SMALL-SCALE POULTRY PRODUCTION pot

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Swan Village Poultry Consultant Waimana, New Zealand Small-scale poultry production iii Contents Chapter 1 1 Introduction 1 Chapter 2 7 Species and Breeds 7 Chapter 3 13 Feed Resources 13 Chapter 4 23 General Management 23 Chapter 5 37 Incubation and Hatching 37 Chapter 6 41 Health 41 Chapter 7 59 Breed Improvement 59 Chapter 8 65 Production Economics 65 Chapter 9 69 Marketing 69 Chapter 10 85 Research and Development for Family Poultry 85 Bibliography 109 Foreword iv Foreword Keeping poultry makes a substantial contribution to household food security throughout the developing world. It helps diversify incomes and provides quality food, energy, fertilizer and a renewable asset in over 80 percent of rural households. Small-scale producers are however constrained by poor access to markets, goods and services; they have weak institutions and lack skills, knowledge and appropriate technologies. The result is that both production and productivity remain well below potential and losses and wastage can be high. However, adapted breeds, local feed resources and appropriate vaccines are available, along with proven technologies that can substantially improve productivity and income generation. FAO recognizes the important contribution that poultry can make to poverty alleviation and has programmes that focus on small-scale, low-input, family based poultry production. These programmes target the more vulnerable households especially those affected by natural disasters, HIV Aids and conflict. This manual provides a comprehensive and valuable technical guide for those in government service or aid agencies, wishing to embark on projects that exploit the potential of small-scale poultry production to improve the livelihoods of the rural poor. All aspects of small-scale poultry production are discussed in this book including feeding and nutrition, housing, general husbandry and flock health. Regional differences in production practices are described. FAO acknowledges and commends the effort that the authors have put into making such a comprehensive and valuable reference for those involved in poultry production in the developing world. The views expressed are, however, those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of FAO. Members of the International Network for Family Poultry Development (INFPD) have been involved in producing and reviewing this document and their contribution is also gratefully acknowledged. A major aim of the INFPD is to bring together and disseminate technical information that supports small-scale poultry producers throughout the world. Small-scale poultry production 1 Chapter 1 Introduction The socio-economic Importance of Family Poultry Family poultry is defined as small-scale poultry keeping by households using family labour and, wherever possible, locally available feed resources. The poultry may range freely in the household compound and find much of their own food, getting supplementary amounts from the householder. Participants at a 1989 workshop in Ile-Ife, Nigeria, defined rural poultry as a flock of less than 100 birds, of unimproved or improved breed, raised in either extensive or intensive farming systems. Labour is not salaried, but drawn from the family household (Sonaiya 1990b). Family poultry was additionally clarified as “small flocks managed by individual farm families in order to obtain food security, income and gainful employment for women and children” (Branckaert, as cited in Sonaiya, 1990c). Family poultry is quite distinct from medium to large- scale commercial poultry farming. Family poultry is rarely the sole means of livelihood for the family but is one of a number of integrated and complementary farming activities contributing to the overall well-being of the household. Poultry provide a major income-generating activity from the sale of birds and eggs. Occasional consumption provides a valuable source of protein in the diet. Poultry also play an important socio-cultural role in many societies. Poultry keeping uses family labour, and women (who often own as well as look after the family flock) are major beneficiaries. Women often have an important role in the development of family poultry production as extension workers and in vaccination programmes. For smallholder farmers in developing countries (especially in low income, food-deficient countries [LIFDC]), family poultry represents one of the few opportunities for saving, investment and security against risk. In some of these countries, family poultry accounts for approximately 90 percent of the total poultry production (Branckaert, 1999). In Bangladesh for example, family poultry represents more than 80 percent of the total poultry production, and 90 percent of the 18 million rural households keep poultry. Landless families in Bangladesh form 20 percent of the population (Fattah, 1999, citing