Lipids are a wide variety of natural products

TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES PART 1: LIPID INTRODUCTION DEFINITION CLASSIFICATION 3.1 Classification by the chemical component 3.1.1 Simple lipid 3.1.2 Complex lipid 3.2 Classification by biological role 22 3.2.1 Storage lipid 23 3.2.2 Membrane lipid 23 3.3 Classification by source 24 3.3.1 Animal-based lipid 25 3.3.2 Plant-based lipid 26 STRUCTURE 28 FUNCTION 29 5.1 Energy storage 29 5.2 Lipid signaling 30 5.3 Cell membrane structuration 31 5.4 Others 31 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION 32 METABOLISM 35 PART 2: HEALTHY DIET THROUGH ADULTHOOD 37 HOW TO BUILD A HEALTHY DIET PLAN 37 1.1 Diversity in diet plan 37 1.2 Achieving caloric balance 37 1.3 Simple and flexible plan 39 THE DIFFERENCES IN DIET FOR ADULT 41 2.1 Calories intake 41 2.2 Schedule 41 2.3 Fiber and water 41 2.4 Fat 41 DAILY CALORIES INTAKE 43 3.1 Based on gender 43 3.2 Based on workload 43 CONCLUSION 45 PART 3: REFERENCES 46 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Classification system for lipid molecules Figure Chemical reaction to produce triglycerides Figure Glycerol structure Figure Structure of glycerophosphate-based lipids 10 Figure Glycosylacylglycerols of plant and algal photosynthetic membranes 13 Figure Ceramide, the basic building block of sphingolipids 14 Figure The variety of LCB structures found in sphingolipids 15 Figure Structures of deoxysphingosine and deoxy methyl sphingosine 16 Figure Glycolipid structure 16 Figure 10 Schematic representation of a cerebroside 17 Figure 11 Schematic representation of a ganglioside 19 Figure 12 Glyceroglycolipid structure 19 Figure 13 Schematic structures of CM, VLDL, and LDL 20 Figure 14 Lipid in plasma membrane structure 24 Figure 15 Plant-based lipid and animal-based lipid structures 25 Figure 16 Animal fat 26 Figure 17 Plant lipid metabolism 27 Figure 18 Glycerolipid structure 29 Figure 19 Triglycerides in chylomicrons and VLDL are broken down by lipoprotein lipase so that fatty acids and glycerol can be used for energy—or stored for later—in cells 29 Figure 20 Common lipid signaling molecules: lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), sphingosine-1phosphate (S1P), platelet-activating factor (PAF), anandamide or arachidonoyl ethanolamine (AEA) 30 Figure 21 Glycerophospholipid 31 Figure 22 Phospholipid bilayer 31 Figure 23 Micelle made from phospholipids' formation 32 Figure 24 Chylomicron's schematic diagram 33 Figure 25 Lipid digestion and absorption in the small intestine 33 Figure 26 Overview of lipid digestion in the human gastrointestinal tract 34 Figure 27 Lipid metabolism in liver 35 Figure 28 Interactions of Fat Metabolism Pathways 36 Figure 29 Fat Metabolism in Specific Tissues 36 Figure 30 Food pyramid for European people 43 Figure 31 Recommended food pyramid for adults by the Vietnamese Ministry of Health 44 LIST OF TABLES Table Simple and complex lipids comparison Table Structural variety of different diacyl-glycerophospholipids 11 Table Major glycosylacylglycerols of plant and algal photosynthetic membranes 12 Table Some glycosylglycerides found in bacteria 13 Table Lipid composition of Lipoprotein classes 21 Table Plant-based lipid and animal-based lipid comparison 25 Table BMR for men 38 Table BMR for women 38 Table Physical activity factor 39 PART 1: LIPID INTRODUCTION Unsaturated fat is generally considered to be healthier because it contains fewer calories than an equivalent amount of saturated fat Additionally, high consumption of saturated fats is linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease Some examples of foods with high concentrations of saturated fats include butter, cheese, lard, and some fatty meats Foods with higher concentrations of unsaturated fats include nuts, avocado, and vegetable oils such as canola oil and olive oil Humans need lipids for many vital functions, such as storing energy and forming cell membranes Lipids can also supply cells with energy In fact, a gram of lipids supplies more than twice as much energy as a gram of carbohydrates or proteins Lipids are necessary in the diet for most of these functions Although the human body can manufacture most of the lipids it needs, there are others, called essential fatty acids, that must be consumed in food Essential fatty acids include omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids Both of these fatty acids are needed for important biological processes, not just for energy Although some lipids in the diet are essential, excess dietary lipids can be harmful Because lipids are very high in energy, eating too many may lead to unhealthy weight gain A high-fat diet may also increase lipid levels in the blood This, in turn, can increase the risk for health problems such as cardiovascular disease The dietary lipids of most concern are saturated fatty acids, trans fats, and cholesterol For example, cholesterol is the lipid mainly responsible for narrowing arteries and causing the disease atherosclerosis DEFINITION Lipids are “a wide