9079_C000.fm Page i Monday, March 19, 2007 8:19 AM SPORTS NUTRITION FATS AND PROTEINS 9079_C000.fm Page ii Monday, March 19, 2007 8:19 AM 9079_C000.fm Page iii Monday, March 19, 2007 8:19 AM SPORTS NUTRITION FATS AND PROTEINS Edited by Judy A Driskell Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business 9079_C000.fm Page iv Monday, March 19, 2007 8:19 AM CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-9079-6 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-9079-1 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated A wide variety of references are listed Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Sports nutrition : fats and proteins / [edited by] Judy A Driskell p ; cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-0-8493-9079-1 (hardcover : alk paper) ISBN-10: 0-8493-9079-6 (hardcover : alk paper) Lipids in human nutrition Proteins in human nutrition Sports Physiological aspects Athletes Nutrition I Driskell, Judy A (Judy Anne) [DNLM: Nutrition Fats Proteins Sports QU 145 S76535 2007] QP751.S72 2007 612.3’97 dc22 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com 2006036488 9079_C000.fm Page v Monday, March 19, 2007 8:19 AM Dedication I appreciate the opportunity to have worked with the chapter authors, all experts, on this book I learned from them and dedicate this book to them 9079_C000.fm Page vi Monday, March 19, 2007 8:19 AM 9079_C000.fm Page vii Monday, March 19, 2007 8:19 AM Table of Contents Preface .xi The Editor .xiii Contributors .xv SECTION I Introduction Chapter Introduction to Sports Nutrition: Fats and Proteins John J.B Anderson SECTION II Fats Chapter Total Fats, Saturated Fats, and Cholesterol 15 Heather E Rasmussen and Ji-Young Lee Chapter Medium-Chain Triglycerides 37 Wayne E Billon Chapter Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids 63 Karina R Lora and Nancy M Lewis Chapter Conjugated Linoleic Acid 89 Celeste G Koster and Martha A Belury Chapter Octacosanol and Wheat Germ Oil 99 Susan H Mitmesser vii 9079_C000.fm Page viii Monday, March 19, 2007 8:19 AM viii SECTION III Sports Nutrition: Fats and Proteins Proteins Chapter Protein: Quantity and Quality .109 Mark A Tarnopolsky and Brian W Timmons Chapter Whey, Casein, and Soy Proteins 143 Brian S Snyder and Mark D Haub Chapter Creatine 165 Richard B Kreider Chapter 10 Glucosamine and Chondroitin Sulfate 187 Catherine G.R Jackson Chapter 11 Carnitine .201 Sara Chelland Campbell and Robert J Moffatt Chapter 12 β-Hydroxy-β-Methylbutyrate 221 Steven L Nissen Chapter 13 Branched-Chain Amino Acids .243 Michael Gleeson Chapter 14 Glutamine .261 Satya S Jonnalagadda Chapter 15 Other Individual Amino Acids 279 Neal F Spruce and C Alan Titchenal 9079_C000.fm Page ix Monday, March 19, 2007 8:19 AM Table of Contents SECTION IV ix Recommended Intakes of the Energy-Yielding Nutrients Chapter 16 Recommended Proportions of Carbohydrates to Fats to Proteins in Diets 357 Henry C Lukaski Index 373 9079_C009.fm Page 172 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 7:49 AM 172 Sports Nutrition: Fats and Proteins TABLE 9.2 Examples of Sports Performance Theoretically Enhanced by Creatine Supplementation Increased PCr Track sprints: 100, 200 m Swim sprints: 50 m Pursuit cycling Increased PCr resynthesis Basketball Field hockey Football (American) Ice hockey Lacrosse Volleyball Reduced muscle acidosis Downhill skiing Rowing Swim events: 100, 200 m Track events: 400, 800 m Oxidative metabolism Basketball Soccer Team handball Tennis Volleyball Interval training in endurance athletes Enhanced training Most sports Increased body mass/muscle mass Bodybuilding Football (American, Australian) Heavyweight wrestling Power lifting Rugby Track/field events (shot put, javelin, discus) Weight lifting Adapted from Williams, M.H et al., Creatine: The Power Supplement, Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, IL, 1999 9.2.8 EFFECTS OF CREATINE ON EXERCISE PERFORMANCE TRAINING ADAPTATIONS AND As of this writing, there have been over 1000 articles published in the peer-reviewed scientific literature on creatine supplementation Slightly over half of these studies 9079_C009.fm Page 173 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 7:49 AM Creatine 173 have evaluated the effects of creatine supplementation on exercise performance The majority of these studies (about 70%) indicate that creatine supplementation promotes a statistically significant improvement in exercise capacity.28 This means that 95 times out of 100, if you take creatine as described in the study, you will experience a significant improvement in exercise performance The average gain in performance from these studies typically ranges between 10 