the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 1998) and they keep between five and seven chickens per household. In LIFDC countries, family poultry-produced meat and eggs are estimated to contribute 20 to 30 percent of the total animal protein supply (Alam, 1997, and Branckaert, 1999), taking second place to milk products (38 percent), which are mostly imported. Similarly, in Nigeria, family poultry represents approximately 94 percent of total poultry keeping, and accounts for nearly four percent of the total estimated value of the livestock resources in the country. Family poultry represents 83 percent of the estimated 82 million adult chickens in Nigeria. In Ethiopia, rural poultry accounts for 99 percent of the national total production of poultry meat and eggs (Tadelle et al., 2000). Poultry are the smallest livestock investment a village household can make. Yet the poverty- stricken farmer needs credit assistance even to manage this first investment step on the ladder out of poverty. Poultry keeping is traditionally the role of women in many developing countries. Female-headed households represent 20 to 30 percent of all rural households in Bangladesh (Saleque, 1999), and women are more disadvantaged in terms of options for income generation. In sub-Saharan Africa, 85 percent of all households keep poultry, with women owning 70 percent of the poultry. (Guéye, 1998 and Branckaert, 1999, citing World Poultry 14). Income generation is the primary goal of family poultry keeping. Eggs can provide a regular, albeit small, income while the sale of live birds provides a more flexible source of cash as required. For example, in the Dominican Republic, family poultry contributes 13 percent of the income from animal production (Rauen et al., 1990). The importance of poultry to rural households is illustrated by the example below from the United Republic of Tanzania (see Table 1.1). Assuming an indigenous hen lays 30 eggs per year, of which 50 percent are consumed and the remainder have a hatchability of 80 percent, then each hen will produce 12 chicks per year. 2 Introduction Assuming six survive to maturity (with 50 percent mortality), and assuming that three pullets and three are cockerels, the output from one hen projected over five years would total 120 kg of meat and 195 (6.8 kg) eggs. Table 1.1 Projected output from a single initial hen (United Republic of Tanzania) Time (months) Nº of hatching eggs Nº of cockerels Nº of pullets Nº of cocks Nº of hens Nº of culls 0 - - 1 - - - 8 - - - - 1 - 20 15 3 3 - - 1 28 - - - 3 3 - 40 45 9 9 - - 6 48 - - - 9 9 - 60 135 27 27 - - 18 Total 195 39 40 12 13 25 Source: Kabatange and Katule, 1989. A study on income generation in transmigrant farming systems in East Kalimantan, Indonesia (see Table 1.2), showed that family poultry accounted for about 53 percent of the total income, and was used for food, school fees and unexpected expenses such as medicines (Ramm et al., 1984). Flock composition is heavily biased towards chickens in Africa and South Asia, with more ducks in East Asia and South America. Flock size ranges from 5 – 100 in Africa, 10 – 30 in South America and 5 – 20 in Asia. Flock size is related to the poultry farming objectives of: x home consumption only; x home consumption and cultural reasons; x income and home consumption; and x income only. (See Table 1.3.) In Bangladesh (Jensen, 1999), the average production rate per local hen of 50 eggs/year was regarded by some as low productivity. However, if it is considered that 50 eggs per hen per year represents four hatches from four clutches of eggs laid, incubated and hatched by the mother hen, and the outcome is 30 saleable chicken reared per year (assuming no eggs sold or eaten, 80 percent hatchability and 25 percent rearing mortality), then it is a remarkably high productivity. PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Family poultry are kept under a wide range of conditions, which can be classified into one of four broad production systems (Bessei, 1987): x free-range extensive; x backyard extensive; x semi-intensive; and x intensive. Indicative production levels for the different systems are summarized in Table 1.4. Small-scale poultry production 3 Table 1.2 Annual budget for a family farm with 0.4 ha irrigated paddy, 0.1 ha vegetable garden, 100 ducks and two buffaloes in Indonesia Unit Rupees Annual expenses Crops 1 198 000 Animals: - Buffaloes - Ducks 1 147 200 Subtotal 2 345 200 Annual revenue Crops: - Maize 240 kg 96 000 - Rice 4 000 kg 2 000 000 - Cassava 600 kg 60 000 - Peanut 60 kg 60 000 - Soybean 60 kg 30 000 - Mixed garden 150 000 Subtotal Crops 2 396 000 Animals: - Buffaloes - meat 150 kg 300 000 - draft 30 days 180 000 Subtotal Buffaloes 480 000 - Ducks - eggs 13 140 eggs 5 256 000 Subtotal Animals 5 736 000 Annual net return to family labour from crops 1 198 000 (20.7%) Annual net return to family labour from livestock - Buffaloes 480 