variety of natural products” including fatty acids and their derivatives, steroids, terpenes, carotenoids, and bile acids, which have in common a ready solubility in organic solvents such as diethyl ether, hexane, benzene, chloroform, or methanol [1] Lipid general properties: • Insoluble in water • Soluble in organic solvents such as chloroform, ether, or benzene • Contain long-chain hydrocarbon groups in their molecules • Present in or derived from living organisms They are certain components of membranes and function as energy-storage molecules and chemical messengers Together with proteins and carbohydrates, lipids are one of the principal structural components of living cells Distribution: • Animals: In adipose tissue, egg and milk • Plants: plants and seeds that contain oil CLASSIFICATION The term “lipid” has been loosely defined as any of a group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents These chemical features are present in a broad range of molecules such as fatty acids, phospholipids, sterols, sphingolipids, terpenes, and others Since lipids comprise an extremely heterogeneous collection of molecules from a structural and functional standpoint, it is not surprising that there are significant differences concerning the scope and organization of current classification schemes Several sources are based on lipids' chemical components and segregate them into “simple” and “complex” groups Some others divide lipids into storage lipids" and "membrane lipids" or "animal-based" and "plant-based" which are based on their biological functional roles and their sources respectively [7] Figure Classification system for lipid molecules This figure, from the consortium’s study of the lipidome of a pooled plasma sample, shows how the six major lipid classes (fatty acids, glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, sterols, and phenols) are synthesized and interconverted as well as how they relate to other lipid metabolites 3.1 Classification by the chemical component There are numerous specific types of lipids important to live, including fatty acids, triglycerides, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, and steroids These are broadly classified as simple lipids and complex lipids based on their chemical composition 3.1.1 Simple lipid Simple lipids contain one or two different types of compounds generally neutral, except for fatty acids which are studied in this group and have non-polar properties For example, one sterol and/or one fatty acid, glycerol and fatty acid(s), one alcohol and/or one fatty acid, fatty acid, and amino acid Some classification restricts this group to molecules containing one alcohol and/or one fatty acid Lipids containing sugar like glycolipids are excluded from that list and are classified as “complex lipids”, even if they contain two compounds The main simple lipids are triglycerides (also known as triacylglycerols), steryl esters, and wax esters Hydrolysis of these lipids yields glycerol and fatty acids, sterols and fatty acids, and fatty alcohols plus fatty acids, respectively The most important of these simple lipids for food scientists are triglycerides They are the major components of edible oils and fats, often representing more than 95% of refined oils Triglycerides are esters of the trihydric alcohol glycerol with three fatty acids (Fig 2) Many of the properties of triglycerides are dependent on the component fatty acids Thus, the melting point of the triglyceride reflects the melting point of the component fatty acids, with three high-melting-point fatty acids yielding a high-melting triglyceride Unsaturation in the fatty acids makes the triglyceride susceptible to autoxidation, just as the fatty acid itself would be Steryl esters always occur together with sterols in the plant, animal, or microbiological tissues Wax esters may accumulate in considerable amounts in some biological tissues and this class comprises the main constituent of beeswax and jojoba oil Figure Chemical reaction to produce triglycerides 3.1.2 Complex lipid Complex lipids contain frequently three or more chemical identities (i.e glycerol, fatty acids, and sugar, one long chain base, one nucleoside, one fatty acid, and one phosphate group…) and have polar properties Some contain only two components but include a sugar moiety These important lipids are widely distributed in plants, bacteria, and animals They are the major constituents of cell membranes but are found also in circulating fluids Complex lipids can be classified into four main groups: phospholipids, glycolipids, lipoamino acids, and nucleolipids Table Simple and complex lipids comparison Simple lipids Complex lipids Definition Ester of fatty acids with Ester of fatty acids with alcohol and other groups glycerol or alcohol as well Composition Fatty acids, alcohols, and other groups like Fatty acids, glycerol, and nitrogenous base, carbohydrate, protein, alcohols phosphate, etc Classification Fat, oils, and wax Phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids, and lipoproteins 