and 15% For example, short-term creatine supplementation has been reported to improve maximal power/strength (5 to 15%), work performed during sets of maximal effort muscle contractions (5 to 15%), single-effort sprint performance (1 to 5%), and work performed during repetitive sprint performance (5 to 15%).28 Long-term creatine supplementation appears to enhance the quality of training, generally leading to to 15% greater gains in strength and performance.28 Nearly all studies indicate that creatine supplementation increases body mass by about to kg in the first week of loading.28 In training studies, subjects taking creatine typically gain about twice as much body mass or FFM (i.e., an extra to pounds of muscle mass during to 12 weeks of training) than subjects taking a placebo No study has reported that creatine supplementation significantly impairs exercise capacity, although some have suggested that weight gain may potentially impair performance in swimming or running Although all studies not report significant results, the preponderance of scientific evidence indicates that creatine supplementation appears to be an effective nutritional ergogenic aid for a variety of exercise tasks in a number of athletic and clinical populations.12,28 The following highlights some of the recent research that has evaluated the effects of short- and long-term creatine supplementation on exercise performance and training adaptations 9.2.8.1 Short-Term Supplementation Numerous studies have been conducted to evaluate the effects of short-term creatine supplementation (3 to days) on exercise performance For example, Volek and colleagues56 reported that creatine supplementation (25 g/day for days) resulted in a significant increase in the amount of work performed during five sets of bench press and jump squats in comparison to a placebo group Tarnopolsky and MacLennan57 reported that creatine supplementation (20 g/day × days) increased peak cycling power, dorsi-flexion maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) torque, and lactate in men and women with no apparent gender effects Moreover, Wiroth and colleagues58 reported that creatine supplementation (15 g/day × days) significantly improved maximal power and work performed during × 10 sec cycling sprints with 60-sec rest recovery in younger and older subjects Creatine supplementation has also been shown to improve exercise performance during various sport activities For example, Skare and associates59 reported that creatine supplementation (20 g/day) decreased 100-m sprint times and reduced the total time of × 60 m sprints in a group of well-trained adolescent competitive runners Mujika and colleagues60 reported that creatine supplementation (20 g/day × days) improved repeated sprint performance (6 × 15 m sprints with 30-sec recovery) and limited the decay in jumping ability in 17 highly trained soccer players Similarly, Ostojic61 reported that creatine supplementation (30 g/day for days) 9079_C009.fm Page 174 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 7:49 AM 174 Sports Nutrition: Fats and Proteins improved soccer-specific skill performance in young soccer players Theodorou et al.62 reported that creatine supplementation (25 g/day × days) significantly improved mean interval performance times in 22 elite swimmers Mero and colleagues63 reported that supplementation of creatine (20 g/day) for days combined with sodium bicarbonate (0.3 g/kg) ingestion h prior to exercise significantly improved × 100 m swim performance Finally, Preen and associates64 evaluated the effects of ingesting creatine (20 g/day × days) on resting and post-exercise creatine and PCr content as well as performance of an 80-min intermittent sprint test (10 sets of or × 6-sec sprints with varying recovery intervals) The authors reported that creatine increased resting and post-exercise creatine and PCr content, mean work performed, and total work performed during × sec sets with 54- and 84-sec recovery In addition, work performed during × sec sprints with 24-sec recovery tended to be greater While not all studies report significant effects from creatine supplementation, these findings and many others indicate that creatine supplementation can significantly improve performance of athletes in a variety of sport-related field activities 9.2.8.2 Long-Term Supplementation Theoretically, increasing the ability to perform high-intensity exercise may lead to greater training adaptations over time Consequently, a number of studies have evaluated the effects of creatine supplementation on training adaptations For example, Vandenberghe et al.25 reported that in comparison to a placebo group, creatine