How to do your research project 3rd edition by gary thomas

How to do your research project 3rd edition by gary thomas Look forward to your research project. When you have completed it you will have learned so much. You will have learned how to organise a major piece of work, how to get hold of information, and how to analyse and synthesise it. You will have learned sophisticated presentation skills and all the basics and more of the most common datamanagement software. It is one of the most significant and productive things you will do in your time at university

How to Do Your Research Project How to Do Your Research Project A Guide for Students 3rd Edition Gary Thomas SAGE Publications Ltd 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP SAGE Publications Inc 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road New Delhi 110 044 SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd 3 Church Street #10-04 Samsung Hub Singapore 049483 © Gary Thomas 2017 This edition first published 2017 First edition published 2009 Reprinted 2009 (three times), 2010 (three times), 2011 Second edition published 2013 Reprinted 2013, 2014 (twice), 2015, 2016 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers Library of Congress Control Number: 2016959223 British Library Cataloguing in Publication data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-4739-4886-0 ISBN 978-1-4739-4887-7 (pbk) Editor: Jai Seaman Development editor: Collette Wilson Assistant editor: Alysha Owen Production editor: Katherine Haw and Ian Antcliff Copyeditor: Richard Leigh Marketing manager: Ben Griffin-Sherwood Cover design: Shaun Mercier Typeset by: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd, Chennai, India Printed in the UK Contents About the author Preface Acknowledgements About the companion website How to use this book 1 Starting points: your introduction Question: Where do I begin? Answer: Begin at the beginning, with an introduction Who cares? What is the point of this research? Thinking of a research idea Purposes of research Moving on to research questions Kinds of question – and some nutshell-sized studies and their implications Does your question demand a descriptive or an explanatory answer? A research question – or a hypothesis? Coming up with a question Is it feasible? Problems with research questions Prima facie questions Kinds of evidence and kinds of answer A title What research is – and what it isn’t Overview Further reading Checklist 2 Preparing: project management, ethics and getting clearance Understanding the structure of your dissertation or thesis Drawing a timeline Just look at those fingernails! Time management Stresses in doing research Working with your supervisor The importance of being ethical Getting clearance – ethical review What to think about in considering ethics Access Overview Further reading Checklist 3 The literature review Primary and secondary sources Quality of sources Your literature review should tell a story – it should not be a list Making it a story Speed reading and taking notes Critical awareness: be your own Jeremy Paxman Click on ‘Search’: finding information Reference managers Hints on searching – separating the wheat from the chaff Understanding how sources are cited – the Harvard referencing system Taking notes and quotes Overview Further reading Checklist 4 Decide on your question – again Seeing the wood for the trees From storyboard to storyline Your final question Theory Overview Further reading Checklist 5 Methodology Part 1: deciding on an approach Research design Research approach Frameworks for thinking about the social world – paradigms Paradigms and research approach From purposes, to questions, to approaches, to data gathering Overview Further reading Checklist 6 Methodology Part 2: the design frame What is research design? Some general issues in design Sampling Variables Reliability Validity Experimenter effects Generalisation and generalisability Positionality Triangulation The design frames Action research Case study Ethnography Ethnomethodology Evaluation Experiment Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies – and surveys Comparative study No design frame Can I mix design frames and methods? Postmodernism How to structure and write your methodology chapter Overview Further reading Checklist 7 The right tools for the job: data gathering Tools and methods Be creative Data-gathering tools – mainly for use with words Interviews Accounts Diaries Group interviews and focus groups Document interrogation Using social media to gather data and to collaborate with other researchers and participants Data-gathering tools – for use with words and/or numbers Questionnaires Observation Gathering image-based data Data-gathering tools – mainly for use with numbers Measurements and tests Official statistics Overview Further reading Checklist 8 How to analyse and discuss the information you gather Analysing words Coding and constant comparative method Network analysis Construct mapping and theme mapping Grounded theory Thick description Discourse and content analysis Computers and verbal data analysis Sociograms In-betweenies: words to numbers and developing a coding frame Analysing numbers Kinds of numbers Eyeballing Using Excel to do your data analysis Statistics that describe Statistics that help you understand a relationship between two variables Statistics that help you to deduce (or infer) Discussing your analysis Organising your discussion – alongside or after the analysis? Synthesis vs analysis Drawing out ‘theory’ Overview Further reading Checklist 9 Concluding and writing up Writing a conclusion Writing up Writing an abstract and finalising the title The final shape General points about writing and presentation Communicating your findings The ‘territory’ of your writing Finding your voice Writers’ guidance for writers Non-sexist and non-discriminatory writing Presentation Other points Coda Further reading Index Page numbers in italics refer to figures and tables A to Z of research topics 17, 238 abstract 3, 299–300 academic freedom 36–37 access 51–52 accounts 208 action research 7, 138, 139, 154–158, 168–169, 187, 302 Alderson, P 48 alerts facility (library) 76 Amazon 77–78 analysis 244–281 and discussion 28, 29, 31, 281–290 flow chart 291 anonymity/confidentiality 46, 48, 50, 94, 155, 206, 218–219, 224, 255, 300 ANOVA 281 An Anthropologist on Mars 116 anthropology 163, 166 apostrophes 306 apparatus 139, 140 appearance and demeanour in interview 202 appendix, use of 51, 250 applied social science 44, 105, 113, 132–133, 176, 251–252, 283 archives 22, 238 artefacts 22, 213 ATLAS.ti 253, 254 attitudes 128, 129, 162, 202, 207, 213, 217, 222 attrition of participants 178 audio 48, 162, 203, 204, 208, 209, 213–214 authority, problems arguing from 22–23 autobiographies 58, 168 autoethnography 168 averages 261 mean, median, mode 264, 265 Ball, S 161–163 bar charts 261–264, 265 Beachside Comprehensive 161–164 Becker, H 100, 118, 160, 191, 304–306 behaviour 110–112, 116 challenging 157 observable 122 BEI (British Education Index) 79 Belmont Report 39, 45, 48 BERA (British Educational Research Association) 41, 225 Bergson, H 289 bias 69, 110, 141, 144, 172, 218–219 bilingualism 131 biographies 58, 152, 168 BIS (Background, Issue, Solution) 4, 5, 282, 296 black and minority ethnicity 207, 306 Blumer, H 110 books/textbooks 58, 59, 76–78 Booth, W.C BOS (Bristol Online Survey) 224–226 Bourdieu, P 99–100 brainstorming 17, 92–93, 201 bricolage 191 Broadcasters’ Audience Research Board (BARB) 182–183 Bruner, J 64, 118, 286 Burgess, B 164, 229 Campbell, D.T 146 Campbell Collaboration 16, 59–62 CAQDAS 252–253 case study 138, 139, 151, 156–158 kinds of 159–163 subject choice 158–159 categories 245, 259 coding 257–258 causal direction 146–147 causation 14, 113, 118, 170–171, 267–268 census data 237, 238 challenging behaviour 157 chart tool in Word 31 chi-square 270–272 critical values 311–312 CINAHL 79 citation see quotations and entries beginning reference closed questions 257 co-variance 266 Cochran Collaboration 16, 62 codes of conduct 41, 43, 45, 46 coding qualitative data 245, 249–250, 252, 253–254, 257–258 cohort study 178 Coles, G 147 column charts 265 comparative research 138, 160–161, 183–187 Comte, A 108 concealment 45–46 conclusion 28, 29, 31, 296–297, 298 conference proceedings 58, 76 confidentiality/anonymity 46, 48, 50, 94, 155, 206, 218–219, 219, 255, 300 confounding variables 172 consent 46–48, 50, 51 constant comparative method 244–245, 257 constant sum method in questionnaires 221–222 construct mapping 246–248 content analysis 251–252 contingency planning 34 control group 39, 172, 174, 177, 268 convenience sample 141–142 conversations 208, 303 correlation 58, 266–268 corroboration 22, 148 see also evidence creative approaches 201, 284–285 criterion- vs