000 (8.3%) - Ducks 4 108 800 (71.0%) Total return to family labour from agriculture 5 786 800 (100%) Source: Setioko, 1997. Table 1.3 Flock size and poultry farming objectives in Nigeria Objectives Flock size % of sample Home consumption only 1-10 Home consumption and cultural reasons 1-10 30 Income and home consumption 11-30 44 Income only >50 10.5 Source: Sonaiya, 1990a. 4 Introduction Free-Range Extensive Systems In Africa, Asia and Latin America, 80 percent of farmers keep poultry in the first two extensive systems. Under free-range conditions, the birds are not confined and can scavenge for food over a wide area. Rudimentary shelters may be provided, and these may or may not be used. The birds may roost outside, usually in trees, and nest in the bush. The flock contains birds of different species and varying ages. Backyard Extensive Systems Poultry are housed at night but allowed free-range during the day. They are usually fed a handful of grain in the morning and evening to supplement scavenging. Semi-Intensive Systems These are a combination of the extensive and intensive systems where birds are confined to a certain area with access to shelter. They are commonly found in urban and peri-urban as well as rural situations. In the “run” system, the birds are confined in an enclosed area outside during the day and housed at night. Feed and water are available in the house to avoid wastage by rain, wind and wild animals. In the European system of free-range poultry keeping, there are two other types of housing. The first of these is the “ark” system, where the poultry are confined overnight (for security against predators) in a building mounted on two rails or skids (usually wooden), which enable it to be moved from place to place with draught power. A typical size is 2 × 2.5 m to hold about 40 birds. The second type of housing is the “fold” unit, with a space allowance (stock density) for adult birds of typically 3 to 4 birds per square metre (birds/m 2 ), both inside and (at least this) outside. The fold unit is usually small enough to be moved by one person. Neither of these two systems is commonly found in developing countries. Intensive Systems These systems are used by medium to large-scale commercial enterprises, and are also used at the household level. Birds are fully confined either in houses or cages. Capital outlay is higher and the birds are totally dependent on their owners for all their requirements; production however is higher. There are three types of intensive systems: x Deep litter system: birds are fully confined (with floor space allowance of 3 to 4 birds/m 2 within a house, but can move around freely. The floor is covered with a deep litter (a 5 to 10 cm deep layer) of grain husks (maize or rice), straw, wood shavings or a similarly absorbent (but non-toxic) material. The fully enclosed system protects the birds from thieves and predators and is suitable for specially selected commercial breeds of egg or meat- producing poultry (layers, breeder flocks and broilers). x Slatted floor system: wire or wooden slatted floors are used instead of deep litter, which allow stocking rates to be increased to five birds/m 2 of floor space. Birds have reduced contact with faeces and are allowed some freedom of movement. x Battery cage system: this is usually used for laying birds, which are kept throughout their productive life in cages. There is a high initial capital investment, and the system is mostly confined to large-scale commercial egg layer operations. Intensive systems of rearing indigenous chickens commercially is uncommon, a notable rare exception being in Malaysia, where the industry developed in response to the heavy demand for indigenous chickens in urban areas (Supramaniam, 1988). However, this accounts for only two in every 100 000 (0.002 percent) of that country’s indigenous chicken. Small-scale poultry production 5 Table 1.4 Production and reproduction per hen per year under the different management systems Production system Nº of eggs per hen/year Nº of year-old chickens Nº of eggs for consumption and sale Scavenging (free-range) 20-30 2-3 0 Improved scavenging 1/ 40-60 4-8 10-20 Semi-intensive 100 10-12 30-50 Intensive (deep litter) 160-180 25-30 50-60 Intensive (cages) 180-220 - 180-220 1/ improved shelter and Newcastle Disease vaccination Source: Bessei, 1987. The above management systems frequently overlap. Thus free-range is sometimes coupled with feed supplementation, backyard with night confinement but without feeding, and poultry cages in confined spaces (Branckaert and Guèye, 1999). Conclusions Over the last decade, the consumption of poultry products in developing countries has grown by 5.8 percent per annum, faster than that of human population growth, and has created a great increase in demand. Family poultry has the potential to satisfy at least part of this demand through increased productivity and reduced wastage and losses, yet