supplementation (20 g/day × days; g/day × 65 days) during 10 weeks of training in women increased total creatine and PCr content, maximal strength (20 to 25%), maximal intermittent exercise capacity of the arm flexors (10 to 25%), and FFM by 60% In addition, the researchers reported that creatine supplementation during 10 weeks of detraining helped maintain training adaptations to a greater degree Noonan and collaborators65 reported that creatine supplementation (20 g/day × days; 0.1 or 0.3 g/kg/day of FFM × 51 days) in conjunction with resistance and speed/agility training significantly improved 40-yard dash time and bench press strength in 39 college athletes Kreider and associates54 reported that creatine supplementation (15.75 g/day × 28 days) during off-season college football training promoted greater gains in FFM and repetitive sprint performance in comparison to subjects ingesting a placebo Likewise, Stone et al.53 reported that weeks of creatine ingestion (~10 or 20 g/day with and without pyruvate) promoted significantly greater increases in body mass, FFM, RM bench press, combined RM squat and bench press, vertical jump power output, and peak rate of force development during in-season training in 42 Division IAA college football players Volek and co-workers52 reported that 12 weeks of creatine supplementation (25 g/day × days; g/day × 77 days) during periodized resistance training increased muscle total creatine and PC, FFM, types I, IIa, and IIb muscle fiber diameter, bench press and squat RM, and lifting volume (weeks to 8) in 19 resistance trained athletes Kirksey and colleagues66 found that creatine supplementation (0.3 g/kg/day × 42 days) during off-season training promoted greater gains in vertical jump height and power, sprint cycling performance, and FFM in 36 Division IAA male and 9079_C009.fm Page 175 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 7:49 AM Creatine 175 female track and field athletes Moreover, Jones and collaborators67 reported that creatine (20 g/day × days; g/day × 10 weeks) promoted greater gains in sprint performance (5 × 15 sec with 15-sec recovery) and average on-ice sprint performance (6 × 80 m sprints) in 16 elite ice hockey players Interestingly, Jowko et al.68 reported that creatine supplementation (20 g/day × days; 10 g/day × 14 days) significantly increased FFM and cumulative strength gains during training in 40 subjects initiating training Additional gains were observed when g/day of calcium beta-hydroxybeta-methylbutyrate (HMB) was co-ingested with creatine Finally, Willoughby and Rosene19 reported that in comparison to controls, creatine supplementation (6 g/day × 12 weeks) during resistance training (6 to repetitions at 85 to 90% × weeks) significantly increased total body mass, FFM, and thigh volume, RM strength, myofibrillar protein content, types I, IIa, and IIx myosin heavy-chain (MHC) mRNA expression, and MHC protein expression In a subsequent paper, Willoughby and Rosene20 reported that Cr supplementation (6 g/day × 12 weeks) increased M-CK mRNA expression apparently due to increases in the expression of myogenin and MRF-4 The researchers concluded that increases in myogenin and MRF-4 mRNA and protein may play a role in increasing myosin heavy-chain expression These data indicate that creatine supplementation can directly influence muscle protein synthesis Collectively, these studies and others provide strong evidence that creatine supplementation during intense resistance training leads to greater gains in strength and muscle mass 9.2.9 POTENTIAL THERAPEUTIC USES OF CREATINE Creatine and creatine phosphate are involved in numerous metabolic processes Creatine synthesis deficiencies and abnormal availability of creatine and PCr have been reported to cause a number of medical problems For this reason, the potential medical uses of creatine have been investigated since the mid-1970s Initially, research focused on the role of creatine and creatine phosphate in reducing heart arrhythmias and improving heart function during ischemia events (i.e., lack of oxygen).12 Initial studies also evaluated the effects of treating various medical populations who had creatine deficiencies (i.e., gyrate atrophy,69–72 infants and children with low levels of PCr in the brain,73–75 etc.) Interest in the potential medical uses of creatine has increased over the last 10 years Researchers have been particularly interested in determining whether creatine supplementation may reduce rates of atrophy or muscle wasting, speed the rate of recovery from musculoskeletal and spinal cord injuries, and improve strength and muscle endurance in patients with various neuromuscular diseases.12,16 For