LITERATURE REVIEW
Language learning strategies
1.1.1 Background of language learning strategies There has been a prominent shift within the field of language learning and teaching over the last twenty years with greater emphasis being put on learners and learning rather than on teachers and teaching In parallel to this new shift of interest, how learners process new information and what kinds of strategies they employ to understand, learn or remember the information have been the primary concern of the researchers dealing with the area of foreign language learning So, language learning strategies (LLS) for foreign language learning and the teacher's role in strategy training is very important As vocabulary learning strategies are a component of second language learning strategies, a brief review of the literature on language learning strategies is needed
Research into LLS began in the 1960s Particularly, developments in cognitive psychology influenced much of the research done on LLS In most of the research on LLS, the primary concern has been on “identifying what good language learners report they do to learn a second or foreign language, or, in some cases, are observed doing while learning a second or foreign language” (Rubin & Wenden 1987:19) In
1966, Aaron Carton published his study entitled “The Method of Inference in Foreign Language Study”, which was the first attempt on learner strategies After
Carton, in 1971, Rubin started doing research focusing on the strategies of successful learners and stated that, once identified, such strategies could be made available to less successful learners Rubin classified strategies in terms of processes contributing directly or indirectly to language learning The strategies initiated by Rubin were expanded and refined by other scholars and researchers such as Wong-Fillmore (1976), Tarone (1977), Naiman et al (1978), Cohen &
Aphek (1981), Wenden (1982), Chamot & O'Malley (1987), Politzer & Mc Groarty
(1985), Conti & Kolsody (1998) Before presenting an overview of these studies, a review of the definitions of language learning strategies is needed, and this is presented below
1.1.2 Definition of language learning strategies
It is clearly seen that research on learning strategies in general and language learning strategies in particular is becoming increasingly popular So far, there has been no consensus among the linguists regarding to the definitions of leaning strategies
According to Nunan (1991:168), “Learning strategies […] are the mental processes which learners employ to learn and use the target language” Nunan’s definition restricts learning strategies only to “mental processes” Richard et al (1992:209), offers a broader definition of learning strategies, that is, learning strategies are intentional behavior and thoughts that learners make use of during learning in order to better help them understand, learn and remember new information Similarly, Weinstein and Mayer (1986) (in O’ Malley and Charmot 1990:43) have learning facilitation as a goal and are intentional on the part of the learner The goal of strategy use is to affect the leaner’s motivational or affective state, or the way in which the learner selects, acquires, organizes, or integrates new knowledge
Oxford (1990:8) defines learning strategies as “specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self directed, more effective and more transferable to new situation.”
Ellis defines learning strategies as “the particular approaches or techniques that learner employs to try to learn an L2.” (1997:76) He further explains that learning strategies can be behavioral or mental and are typically problem - oriented
Rubin (in Wenden and Rubin 1987:19) is even more explicit when he defines learning strategies as “any set of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval and use of information, that is, what learner do to learn and do to regulate their learning.”
According to O’Malley and Charmot (1990:1), learning strategies are “special ways of processing information that enhance comprehension, learning, or retention of the information” or in their other words learning strategies are the “special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information.”