still represent essentially low-input production systems. If production from family poultry is to remain sustainable, it must continue to emphasize the use of family labour, adapted breeds and better management of stock health and local feed resources. This does not exclude the introduction of appropriate new technologies, which need not be sophisticated. However, technologies involving substantially increased inputs, particularly if they are expensive (such as imported concentrate feeds or genetic material) should be avoided. This is not to say that such technologies do not have a place in the large-scale commercial sector, where their use is largely determined by economic considerations. Development initiatives in the past have emphasized genetic improvement, usually through the introduction of exotic genes, arguing that improved feed would have no effect on indigenous birds of low genetic potential. There is a growing awareness of the need to balance the rate of genetic improvement with improvement in feed availability, health care and management. There is also an increased recognition of the potential of indigenous breeds and their role in converting locally available feed resources into sustainable production. This manual aims to provide those involved with poultry development in developing countries with a practical guide and insight into the potential of family poultry to improve rural livelihoods and to meet the increasing demand for poultry products. Small-scale poultry production 7 Chapter 2 Species and Breeds Different Poultry Species and Breeds All species of poultry are used by rural smallholders throughout the world. The most important species in the tropics are: chickens, guinea fowl, ducks (including Muscovy ducks), pigeons, turkeys and geese. Local strains are used, but most species are not indigenous. The guinea fowl (Numididae) originated in West Africa; the Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) in South America; pigeons (Columba livea) in Europe; turkeys (Meleagrididae) in Latin America; pheasants (Phasianidae) in Asia; the common duck (Anas) in Europe; and geese (Anser) in Asia. Flock composition is determined by the objectives of the poultry enterprise (see Chapter 1). In Nigeria for example, the preference is for the smooth-feathered, multicoloured native chickens or Muscovy ducks. Multicoloured feathers serve as camouflage for scavenging birds against predators, including birds of prey, which can more easily see solid colours (especially white). Foundation stock is usually obtained from the market as grower pullets and young cockerels. A hen to cock ratio of about 5:1 is common. Both sexes are retained for 150 to 300 days, for the purposes of culling, selling, home consumption and gifts, most of which require adult birds. In the last 50 years, there has been a great advance in the development of hybrid breeds for intensive commercial poultry production. This trend is most noticeable in chickens, turkeys and ducks. The new hybrids (those of chickens in particular) are widely distributed and are present in every country in the tropics, even in the most remote villages. The hybrids have been carefully selected and specialised solely for the production of either meat or eggs. These end- product-specialised hybrid strains are unsuitable for breeding purposes, especially for mixing with local village scavenger stock, as they have very low mothering ability and broodiness. For the smallholder, keeping hybrids means considerable changes are required in management. These changes are expensive for the following reasons: x All replacement day-old chicks must be purchased. x Hatchery chicks require artificial brooding and special starting feed. x Hybrids require higher quality balanced feed for optimum meat and egg production. x Hybrids require more careful veterinary hygiene and disease management. x Egg-laying hybrid hens require supplementary artificial light (a steadily increasing day- length up to 17 hours of total light per day) for optimum (profitable) egg production. The meat and eggs from intensively raised hybrid stock are considered by many traditional consumers to have less flavour, and the meat to have too soft a texture. Consumers will thus often pay a higher price for village-produced poultry meat and eggs. Thus for rural family poultry keepers, it is more appropriate to maintain and improve local birds to meet this demand. Chickens Chickens originated in Southeast Asia and were introduced to the rest of the world by sailors and traders. Nowadays, indigenous village chickens are the result of centuries of cross-breeding with exotic breeds and random breeding within the flock. As a result, it is not possible to standardize the characteristics and productive performance of indigenous chickens. There is no comprehensive list of the breeds and varieties of chickens used by rural smallholders, but there is considerable information on some indigenous populations from various regions. Most of this is based on feather colour and other easily measured body features (genetic traits), but more detailed data are becoming available. Examples of local chickens from different parts of the tropics are given in Tables 2.1 to 2.3 below. These evaluations were usually carried out under intensive management conditions in research stations, as the objective was to evaluate the local birds’ productivity. More recently, data on the performance of local [...]