example, researchers have been evaluating whether creatine supplementation may improve clinical outcomes in patients with brain or spinal cord injuries,47,76–79 muscular dystrophy,40,80,81 myophathies,38,82–85 Huntington’s disease,41,45,86,87 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or Lou Gerhig’s disease,88–91 arthritis,92 diabetes,93 high cholesterol and triglyceride levels,54,94 and elevated homocysteine levels.95–98 Other studies have reported that creatine supplementation during training reduces injury rates in athletes99–103 and allows athletes to tolerate intensified training to a greater degree.104 Although more research is needed, 9079_C009.fm Page 176 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 7:49 AM 176 Sports Nutrition: Fats and Proteins some promising results have been reported in a number of clinically related studies, suggesting that creatine may have therapeutic benefits in certain patient populations 9.2.10 MEDICAL SAFETY OF CREATINE The only clinically significant side effect that has been consistently reported in the scientific and medical literature from creatine supplementation has been weight gain.12,16,105 However, there have been a number of anecdotally reported side effects in the popular literature, such as gastrointestinal distress, muscle cramping, dehydration, and increased risk to musculoskeletal injury (i.e., muscle strains/pulls) Additionally, there has also been concern that short- or long-term creatine supplementation may increase renal stress or adversely affect the muscles, liver, or other organs of the body One research group suggested that creatine supplementation may increase anterior compartment pressure in the leg, thereby increasing an individual’s risk to developing anterior compartment syndrome (ACS).106–109 Over the last few years, a number of studies have attempted to assess the medical safety of creatine These studies indicate that creatine is not associated with any of these anecdotally reported problems, nor does it increase the likelihood of development of ACS.100,110–118 In fact, there is recent evidence that creatine may lessen heat stress and reduce the susceptibility to musculoskeletal injuries among athletes engaged in training.102,117,118 While people who take creatine may experience some of these problems, the incidence of occurrence in creatine users does not appear to be greater than subjects who take placebos, and in some cases has been reported to be less.111 Another concern that has been expressed is whether there are any long-term side effects of creatine supplementation Athletes have been using creatine as a nutritional supplement since the mid-1960s Widespread use as a dietary supplement began in the early 1990s No clinically significant and reproducible side effects directly attributable to creatine supplementation have been reported in the scientific literature Nevertheless, there are some concerns about the long-term side effects of creatine supplementation Over the last few years, a number of researchers have begun to report long-term safety data on creatine supplementation So far, no long-term side effects have been observed in athletes (up to years), infants with creatine synthesis deficiency (up to years), or in patient populations (up to years).12,111,112,115,116 One cohort of patients taking 1.5 to g/day of creatine has been monitored since 1981 with no significant side effects.69,70 Conversely, research has demonstrated a number of potentially helpful clinical uses of creatine in heart patients, infants and patients with creatine synthesis efficiency, patients suffering orthopedic injury, and patients with various neuromuscular diseases Consequently, all available evidence suggests that creatine supplementation appears to be safe when taken within recommended guidelines 9.2.11 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Several athletic governing bodies and special interest groups have questioned whether it is ethical for athletes to take creatine as a method of enhancing performance Their rationale is that since studies indicate that creatine can improve 9079_C009.fm Page 177 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 7:49 AM Creatine 177 performance and it would be difficult to ingest enough food in the diet alone to creatine load, that it is unethical to so Others argue that if you allow athletes to take creatine, they may be more predisposed to try other dangerous supplements or drugs Still others have attempted to lump creatine in with anabolic steroids or banned stimulants and have called for a ban on the use of creatine and other supplements among athletes Finally, fresh off of the ban of dietary