Obviously, learning strategies are defined in different words and from different perspectives such as cognitive, social or pragmatic Therefore, researchers worked out the taxonomy of learning strategies instead of defining them This can be seen in the following part
1.1.3 The importance of language learning strategies in language learning and teaching
Bridging the gap between students’ learning styles and teachers’ teaching styles will be a powerful means to guide students towards successful learning Thus, teaching students learning strategies should not be neglected Oxford (1990) describes learning strategies as “specific actions taken by the learners to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” Learning strategies will compensate for the weakness of a learning style and maximize the strengths of a learning style powerfully
To emphasize the importance of LLS, Chamot et al (1999) stated, “differences between more effective learners and less effective learners were found in the and in whether they were appropriate for the task” Therefore, teaching learning strategies is especially useful for the latter learners If they can find effective strategies, they will be able to succeed, through effective strategy teaching, students will acquire not only vocabulary but also the way for studying
The language learner capable of using a wide variety of LLS appropriately can improve his language skills According to Oxford (1990), memory strategies “help students store and retrieve new information”, cognitive strategies “enable learners to understand and produce new language by many different means”, compensation strategies “allow learners to use the language despite their often large gaps in knowledge”, metacognitive strategies “allow learners to control their own cognition
- that is, to coordinate the learning process by using functions such as centering, arranging, planning, and evaluating”, affective strategies “help to regulate emotions, motivations, and attitudes” and social “help students learn through interaction with other” Developing skills in three areas, such as metacognitive, cognitive, and socio- affective can help the language learner build up learner independence and autonomy whereby he can take control of his own learning Lessard-Clouston (1997:3) states that LLS contribute to the development of the communicative competence of the students Being a broad concept, LLS are used to refer to all strategies foreign language learners use in learning the target language and communication strategies are one type of LLS As Oxford (1990:1) stated, LLS “ are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed movement, which is essential for developing communicative competence” Besides developing the communicative competence of the students, teachers who train students to use LLS can help them become better language learners Helping students understand good LLS and training them to develop and use such good LLS can be considered to be the appreciated characteristics of a good language teacher Research into the good LLS revealed a number of positive strategies so that such strategies could also be used by bad language learners trying to become more successful in language learning However, there is always the possibility that bad language learners can also use the same good LLS while becoming unsuccessful owing to some other reasons At this point, it should be strongly stressed that using the same good LLS does not guarantee that bad learners will also become successful in language learning since other factors may also play role in success
In the 1980s and early 90s, research mainly focused on categorizing the strategies found in the studies of the previous decade As a result, several taxonomies were proposed to classify them, including classifications of LLS in general and language sub-skills strategies in particular
The most famous learning strategies are proposed by O'Malley and Chamot (1990)
Their hierarchical framework of strategies distinguishes three major strategy types:
Metacognitive Strategies; Cognitive Strategies; Socio-affective Strategies
O'Malley and Chamot's framework of strategies has considerable intuitive appeal and many practitioners have used this taxonomy in planning their teaching
However, O'Malley and Chamot have never examined the construct validity of their taxonomy As a result, it is unclear enough to teach students and to train them to use these three separate strategies
According to Rubin, there are three types of strategies used by learners that contribute directly or indirectly to language learning These are: Learning Strategies;
Stern (1992:262-266) stated that, there are five main LLS These are as follows:
Management and Planning Strategies; Cognitive Strategies; Communicative - Experiential Strategies; Interpersonal Strategies; Affective Strategies
Vocabulary Learning Strategies
“…without grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed” (David Wilkins, 1972, cited in Hoang, 1985, p.1) Above was the way that David Wilkins, a British linguist acknowledged vocabulary and the significance of vocabulary Vocabulary is considered a very important aspect of learning a foreign language that has called for a great of attention from linguists, researchers, teachers and learners together with many different definitions of vocabulary In the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, vocabulary is defined as “all the words that a person knows or uses, or all the words in a particular language.”
According to Michael Lewis (1993, p.89, cited in Hoang, 1985), vocabulary
“…may be individual words or full sentences – institutionalized utterances – that conveyed fixed social or pragmatic meaning within a given community”
Penny Ur, in her book “A course book in language teaching” defined vocabulary as
“the words we teach in the foreign language However, a new item of vocabulary may be more than a single word: a compound of two or three words or multi word idioms” (1996, p.60, cited in Hoang, 1985)
From the above quotations about vocabulary, the question: “What is vocabulary?” in terms of vocabulary teaching and learning can be partly revealed Vocabulary is not only a stock of individual words with fixed meanings, more than that, it is also a combination of words such as: poly words (e.g by the way, upside down), collocations or word partnership (e.g sense of humor, make a complaint), institutionalized utterances (e.g I’ll take it; Where are you from?), sentence frames (It can be said that ; there is /there are), or even text frames (e.g in this presentation, I would like to…; Firstly, secondly, thirdly…) Learning vocabulary involves learning “chunks” rather than learning individual words
1.2.2 The importance of vocabulary in second language learning
In the very first part of his book “Vocabulary”, Michael Mc Carthy (1990, p.2, cited in Quach, 2007) stated: “It is the experience of most language teachers that the single, biggest component of any language course is vocabulary No matter how well the student learns grammar, no matter how successfully the sounds of L2 are mastered, without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in an L2 just cannot happen in any meaningful way.” It is impossible to deny the role of vocabulary in communication in an L2 One’s vocabulary size plays a very significant part in his/her ability to communicate due to the fact that “words are the tools we use to think, to express ideas and feelings and to learn about the world.”