... either chicken or ducks Small-scale poultry production 13 Chapter 3 Feed Resources INTRODUCTION A regular supply of low-cost feed, over and above maintenance requirements, is essential for improved productivity in the three farming systems used in family poultry production: free-range – poultry roost in trees at night; backyard – poultry are confined at night; and semi-intensive – poultry are enclosed... exceeded, then production falls (birds die and hens lay fewer eggs) If there is a surplus SFRB (such as a good harvest or fewer birds due to disease or stock sale), then production increases (more chicks and growers survive and more eggs are laid) Hence the SFRB available in a community determines the production potential of the poultry If the SFRB is known, other factors affecting production can be... percent ammonium nitrate, 8.6 percent super-phosphate and 2.9 percent potash (potassium) salts Thus the 150 hens will produce the equivalent per hectare/year of 6.4 kg of ammonium nitrate, 4.3 kg of super-phosphate and 1.4 kg of potash salts Planning flock production and size Production involves birds for meat and eggs For both meat and egg production, the number of chickens in the flock is the most important... Termites Farina, et al., (1991) described a technique used to collect termites for scavenging poultry Briefly, the straw of sorghum, millet and maize are chopped, placed in clay pots or calabashes and moistened The mouth of the container is placed over a hole in a termite colony under Small-scale poultry production 21 construction The container is covered with a jute sack to prevent drying out and... nutrient intake for different age-groups Poultry have an instinctual ability to select exactly what they need in the above food nutrient groups, and will not overeat from any one container Young growing poultry (under two months of age) should always be fed in a “creep” system, where older stock cannot get access to their feed supply 23 Small-scale poultry production Chapter 4 General Management HOUSING... is important in terms of maintaining egg production in commercial flocks, and requires supplementary lighting programmes Regular and reliable Small-scale poultry production 25 electricity supply is required for such programmes, otherwise the effect can be made worse by breaks in the light supplementation system A slow but steady increase maximises the rate of production However, lighting programmes... water, Small-scale poultry production 31 covered with the plate and both quickly inverted The position of the punched hole and the vacuum in the tin can will regulate the water level in the plate Tin can waterers work well but quickly become rusty, especially in the humid tropics A clay pot or gourd with holes around the sides sunk into the ground for stability can be used to water adult birds Clay pots... rice grain This can be used with vegetable and animal protein supplements for all types of poultry Rough or paddy rice, off-coloured rice and broken rice have been used up to 20 to 30 percent in poultry rations Rice bran has a moderate quality protein of 10 to 14 percent, approximately 10.4 MJ of Small-scale poultry production 17 ME/kg (2 500 kcal of ME/kg), and about 11 percent Crude Fibre (CF) It is... Democratic People’s Republic of Korea and China 11 Small-scale poultry production The Muscovy This is not genetically a duck or a goose, but is more similar to the goose (Anseridae) It eats grass, as do geese, and has a similarly long egg incubation period of 36 days (compared with that of ducks - 28 days) It is popular in areas where there is little wetland rice production, since it does not require swimming... production The reasons for confinement are, in order of priority, to: reduce mortality due to predation in chicks under two months of age; Small-scale poultry production 27 achieve higher daily gain and better feed conversion in growers; and allow better supervision of production in laying hens In all confined systems, the location and building design must be carefully considered The area surrounding the . 4$"-&106-53:130%6$5*0/ UFDIOJDBMHVJEF NBOVBM FAO ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH Rome, 2004 1 manual SMALL-SCALE POULTRY PRODUCTION SMALL-SCALE POULTRY PRODUCTION technical guide FOOD. exploit the potential of small-scale poultry production to improve the livelihoods of the rural poor. All aspects of small-scale poultry production are