norm-reference tests 234 critical awareness 68–70, 127–128 critical thinking/‘ologies’ 121–122 cross-sectional studies 176, 179–182 data 14 analysis 244–281 gathering 128–129, 199–241 security and stewardship 46 sources 58–62, 70–80 debriefing for participants 45 deception 45–46 deductive reasoning 126 Denzin, N 153–154 Department for Education 16, 236–237 Department of Health 16 dependent variable 173–174 Derrida, J 191 Descartes, R 68 description 10–11, 12, 15–16, 116, 118, 128–129, 179–180 thick 112, 166, 168, 250–251 descriptive statistics 260–265 design of research 137–197 Dewey, J 22–23 diaries 58, 162, 165, 166, 208–211 dichotomous questions 220 disability 44, 112, 178, 218, 230, 255, 306 discourse analysis 251–252 discussion 28, 29, 281–290 dissertations ethical discussion in 51 as secondary source 58 structure of 28–29, 31–32, 300–301 document interrogation 214–216 dramaturgy 167–168 duty of doubt 68, 70, 124, 286 ecology of classroom 176 editing 304–306 Einstein, A 118 Ellis and Hodges 253, 254 emails 34, 58, 76 emergent design 139–140 empirical knowledge 125, 143 empirical study 20–22, 233 Endnote 80, 85, 86 engagement 166, 174–175, 228, 302 epistemology 121, 122, 123–127 EPPI-Centre 62 ERIC (Education Resources Information Center) 78, 80 error experimental 173 and reliability 144 ethical clearance 40–44 ethics 18, 24, 36–40, 44–51, 255, 301 ethnography 138, 163–166, 230, 252, 282, 289–290, 304 ethnomethodology 166–168 EThOS 78 evaluation 6–7, 138, 168–170, 170 evidence 20–23, 117, 118, 124, 126, 148 Excel, Microsoft 235–236, 260, 261–262, 265, 267 experiment/experimenal design 20, 126, 138, 169–176, 268 ethics of 37–40 experimental error 173 experimental validity 146–147 experimenter effects 148–150 eyeballing of statistics 260 facilitator in focus groups 213–214 Fairclough, N 251–252 feasibility 17–18 FedStats 238 feedback for participants 48, 50, 244 fieldwork 11, 163, 164, 230 filters in questionnaires 224 final question 96, 97 final shape 300–301 findings 28, 29, 31 analysis and discussion 244–290 communicating 302 first person (’I’) 152, 283 focus groups 118, 129, 158, 213–214 Foucault, M 190 freeware programs 255 frequency count recording 226 frequency distribution 261, 270–272 Freud, S 98, 289 Galton, M 228 gangs (A Glasgow Gang Observed) 161, 230 Gantt chart 30 Geertz, C 112, 164, 166 gender -based language 306 positionality 152 variable 144, 255, 273–274, 275, 276, 278 generalisation and generalisability 150–151 Georgiades, N.J and Phillimore, L 297 gestures 112, 150, 202, 203, 209 GIGO principle 268–269 Glaser, B.G and Strauss, A.L 143, 248 Goffman, E 167–168, 250–251 Google 70–71, 75, 78 Google Books 73 Google Scholar 71–73, 80, 81 Gould, S.J 163 grid/matrix questions 222 grounded theory 248–250 group interview 212–214 Guardian guidance for writers 304, 305 Haldane, J.B.S 68, 124 Hammersley, M 147–148, 156 Harvard referencing system 83–85 Hawthorne effect 148–149 healthcare 9, 16, 39, 44, 52, 62, 79, 178, 180, 186, 234 Heidegger, M 190 Hightown Grammar 161 Hughes, E.C 100 Hume, D 109, 110, 116 hypothesis 106, 109–110, 153, 173 null 173, 281 vs research question 16 ‘I’, using the word 152, 283 ideas for research 4–6, 16–17 illumination 11–12, 112, 113, 118, 156, 158, 189 image-based data 232–233 imagery 191 imagination 168, 201, 302 implied consent 47–48 independent variable 173–174 inductive reasoning 125–126 inferential statistics 268–281 insider knowledge 111, 168, 184 insight 126, 134, 140, 164, 297 institutional review 40 instrument-based validity 146 inter-library loan 78 international comparison see comparative research interpretation 11–12, 209, 210, 232, 252, 258, 268, 270–271 interpretative research 147–148, 244–245, 248–249, 283 interpretivism 109, 110–113, 114, 115–116, 117, 229 interval recording 226–227 interviews 202–207, 208 coding 252, 253–254 comparative research 185–186 ethnography example 165 experiment example 170 group 212–214 schedule 206–207, 208 survey 182 theme mapping 246–248 introduction 2–4, 28, 29, 31 INVOLVE (NHS group) 51 IQ 233 IRB (institutional review board) 40 isolation of researcher 34 iterative investigation 19 journalism 24, 257 journals 73–74, 302–303 peer review 59, 76 Junghans et al 48 knowledge approaches see paradigms attitude to 68 correspondence view of 122 empirical 125, 143 epistemology 121, 122, 123–127 insider 111, 168, 184 ontology 122–123, 124, 126–127 and power 190 provisional 128 situated 