3.1.2.1 Phospholipid 3.1.2.1.1 Glycerophospholipid: A source of bioactive molecules In addition to their roles as structural components of biological membranes, glycerolipids are precursors of potently active regulatory or signaling molecules They can be conveniently divided into two main groups - those containing phosphorus (phosphoglycerides) and those without phosphorus but containing a sugar constituent (glycosylglycerides) Confusingly, some compounds can be classified as both Figure Glycerol structure Figure Structure of glycerophosphate-based lipids a) Phosphoglycerides The phosphoglycerides are a very widespread and diverse group of structures In most membranes they are the main lipid components and, indeed, the only general exceptions to this statement are the photosynthetic membranes of plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, and the archaebacterial membranes Usually, phosphoglycerides contain fatty acids esterified at the sn-1 and sn-2 positions of glycerol They are, thus, diacylphosphoglycerides These lipids are named after the moiety which is attached to the phosphate esterified at the sn-3 position of glycerol Thus, the compounds can 10 But with a high fiber intake diet can help carry these out of the colon, decrease blood cholesterol and help to avoid some lipid over-accumulation diseases, such as hyperlipidemia are normally seen Figure 24 Chylomicron's schematic diagram Figure 25 Lipid digestion and absorption in the small intestine Figure 26 Overview of lipid digestion in the human gastrointestinal tract 34 METABOLISM Lipid metabolism is the biosynthesis of lipids, can mention such as phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol, etc., with the degradation of lipids is taken into account based on the requirement of the body’s metabolism, to satisfy its energy intake for the proper body function Lipid metabolism is always in a constant state of equilibrium, which means that some lipids are constantly being oxidized to keep up with the body's metabolic needs, meanwhile, the excess amount is being synthesized and stored as body fat The distinctive characteristics of individual tissue affect the process of metabolism including synthesis and degradation, or produce structural (phospholipid, etc.) and functional (fat-soluble vitamin, coenzyme, etc.) lipid Figure 27 Lipid metabolism in liver Figure 28 Interactions of Fat Metabolism Pathways Figure 29 Fat Metabolism in Specific Tissues 36 PART 2: HEALTHY DIET THROUGH ADULTHOOD HOW TO BUILD A HEALTHY DIET PLAN Building a healthy diet plan should not be a formidable task that is too costly or complicated However, there are criteria that a diet plan should follow and consider in order to keep it healthy and balanced, achieving the final goal which is good health and disease prevention 1.1 Diversity in diet plan A healthy diet plan should consist of diverse properties in both how you consume the food and the type of nutrition in your average meal It is important to understand that a long-term simple eating plan should not bring any harm if done correctly Continuously consuming one type of food may be sufficient in terms of energy but tends to result in a lack of essential nutrition or vitamins As a result, an average meal should consist of numerous types of food which provide us with a myriad of types of nutrition as well as stimulate our appetite In addition, replacing the same type of food with alternative choices is also an effective method since different types of nutrition exist in the food that shares a similar core nutrient 1.2 Achieving caloric balance It is quite clear that both overnutrition and undernutrition can cause adverse impacts on our health Overnutrition is likely to cause overweight and obesity which, in the long term, is the main cause of heart and bone diseases And the reason behind this problem is the excessive fat which puts a huge amount of pressure on organs, especially the heart due to the presence of fat in the blood veins, as well on the bone system causing them to be overworked for extended periods In terms of undernutrition, it reduces stamina significantly which makes it easier for people to be exhausted This phenomenon also weakens the immune system as well as bone system causing our health to be more vulnerable to harmful factors As a result, striking a balance in the calorie intake is the key to preventing those problems as well as a healthy lifestyle In order to achieve this goal, it is important to calculate the energy expenditure to estimate a suitable amount of calories that should be consumed daily The calculation of total energy requirements includes the sum of basal energy needs and energy needs for physical activity, The formula for energy requirements in one day: 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐵𝑀𝑅 × 𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 Table BMR for men Age BMR (kcal/kg/day) Weight BMR (kcal/day) 1–2 61.0 12.1 740 10 – 11 37.4 34.7 1300 15 – 19 27.0 59.5 1610 20 – 29 24.0 61.1 1470 30 – 49 22.3 60.2 1340 50 – 69 21.5 61.8 1330 >= 70 21.5 60.0 1290 Table BMR for women Age BMR (kcal/kg/day) Weight BMR (kcal/day) 1–2 59.7 11.5 690 10 – 11 34.8 34.5 1200 15 – 19 25.3 53.6 1360 20 – 29 22.1 53.0 1170 30 – 49 21.7 53.1 1150 50 – 69 20.7 54.7 1130 >= 70 20.7 51.8 1070 38 Table Physical activity factor Age Light physical activity Moderate physical activity Heavy physical activity 1–2 - 1.35 - 10 – 11 1.45 1.65 1.85 15 – 19 1.55 1.75 1.95 20 – 29 1.50 1.75 2.00 30 – 49 1.50 1.75 2.00 50 – 69 1.50 1.75 2.00 >= 70 1.45 1.70 1.95 Another equation that can be used to calculate the energy required daily is: 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙 ⁄𝑑𝑎𝑦) = 𝐵𝐸𝐸 × 𝐴𝐹 × 𝑆𝐹 Wherein, • BEE is the based-energy expenditure, and can be calculated through the following formula: For Male: 𝐵𝐸𝐸 = 66.5 + 13.75 × 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 + × 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑚 − 6.78 × 𝐴𝑔𝑒 For Female: 𝐵𝐸𝐸 = 65.5 + 9.56 × 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 + 1.85 × 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 4.68 ì ã AF is an activity factor • SF is a stress factor, which differs among different operations or activities Operations/Activities Major operation Minor operation Injury/trauma Cancer Bone break Stress factor (SF) 1.20 1.10 1.50 – 1.70 1.10 – 1.45 1.10 – 1.30 1.3 Simple and flexible plan An excessively complicated plan will hinder its long-term characteristics of it as well as the ability to follow the plan For this rationale, a healthy diet should remain not only simple but also flexible to some degree One of the main benefits of keeping a diet plan simple is that it tends to make the plan more manageable and easier to follow If the eating plan is too complicated, stress and unnecessary problems will appear, which can result in demotivation or even backfiring making following the plan for an extended period impossible A flexible eating plan not only opens a lot of possibilities but also makes the process become more interesting or less tedious It is important that one should not follow the diet too strictly in order to avoid losing motivation and stress The key factor in the diet process is a longterm commitment not forcing or limiting yourself to follow the plan perfectly daily Instead, try to expand the diet by creating a lot of options and alternatives for your average meals It is extremely important that the diet plan should be improved and adjusted based on the current health and situation since the process is beneficial for you and yourself only, so priority and viability are also vital factors that should be taken into consideration 40 THE DIFFERENCES IN DIET FOR ADULT Growing up usually come at par with more responsibility, in other words, leading to more energy required In addition, an average working schedule of an adult tends to be completely different from that younger one, so changes in the eating plan are also inevitable 2.1 Calories intake The amount of work and activities during adulthood is usually the highest compared to other age groups So, it is reasonable that the energy required for an adult would be much higher than old people or children However, there is an exception for teenagers during their growth spurt when they need to consume a huge amount of food in order to develop the body 2.2 Schedule During this day and age, a hectic schedule is a familiar concept to adults Many individuals with a heavy workload not only lose appetite due to stress coming from intense work but also not have enough time to enjoy their meals during their work shift As a result, instead of eating meals per day, some people are actually only able to eat lunch and dinner or even just one of them daily This trend creates a different eating plan compared to other individuals who have more free time to enjoy their food 2.3 Fiber and water A lot of energy always comes with high demand for water and fiber consumed Since the adults need to eat more to get enough energy for their lifestyles, they also need to drink more water so it can transfer the nutrition across the body and neutralize the toxin in the food In addition, water also helps to break down the food making the digestion process occur easier and allowing our body to absorb the nutrients more effectively This is also true for fiber a huge amount of food also requires a lot of fiber to prevent our body from digestion disease and help to maintain bowel health 2.4 Fat Adulthood means our body reaches its peak and starts to age and slow down As a result, the metabolism rate is likely to decrease while the amount of energy needed still remains high, making consuming food that contains a lot of fat, not an ideal option The reason behind this is the mentioned eating plan can result in a high amount of fat stored in the body, causing an adverse effect on our health in a long term Especially, those negative impacts can be critical if left untreated or at old age 42 DAILY CALORIES INTAKE 3.1 Based on gender The difference in calorie intake between males and females is a