supplements containing ephedra, some have called for a ban on the sale of creatine citing safety concerns Creatine supplementation is not currently banned by any athletic organization, although the NCAA does not allow institutions to provide creatine or other muscle-building supplements to their athletes (e.g., protein, amino acids, HMB, etc) The International Olympic Committee considered these arguments and ruled that since creatine is readily found in meat and fish and there is no valid test to determine whether some athletes are taking creatine or not, there was no need to ban it In my view, creatine loading is no different than carbohydrate loading Many athletes ingest high-calorie concentrated-carbohydrate drinks in an effort to increase muscle glycogen stores or supplement their diet If carbohydrate loading is not a banned practice, then creatine loading should not be banned This is particularly true when one considers that creatine supplementation has been reported to decrease the incidence of musculoskeletal injuries,99,100,112,119 heat stress,99,117,118 provide neuroprotective effects,37,45,47,76,78 and expedite rehabilitation from injury.79,89,120 It could be argued that not allowing athletes to take creatine may actually increase the risk of athletic competition 9.3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Creatine remains one of the most extensively studied nutritional ergogenic aids available for athletes Hundreds of studies have reported that increasing muscle creatine stores through creatine supplementation can augment muscle creatine content, improve exercise and training adaptations, and provide some therapeutic benefit to some clinical populations Consequently, creatine represents one of the most effective and popular nutritional ergogenic aids available for athletes The future of creatine research is very promising Researchers are attempting to determine ways to maximize creatine storage in the muscle, which types of exercise may obtain the greatest benefit from creatine supplementation, the potential medical uses of creatine, and the long-term safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation Among these, the most promising area of research is determining the potential medical uses of creatine, particularly in patients with creatine synthesis deficiencies or neuromuscular diseases, or prevention of sarcopenia Nevertheless, in regard to athletes, creatine has continually proved itself to be one of the most effective and safe nutritional supplements to increase strength, muscle mass, and performance This is despite oftentime inaccurate and misleading information that has been written about creatine in the popular media over the last several years Sidebar 9.3 describes some factors that Williams et al suggested should be considered before taking creatine.12 Research since this time has supported these conclusions and recommendations 9079_C009.fm Page 178 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 7:49 AM 178 Sports Nutrition: Fats and Proteins Sidebar 9.3: Should Athletes Take Creatine? After extensively evaluating the literature, Williams et al.12 concluded the following in their book, Creatine: The Power Supplement (available at http://www.humankinetics.com): • • • • • Individuals contemplating creatine supplementation should so after being informed of potential benefits and risks so that they may make an informed decision Adolescent athletes involved in serious training should consider creatine supplementation only with approval/supervision of parents, trainers, coaches, and/or appropriate health professionals If you plan to take creatine, purchase quality supplements from reputable vendors Athletic administrators in organized sports who desire to establish policies on creatine supplementation for teams should base such policies on the scientific literature Any formal administration policy should be supervised by a qualified health professional Although more research is needed, available studies indicate that creatine supplementation appears to possess no health 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Structure and General Properties 16 2 .1. 1 .1 Total Fats 16 2 .1. 1.2 Saturated Fats 16 2 .1. 1.3 Cholesterol 17 2.2 Lipid Metabolism 17 2.2 .1 Digestion and Transport... March 19 , 2007 8 :19 AM SPORTS NUTRITION FATS AND PROTEINS 9079_C000.fm Page ii Monday, March 19 , 2007 8 :19 AM 9079_C000.fm Page iii Monday, March 19 , 2007 8 :19 AM SPORTS NUTRITION FATS AND PROTEINS. .. Introduction to Sports Nutrition: Fats and Proteins John J.B Anderson CONTENTS 1. 1 Introduction 1. 1 .1 Athletes’ Needs for Energy 1. 1.2 Athletes’ Needs for Protein 1. 1.3 Athletes’