152 Kounin, J 175–176 Kuhn, T 107–108, 190 Lacey, C 161–163 language translation 184 Leakey, L 117 Lévi-Strauss, C 190–191 Lewin, K 154 Lewis, A and Lindsay, G 48 and Porter, J 48–50 library access 73–78 life histories 201 Likert scale 222–223 Lincoln, Y.S and Guba, E.G 248–249 line charts 265 literature review 18, 19, 20, 28, 29, 31, 57–89, 132 logic 128, 191 longitudinal studies 176–179 MacIntyre, A 172 McMillan, M 177 McNiff, J 156 mapping relationships (sociograms) 254–255, 256 themes 246–248 margins 307 Marshall, E 164 Marx, K 98 Maslow, A 200 matrix/grid questions 222 Mead, G.H 110, 111 mean 264, 265 measurements and tests 234–235 Medawar, P 18 median 264, 265 memoing 250 meta-analyses 59 methodology 28, 29, 31 and approach 103–135 and design 137–197 structure and writing 192, 193 Miles, M.B and Huberman, M 245 Milgram experiments 38, 45 Millennium Cohort Study 178 mixed design frames and methods 188–190 mode (as average) 264, 265 moderator in focus groups 213 Moreno M.A 50 multiple-choice questions 220 narrative review 59 narrative/storytelling approach 62–66, 67, 92–96, 167–168 national datasets 184 network analysis 245–246, 247 Newman, J.H 37 Nightingale, F 187–188 no design frame 186–189 non-probabilistic sample 142 non-sexist and non-discriminatory writing 306 note taking 66–68, 85–87 null hypothesis 173, 281 numbers kinds of 259–260 see also statistics NVivo 253–254 Oakley, A 114 objectivity 112 observable behaviour 122 observation 11, 12, 13, 22, 92, 106, 116, 125–126, 226–232 Office for National Statistics 237, 238 official statistics 14, 129, 235–238, 237, 238 Ofsted 152, 179 ‘ologies’ 121–122 online questionnaires 224–226 online research ethics 50 ontology 122–123, 124, 126–127 open questions 257, 258 optical character recognition (OCR) 215 ORACLE project 228 Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) 237, 238 Orwell, G 303–304 panel study 178 paradigm shift 108 paradigms 106–113 and research approach 113–114 writing about 114–116 participant observation 164–166, 184, 206, 209, 229–232 Patrick, J 112–113, 161–163, 230 Pawson, R 168–169 Paxman, J 68, 69 peer review 59, 76 percentages 261 personal experience 6, 22, 159 PhD thesis 65, 66, 210–211 philosophy 122, 190 photographs 58, 213–214, 230, 232 pie charts 261, 265 pilot 44, 179, 221, 224, 258 plagiarism 86–87, 300 planning 27–55 Plato 192 ‘Pomodoro technique’ 33–34 population 141–142, 143 positionality 111–112, 145, 152, 153, 249 positivism 108–110, 114–116, 117 postgraduate study 3, 29, 144, 157, 169 ethical clearance 42 postmodernism 189–192 practitioner-researchers 113, 154, 155, 156 predictions 150 presentation 302–308 prestige bias 218–219 prima facie question 18–20, 92, 132, 186 and final question 96, 97 primary and secondary sources 58–62 probability see statistical significance professional codes of conduct 43 professional journals see journals Prosser, J 233 and Loxley, A 232 pseudonyms 46, 255 psychology 79, 105, 117, 122, 190 psychometrics 144, 145, 146 PsycINFO 79 public opinion research 238 PubMed 79 purposes of research 6–7, 128–129 purposive sample 142 Putnam, R 185–186, 289–290 qualitative approach 119–120 analysis 244–258 design frames 138–139, 154–194 see also interpretative research quality of sources 62 quantitative approach 119–120 see also statistics quasi-experiments 174 questionnaires 178, 179, 180, 217–226, 301 kinds of questions and responses 219–222 online 224–226 scales 222–224 structure 224 quotations 81, 83, 84, 86, 206 random allocation to groups 174 random sample 141, 142 rank order questions 220–221 rapport 202–203, 275 rating scale questions 221–222 rationalism 126 readability 215, 253 reasoning 23, 70, 109, 125–126 recursive investigation 19 reference list 78, 84 Reference Manager 80, 85 referencing system, Harvard 83–85 reflective thought/thinking 22, 23, 70, 98, 154, 155, 230, 250 reliability 144–145, 235 replicability 139 representativeness of data 141–142, 143, 151 research approach 105–106, 113–114, 119–120 see also methodology research design 137–197 research frames 138–139, 154–192 research ideas 4–6, 16–17 research question 7–23, 91–102 review articles 59 risks to participants and researchers 40, 42, 44, 46, 50–51 ‘risky shift phenomenon’ 212 Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale 222–223 Rumsfeld, D 124 Russell, B 150, 156 Ryle, G 112 Sacks, O 116 samples/sampling 140, 141–143 skew 48, 176 scales 222–224 scatter