result of natural different body composition and metabolism rates based on sex For a normal adult: • Men usually need from 2600 to 3000 calories per day • Women tend to require about 2000 to 2500 calories daily 3.2 Based on workload A different amount of workload will require a different amount of energy • For light workload like office workers, hotline workers: about 2200 to 2400 calories per day • For a medium amount of work like students, industry workers: from 2600 to 2800 calories for a day • For intense working people like in military: about 3000 to 3600 calories daily • For individuals with extreme workloads such as athletes, and construction workers: above 3600 calories consumed in one day Figure 30 Food pyramid for European people Figure 31 Recommended food pyramid for adults by the Vietnamese Ministry of Health 44 CONCLUSION In conclusion, adulthood is a time not only to focus on meeting daily nutrition requirements but also to create and adjust an eating plan that is suitable to the current lifestyle and schedule The prevention of overnutrition and undernutrition is important to reducing the risk for chronic diseases that become more prevalent with age Achieving a balance of calorie intake is necessary to maintain long-term good health Foods that are high in protein or fat such as lean meat, fish, and nuts should be eaten in moderation, without consuming more energy than needed to prevent negative impact on the body as well as potential health problems Finally, additional methods such as regular physical exercise are essential to prevent weight gain and diseases PART 3: REFERENCES [1] Akoh, C C (Ed.) (2017) Food lipids: chemistry, nutrition, and biotechnology CRC press [2] Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, K., & Walter, P (2002) The Molecular Mechanisms of Membrane Transport and the Maintenance of Compartmental Diversity In Molecular Biology of the Cell 5th edition Garland Science [3] Alice Callahan, P., Heather Leonard, R., & Tamberly Powell, R (2022) Digestion and Absorption of Lipids Retrieved from https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/nutritionscience/chapter/5d-digestion-absorption-lipids/ [4] BERDANIER, C D., DWYER, J., & FELDMAN, E B., 2008, Handbook of Nutrition and Food, CRC Press, “Chapter 17: Health Promoting Diet for Adults”, page 345-359 [5] Blanco, G., & Blanco, A (2017) Medical biochemistry Academic Press [6] Douglas W (2020) Human Nutrition - Vitamins Encyclopedia Britannica [7] Fahy, E., Cotter, D., Sud, M., & Subramaniam, S (2011) Lipid classification, structures and tools Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids, 1811(11), 637-647 [8] Fat Metabolism: Overview and Synthesis (2022) Retrieved from http://www2.csudh.edu/nsturm/CHE452/07_Fat%20Met-%20Overv.%20Synth.htm [9] Lichtenstein, A H (2016) Fatty acids: trans fatty acids Encyclopedia of Food and Health, 645-648 [10] Lipid Metabolism and Enzymes - Creative Diagnostics (2022) Retrieved from https://www.creative-diagnostics.com/lipid-metabolism-and-enzymes.htm [11] Nakamura, T., & Kuranuki, S (2018) Nutrition—Macronutrients [12] Porter, C J., Trevaskis, N L., & Charman, W N (2007) Lipids and lipid-based formulations: optimizing the oral delivery of lipophilic drugs Nature reviews Drug discovery, 6(3), 231-248 [13] Quehenberger, O., Armando, A., Brown, A., Milne, S., Myers, D., & Merrill, A et al (2010) Lipidomics reveals a remarkable diversity of lipids in human plasma Journal Of Lipid Research, 51(11), 3299-3305 doi: 10.1194/jlr.m009449 [14] Ridgway, N., & McLeod, R (Eds.) (2015) Biochemistry of lipids, lipoproteins and membranes Elsevier [15] Thomas E (2020) Saturated fatty acids – Lipid Encyclopedia Britannica 46 [16] The New Food Pyramid (2022) Retrieve from https://www.diabetes.ie/new-healthy-eatingguidelines-food-pyramid/ [17] U.S Department of Health and Human Services 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans Washington DC (2008) http://www.health.gov/paguidelines [18] Van Meer, G., Voelker, D R., & Feigenson, G W (2008) Membrane lipids: where they are and how they behave Nature reviews Molecular cell biology, 9(2), 112-124 [19] Winpenny, E.M., van Sluijs, E.M.F., White, M et al Changes in diet through adolescence and early adulthood: longitudinal trajectories and association with key life transitions Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 15, 86 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-018-0719-8 The end ... plants Generally, lipids from animal sources are also classified as fat and contain saturated fatty acids And generally, lipids from plant sources are classified as oil and contain unsaturated... while a fatty acid consists of a long hydrocarbon chain attached to a carboxyl group A typical fatty acid contains 12–18 carbons, though some may have as few as or as many as 36 To make a fat molecule,... healthier because it contains fewer calories than an equivalent amount of saturated fat Additionally, high consumption of saturated fats is linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease