© 1998 by CRC Press LLC ADVANCED NUTRITION Micronutrients © 1998 by CRC Press LLC MODERN NUTRITION Edited by Ira Wolinsky and James F. Hickson, Jr. Published Titles Manganese in Health and Disease , Dorothy Klimis-Tavantzis Nutrition and AIDS: Effects and Treatment , Ronald R. Watson Nutrition Care for HIV Positive Persons: A Manual for Individuals and Their Caregivers , Saroj M. Bahl and James F. Hickson, Jr. Calcium and Phosphorus in Health and Disease , John J. B. Anderson and Sanford C. Garner Edited by Ira Wolinsky Published Titles Practical Handbook of Nutrition in Clinical Practice , Donald F. Kirby and Stanley J. Dudrick Handbook of Dairy Foods and Nutrition , Gregory D. Miller, Judith K. Jarvis and Lois D. McBean Advanced Nutrition: Macronutrients , Carolyn D. Berdanier Childhood Nutrition , Fima Lifshitz Antioxidants and Disease Prevention , Harinder S. Garewal Nutrition and Cancer Prevention , Ronald R. Watson and Siraj I. Mufti Nutrition and Health: Topics and Controversies , Felix Bronner Nutritional Concerns of Women , Ira Wolinsky and Dorothy Klimis-Tavantzis Nutrients and Gene Expression: Clinical Aspects , Carolyn D. Berdanier Advanced Nutrition: Micronutrients , Carolyn D. Berdanier Forthcoming Titles Laboratory Tests for the Assessment of Nutritional Status, 2nd Edition, H. E. Sauberlich Nutrition: Chemistry and Biology, 2nd Edition , Julian E. Spallholz, L. Mallory Boylan and Judy A. Driskell Child Nutrition: An International Perspective , Noel W. Solomons Handbook of Nutrition for Vegetarians , Rosemary A. Ratzin Melatonin in the Promotion of Health , Ronald R. Watson Nutrition and the Eye , Allen Taylor Advanced Human Nutrition , Denis Medeiros and Robert E. C. Wildman Nutrients and Foods in AIDS , Ronald R. Watson Nutrition and Women’s Cancer , Barbara C. Pence and Dale M. Dunn Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. CRC Press ADVANCED NUTRITION Carolyn D. Berdanier Professor, Foods and Nutrition University of Georgia Athens, Georgia Illustrations by: Toni Kathryn Adkins Micronutrients This book contains information obtained form authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources and indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRE Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. © 1998 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-2664-8 Library or Congress Card Number 94-11519 Printed in the United States of America 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Berdanier, Carolyn D. Advanced nutrition / Carolyn D. Berdanier : Illustrations by Toni Kathryn Adkins. p. cm. — (Modern nutrition) Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: v. l. Macronutrients ISBN 0-8493-2664-8 (v. 1) 1. Nutrition. 2. Metabolism. 3. Energy metabolism. I. Title II. Series: Modern nutrition (Boca Raton, Fla.) QP141.B52 1994 612.3’9—dc20 94-11519 CIP © 1998 by CRC Press LLC Series Preface for Modern Nutrition The CRC Series in Modern Nutrition is dedicated to providing the widest possible coverage of topics in nutrition. Nutrition is an interdisciplinary, interprofessional field par excellence. It is noted by its broad range and diversity. We trust the titles and authorship in this series will reflect that range and diversity. Published for a scholarly audience, the volumes of the CRC Series in Modern Nutrition are designed to explain, review, and explore present knowledge and recent trends, developments, and advances in nutrition. As such, they will also appeal to the educated layman. The format for the series will vary with the needs of the author and the topic, including, but not limited to, edited volumes, monographs, handbooks, and texts. Contributors from any bona fide area of nutrition, including the controversial, and welcome. Ira Wolinksy, Ph.D. Series Editor © 1998 by CRC Press LLC Preface In the first volume of this two-volume book, Advanced Nutrition: Macronutrients , the needs for the macronutrients were discussed. The absorption, metabolism, excretion, and function of the various sources of energy as well as detailed discussions of the need for water and energy balance were presented. The needs for the micronutrients, as well as explanations of how these nutrients function in the body, were deferred to this, the second volume. While most vitamins function at the metabolic level, the discoveries of how some of the vitamins and minerals work at the genomic level are quite exciting. Finally, we have an understanding of the pathophysiology of the plethora of diseases labeled nutrient deficiency disorders. Beriberi, pellagra, anemia, scurvy, embryonic and fetal malformation, rickets, osteoporosis, and a number of subtle (and not so subtle) disorders are finally connected to specific nutrients such that we can now understand why certain symptoms develop when an inadequate intake occurs. We have also come to understand, in part, the genetic diversity of the many species that require these nutrients. Nutrient-gene interactions as well as nutrient-nutrient and nutrient-drug interactions have become major research endeavors by nutrition scientists throughout the world. These scientists are truly hybrids in the world of science. They must have expertise in nutrition, biochemistry, physiology, and genetics, and if they are interested in human nutrition they must also understand human social systems and human medicine or have a physician collaborator. Nutrition science is not as simple as finding a nutrient and determining its function. Today’s science requires a far more complicated approach. The techniques of yesteryear are no longer adequate by themselves. The techniques of other disciplines must be brought to bear as well. The student will make new discoveries by studying the present database and finding the gaps in our knowledge. Nowhere is this as apparent as in the study of the micronutrients. While the animal of primary interest is the human, most research uses animals of other species because of the need to make organ, cell, and subcell measurements that are impossible to perform in the human. For this reason, the scientist needs to be all-inclusive in the study of nutrient needs. Interspecies comparisons provide ample opportunities to learn how specific nutrients function and interact with other nutrients. After all, nutrition is a composite science requiring skills of integration and comprehension of the whole living system. © 1998 by CRC Press LLC Acknowledgments The author wishes to express her sincere thanks to the faculty and students of the University of Georgia Nutrition Science graduate program for their unfailing encouragement to prepare this volume. Particular appreciation is extended to Art Grider and Mary Ann Johnson for reading the initial drafts of the minerals section. In addition, the author is very grateful to Dr. Donald McCormick of Emory University and Dr. Dennis Medieros of Ohio State University whose metic- ulous reading of the manuscript provided much-needed revisions. Without their careful evaluation the present book would not have been possible. Needless to say, countless hours were expended by Kathy Adkins White and Tonya Whitfield to prepare the text and illustrations. Their expertise and dedication are much appreciated. Lastly, this text would not have been possible without the contributions of Dr. Mark Failla of the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. His intuitive thinking and excellent organization of the vast body of knowledge about the micronutrients provided the framework for the book. Without this starting point the integration of the various aspects of the micronutrients would have been a daunting task. Thanks Mark! © 1998 by CRC Press LLC Author Carolyn D. Berdanier, Ph.D., is a Professor of Nutrition at the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia. She received a B.S. degree from The Pennsylvania State University and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from Rutgers University in Nutrition in 1966. After a post-doctoral fellowship year with Dr. Paul Griminger at Rutgers, she served as a Research Nutritionist with the Human Nutrition Institute which is part of ARS, a unit of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. In 1975 she moved to the University of Nebraska College of Medicine where she continued her research in nutrient gene interactions. In 1977 she moved to the University of Georgia where she served as Head of the Department of Foods and Nutrition. She stepped down from this post ten years later and devoted her full time efforts to research and teaching in her research area. Her research on the diet and genetic components of diabetes and vascular disease has been supported by NIH, USDA, U.S. Department of Commerce, The National Livestock and Meat Board, and the Egg Board. She is a member of the American Institute of Nutrition, the American Society for Clinical Nutrition, The Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, American Diabetes Association, and several honorary societies in science. She has served on the Editorial Boards of the FASEB Journal, The Journal of Nutrition, and Nutrition Research and Biochemistry Archives. She has also served as a Contributing Editor for Nutrition Reviews and Editor of the AIN News Notes. Current research interests include studies on aging, the role of diet in damage to mitochondrial DNA, and the role of specific dietary ingredients in the secondary complications of diabetes. © 1998 by CRC Press LLC Table of Contents Unit 1 Micronutrients, Human Health and Well Being I. Overview II. Assessment III. Factors Affecting Micronutrient Needs Unit 2 Integration of the Functional Aspects of Vitamins and Minerals I. Overview II. The Role of Micronutrients in Gene Expression III. Synthesis of Purines and Pyrimidines IV. Micronutrients as Stabilizers Supplemental Readings Unit 3 Fat-Soluble Vitamins I. Vitamin A A. Structure and Nomenclature B. Chemical Properties C. Biopotency D. Sources E. Metabolism of Vitamin A 1. Absorption 2. Transport 3. Degradation and Excretion F. Functions of Vitamin A 1. Protein Synthesis 2. Reproduction and Growth 3. Vision G. Hypervitaminosis A H. Recommended Dietary Allowance II. Vitamin D A. Overview B. Structure and Nomenclature C. Physical and Chemical Properties D. Biopotency E. Methods of Assay F. International Units (IU) G. Metabolism of Vitamin D 1. Absorption 2. Transport 3. Metabolism 4. Function a. Regulation of Serum Calcium Levels b. Mode of Action at the Genomic Level H. Vitamin D Deficiency I. Hypervitaminosis J. Recommended Dietary Allowances © 1998 by CRC Press LLC III. Vitamin E A. Overview B. Structure and Nomenclature C. International Units and Methods of Analysis D. Chemical and Physical