charts/graphs 265, 266–267 scepticism 23, 190–191, 192, 254, 308 critical awareness/thinking 68–70, 121, 127–128 schedules interview 206–207, 208 observation 227–228 for your work 32, 33, 36 Schwartz, D 232 scientific method 106, 117–119 scientific progress 150, 190 search engines 81, 82 see also Google search strategy 80–83 second-order constructs 244, 249 secondary data sources official statistics 14, 129, 235–238, 237, 238 and primary sources 58–62 selection bias 141 selective coding 250 semantic differential scale 223–224 semi-structured interviews 206–207 serendipity 118 sexist writing 306 Shibboleth 74 significance testing 269–270 situated knowledge 152 Smith, E 238 snowball sample 142 social capital 186, 289 social media data-gathering 212, 216, 218 ethics 50 social work 6, 140, 178, 308 sociograms/sociometry 254–255, 256 sociology 79, 110, 190 Socratic method 70 spacing 299, 308 special needs 5, 14, 165–166, 185, 214 speed reading 66–68 Spradley, J.P 163–164 spreadsheets (Excel) 235–236, 260, 261–262, 265, 267 SPSS 272–279, 280 SQ3R method 66 standard deviation 265 statistical sample 142, 143 statistical significance 269–270, 277, 278–279 statistics analysis 258–281 data gathering 217–232, 233–238 descriptive 260–265 inferential 142, 268–281 official 14, 129, 235–238, 237, 238 readability 215, 253 and relationships between variables 266–268 story/narrative approach 62–66, 67, 92–96, 167–168 storyboard 64, 92–93 stratified sample 142 Strauss and Corbin 250 stresses in doing research 34 structure of dissertation/thesis 28–29, 31–32, 300–301 structured interviews 204–205 structured observation 226–229 structured technique 33–34 subjectivity 112, 152, 167 supervisors, working with 28, 31, 35–36 SurveyMonkey 224 surveys 58, 138, 139, 176, 182–183, 184, 188, 224–226, 238, 302 synthesis 63, 64, 87, 282, 284–286 systematic reviews 59–62, 151, 168 t test 279–281 tables and diagrams 307 and figures 300–301 target setting 33 teaching assistants 9, 141, 165–166, 170, 174–175, 246–248 temporary constructs 99, 244, 249 ‘territory’ of writing 302 testimony 22, 216 tests and measurements 234–235 textbooks (as sources) 58, 59 Thagard, P 118 theme mapping 246–248 themes constant comparative method 244, 245 literature review 64, 65 theoretical sample 143 theory 97–100 drawing out 286–290 meanings of 98 as tool or product 99–100 thick description 112, 166, 168, 250–251 Thomas, G 4, 42, 98, 147, 148, 161, 192, 230–232, 245, 302–303 and James, D 143, 248, 249 thought experiments 192 time management 32–34 time sampling 227–228 timeline 30–32, 201, 202 title 23–24, 299–300 transcription 203, 204, 206, 208 triangulation 22, 152–154 Tuskegee syphilis experiment 39 type I and II errors 174 undergraduate study 3, 15, 29, 144, 168–169 ethical clearance 41–44 unstructured interviews 205–206, 208 unstructured/participant observation 164–166, 184, 206, 209, 229–232 validity 145–148 variables 144, 169–172, 173–174, 175 descriptive statistics 262, 265 positivism and interpretivism 109–110, 111 relationships between 266–268 sampling 141 value of 144 see also inferential statistics verbal data see words verbal and non-verbal cues 207 video 14, 22, 58, 175, 209, 213–214, 230, 232 voice 302–303 vulnerable groups 48–50 Web of Science 76, 80 websites 15, 16 Wells, M 69 Whale, J 303, 304 Wieviorka, M 156 Wittgenstein, L 190 Wolcott, H.E 125 Word 31, 86 words analysis 244–258 data gathering 202–216, 217–232 linking 66 use of 65–66 World Health Organization (WHO) 50, 185 Wright Mills, C 187 writing 295–309 written information sources 60–61 Zetoc 76 .. .How to Do Your Research Project How to Do Your Research Project A Guide for Students 3rd Edition Gary Thomas SAGE Publications Ltd 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP SAGE Publications Inc... Despite supporting Aston Villa football club, he maintains an optimistic outlook on life Follow Gary? ??s observations on social research on Twitter … @garyhowto Preface In this third edition of How to Do Your Research Project, I have tried to respond to colleagues’, students’ and reviewers’ comments on things they would like more (or... Your introduction says why you have chosen to do your research project In it, you explain what you want to inquire into and why you want to do it, and you justify your research question This chapter asks: What takes you to this research area? Is it personal interest? Or is it your reading of the literature,