141 twin-leaf w 113 wattle-and-daub filling 37, 82, 82, 116, 118, 148 wattlework 36, 78, 82, 112, 113, 116, 118, 140, 149, 227, 228 wayo 155, 159, 175, 193, 201 weakening of the cross-section 103, 110, 173, 175, 248 weather, wind and weather 16, 23, 25, 27, 27, 29, 32, 35, 37, 55, 135, 141, 141, 157, 211, 212, 213, 214, 214, 216, 217, 269, 287, 300 protection against w 37, 118, 157, 278, 287 weaving (technique) 112, 120 wedge 57, 68, 103, 108, 122, 123, 123, 124, 125, 126, 157, 165, 165, 182, 221, 234, 236 wedged tenon (see: tenon) wedging plank 81, 82, 82 weight of the roof (see: load of the r.) whetstone 67 willow 36, 39 wind bracing 44, 128, 186 windbreak 78, 113 wind pressure 132, 154 winter church 30 “with-the-sun” timber (see:“after-the-sun” t.) wood and water 21, 26, 49 wood pattern (see: texture) wood preservation (see: protection) wood surface (see: texture) woodcarver (see: carving) wooden base plate 276 wooden bridge (see: bridge) wooden fishplate (see: nailing plate) wooden nail (see: nail) wrought iron (see: iron) X-joint 89, 91 xiao muzuo 302 yariganna 69, 70, 71 Yayoi era 136, 140, 146 yew 34 Yingzao fashi 267, 278, 297, 298, 298, 299, 299, 302 yose-ari 96 Yuan dynasty 274, 282, 282, 283, 296, 296, 300 yukiai-tsugi 94 Zelkova serrata (see: keyaki) zenshuyo 43, 193, 201, 203, 204, 206, 207, 239 Zhou dynasty 290, 301 Zierschrot 254, 255 zushi-dodai-sumi-shiguchi 95 ... (source: Reinerth, 1 929 , Fig 14) 22 8 Tied joints on a minka in Shirakawa mura, Gifu, Japan 116 117 22 9 Wattle -and- daub infill panels on a minka in Iwate Futsukamachi, Iwate, Japan 22 6 Wattlework chimney... Graubünden, Switzerland 125 25 2 Roof detail – Kencho-ji sanmon, Kamakura, Kanagawa, Japan 25 4 Drawing of a model of a Russian house (detail taken from: Lissenko, 1989, Fig 3.3) 25 3 On prestige buildings... branches .25 The ability to split wood and cut it to the desired length expanded the possibilities of building 23 2 The log wall of a house in Børgo,Sogn, Norway, secured with a retaining pole 23 3 Post -and- rail