Properties E. Sources F. Metabolism 1. Absorption and Transport 2. Intracellular Transport and Storage 3. Catabolism and Excretion 4. Function G. Hpervitaminosis E H. Deficiency I. Recommended Dietary Allowance IV. Vitamin K A. Overview B. Structure and Nomenclature C. Biopotency D. Chemical and Physical Properties E. Chemical Assays F. Bioassays G. Biosynthesis H. Antagonists, Antivitamins I. Sources J. Absorption K. Metabolism and Function L. Deficiency M. Recommended Dietary Allowance Supplemental Readings Unit 4 Water-Soluble Vitamins I. Ascorbic Acid A. Overview B. Structure, Physical and Chemical Properties C. Sources D. Absorption, Metabolism E. Distribution F. Function G. Deficiency H. Toxicity I. Recommended Dietary Allowance II. Thiamin A. Overview B. Structure C. Thiamin Antagonists D. Assays for Thiamin E. Sources F. Absorption and Metabolism G. Biological Function [...]... biochemical functions of the individual micronutrients These then, became the tools for assessment of the nutritional status of humans The results of these tests also became the basis for the continuing evaluation of nutrient intake and the recommendations for daily intake, presently known as the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), for each of the needed nutrients Not all of the micronutrients described in this... can be quite detailed and very expensive Except under research conditions where very specific questions are being addressed, this detailed assessment is usually not needed As detailed in Unit 1 of Advanced Nutrition: Macronutrients, food surveys, epidemiological studies, and population statistics provide a wealth of information about large groups of people and, as detailed in Unit 2 of that text, assessment... reservoirs are negligible That is, very small amounts of these vitamins are stored for future use With the other micronutrients such is not the case The fat-soluble vitamins can be stored as detailed in Unit 4 and the minerals likewise as detailed in Units 6 and 7 Table 3 gives the normal blood levels of micronutrients in addition to those values presented in Table 1 Urine analysis can also provide information... Niacin, folacin, thiamin Vitamin A, β-carotene UNIT 2 Integration of the Functional Aspects of Vitamins and Minerals TABLE OF CONTENTS I Overview II The Role of Micronutrients in Gene Expression III Synthesis of Purines and Pyrimidines IV Micronutrients as Stabilizers Supplemental Readings I OVERVIEW At the turn of the century, scientists seeking to understand the role of diet in health maintenance... synthesis but also for the synthesis of other macromolecules important to life is outlined in Figure 3 IV MICRONUTRIENTS AS STABILIZERS Although vitamins and minerals serve in gene expression as just described, and as coenzymes and cofactors in the many reactions of intermediary metabolism, certain of the micronutrients have a unique role as stabilizers They function in assuring that cells and tissues continue... Magnesium Zinc Iron Copper Iodine Fluorine Cobalt Chromium Manganese Molybdenum Selenium Phosphorus Micronutrient Interactions Calcium Table 2 ↑m ↑m ↑a ↑m ↑↓m ↑↓m ↑m ↑m ↓a ↑m ↑m Table 3 Normal Values for Micronutrients in Blood Ascorbic acid, plasma Calcium, serum β-Carotene, serum Chloride, serum Lead, whole blood Magnesium, serum Sodium, plasma Sulfate, serum Vitamin A, serum Retinol, plasma 0.6–1.6... 2nd ed., 1963, U.S Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.; Sauberlich et al., 1974, Laboratory Tests for the Assessment of Nutritional Status, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL Table 4 Normal Values for Micronutrients in Urine Calcium, mg/24 hr Chloride, meq/24 hr Copper, µg/24 hr Lead, µg/24 hr Phosphorus, g/24 hr Potassium, meq/24 hr Sodium, meq/24 hr Zinc, mg/24 hr Creatinine, mg/kg body weight Riboflavin,... gland suggests an iodine deficiency An enlarged liver could be due to general malnutrition but could also be due to exposure to toxins that in turn result in an inability to use the energy and protein and micronutrients consumed Bone malformation typifies vitamin D inadequacy, but can also be due to inadequate intake of vitamin C or the minerals needed for bone Neurologic symptoms of tetany could be due... given drug on the need for one or more nutrients has not been studied In other instances, data are available only from acute studies This is an area of research that has not been widely addressed Lastly, micronutrients, especially the vitamins, can themselves be drugs when taken to excess Detailed in Units 3 and 4 are the consequences of vitamin toxicity Not all vitamins will be toxic when consumed in... appear and have adverse effects on health They also appear in people who, through ignorance of the importance of consuming a wide variety of foods, select foods that do not provide sufficient amounts of the micronutrients These people may be of normal weight or even overweight yet they may be inadequately nourished with respect to one or more of the essential vitamins and minerals As scientists became aware . and Gene Expression: Clinical Aspects , Carolyn D. Berdanier Advanced Nutrition: Micronutrients , Carolyn D. Berdanier Forthcoming Titles Laboratory. Nutrition , Gregory D. Miller, Judith K. Jarvis and Lois D. McBean Advanced Nutrition: Macronutrients , Carolyn D. Berdanier Childhood Nutrition