(Johnson and Johnson, 2004, p.1, cited in Quach, 2007)
In the book named “Understanding vocabulary” (2000, p.16, cited in Quach, 2007), Alexander wrote: “Comprehension improves when you know what the words mean” and “words are currency of communication A robust vocabulary improves all areas of communication – listening, speaking, reading and writing”
All the above quotations highly appreciate the important role of vocabulary in language learning, especially in second language learning Thus, teaching vocabulary should be a part of the syllabus and vocabulary should be paid more attention through well- planned lesson of language teachers’ and serious learning
1.2.3 Factors affecting vocabulary learning and acquisition Despite the abundance of research on vocabulary acquisition that has been conducted by linguists, psychologists and theorists of L2 acquisition, there is still no general theory of vocabulary acquisition While psycholinguists have a particular interest in vocabulary development and exploration of the formal models of vocabulary acquisition, and ignore the L2 vocabulary literature because it is model free, applied linguists are mainly concerned with the descriptive aspects of vocabulary and do not draw on existing psycholinguistic models of bilingual lexicon even when this implies an immediate pedagogical significance (Singleton,
2008) It was these differences that have made it extremely difficult to list all the significant factors and the ways in which they influence
Singleton (2008, p.4-24) listed some significant factors affecting vocabulary learning and acquisition which were the most frequently discussed in relevant literature, namely linguistic features of lexical items, the influence of first and other languages, the incremental nature of vocabulary acquisition, the role of memory in vocabulary learning and acquisition, the organization and development of L2 mental lexicon, the source of vocabulary (exposure to linguistic input), individual learner differences, the role of teacher and vocabulary teaching and strategies
Approving Singleton’s viewpoint, but expressing in a more systematical way, in her research about how to increase students’ retention of vocabulary through meaning practice, Quach (2007) divided all the factors into three groups, namely learner-related factors, teacher-related factors and learning context Discussing learner-related factors, she mentioned about memory and storage system, learner’s needs and interests (which can be called individual learner differences in Singleton’s way) and learning styles and strategies The group of factors relating to teachers included teaching method and strategy training Language input and output were two other factors mentioned in the group of learning context
In short, due to different influencing factors, achieving the goals of L2 vocabulary acquisition is no easy matter This difficulty was stated in Singleton’s book as:
“Even a well planned vocabulary lesson based on contemporary pedagogical principles cannot guarantee that learners will acquire the vocabulary that is taught”
Learning vocabulary through formal instruction is a complex process influenced by a number of factors: the teacher’s approach to vocabulary teaching (i.e vocabulary teaching strategies) and his or her understanding of the key notions in vocabulary acquisition, the effort invested by learners in vocabulary learning (i.e vocabulary learning strategies) as well as their readiness to take responsibility for their own learning, and, finally, the interaction of all the factors mentioned above
1.2.4 Retention and factors affecting vocabulary retention
In the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2005, p.1297), retention is defined as “an ability to remember things” There is also another definition in which retention in learning can be defined as “the ability to retain facts and figures in memory” Although no definition of vocabulary retention in the literature has been found by the researcher, for the purpose of this study, vocabulary retention can be clarified as the storage of vocabulary in the memory, which becomes available for usage when needed
In terms of “acquisition”, we talk about “the act of getting something about knowledge” (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 2005); whereas, talking about retention, we mention the act of remembering something In the scope of this study, factors affecting retention, especially vocabulary retention should be discussed
The retention of vocabulary is affected by three following factors: memory, language exposure and effective vocabulary learning strategies There is a close relationship among these three factors Learning refers to processes in the initial acquisition or encoding of information, whereas the term memory more often refers to later storage and retrieval of information After all, it can be said that information is learned only when it can be retrieved later, and retrieval cannot occur unless information was learned Supporting this inseparable relationship among three above factors, Gairns (1986, p.86, cited in Vu, 2005) stated: “Understanding how while others slip away is obviously a matter of concern to anyone whose work involves helping others to learn For language teachers, this knowledge should help to establish classroom procedures that will promote more effective learning and retention of new language items.” Thus, it is necessary for both language teachers and learners to have a deeper investigation in this process
1.2.4.1 Memory Types of memory The role of memory is crucial in any kind of learning and vocabulary learning is no exception What people usually think of as “memory” in day-to-day usage is actually long-term memory, but there are also important short-term (working memory) and sensory memory processes, which must be worked through before a long-term memory can be established
Sensory memory is defined as “the shortest-term element of memory It is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended It acts as a kind of buffer for stimuli received through the five senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch, which are retained accurately, but very briefly”
Memory strategies
As one group of direct learning strategies set in Oxford (1990), memory strategies (traditionally known as mnemonics) have been found to enhance remembering through the connection of new knowledge with familiar words and images These strategies involve relating the word to be retained with some previously learned knowledge, using some form of imagery, or grouping…
Thompson (1987) (cited in Schmitt, 1997) defined memory strategies as
“…mnemonics work by utilizing some well-known principles of psychology: a retrieval plan is developed during encoding, and mental imagery, both visual and verbal, is used They help individuals learn faster and recall better because they aid the integration of new material into existing cognitive units and because they provide retrieval cues.”
“Contextualized” and “de-contextualized” are two ways of learning which still raise conflicting views among language professionals concerning about language learning in general and vocabulary learning in particular
Oxford and Scarcella (1994, cited in Nemati, 2009) observe that while 'de- contextualized learning' (word list) may help students memorize vocabulary for
Nielson (2006, cited in Nemati, 2009) suggested that 'de-contextualized learning' should be introduced at early stages of language development as it has been found to be more effective in building a fundamental vocabulary than the contextualized reading That means teachers of beginner level learners need to include greater amount of 'de-contextualized' vocabulary instruction (word list) at the beginning and then gradually increase more context based vocabulary learning (extensive reading) as the language ability of the learners develops
Moreover, as mentioned in the first part (Introduction), how recently learners have learnt something is not important, but in fact, the depth of processing In other words, students must be taught on how to process information deeply Of “de- contextualized” vocabulary memorization strategies, “memory strategies” are strategies which involve deep semantic processing of target word and have been shown to be more effective than memorization techniques which just involve shallow processing such as oral rote repetition (Oxford, 1990)
Given the above reasons, the present study seeks to introduce, from among different ways of learning and teaching vocabulary, memory vocabulary learning strategies which involve deep processing and may consequently lead to better retention
1.3.3 Oxford’s classification of Memory Strategies Oxford (1990)’s system of memory strategies consists of ten items as following:
Grouping: Words are easier to memorize, store and recall if they are put in groups
Words can be grouped mentally or in writing according to their class, topic, function, similarity, dissimilarity or opposition, and so on
Associating/ Elaborating: New vocabulary items are easier to learn and use if they are associated to those, which are already in memory
Placing new words into a context: New vocabulary items should be learned as active items That is, a new item should be put in a meaningful sentence, conversation, story, etc Using imagery: New vocabulary items are related to concepts in memory by means of meaningful visual imagery either in mind or in real drawings The imagery can be a picture of an object, a set of collocations for remembering a sequence of words or expressions, or a mental presentation of the letters of a word
Semantic mapping: A key concept is put at the center or at the top, and the related words and concepts are linked with the key concept by means of lines or arrows
This strategy involves meaningful imagery, grouping, and associations It visually shows how groups of words relate to each other
Using keywords: A new word is linked to a known word (either in L1 or in L2) which sounds like the new word
Presenting sounds in memory: Students create a meaningful, sound-based association between the new word and known words in L1 or in L2 Rhyme can also be exploited to remember new words
Structured reviewing: New words should be reviewed in spaced intervals, at first close together and then move widely spaced apart Reviewing is essential for vocabulary learning
Using physical response or sensation: Physically acting out a new expression (e.g., going to the door), or meaningfully relating a new expression to a physically feeling or sensation (e.g., warmth) (Oxford, 1990, p.43) Using mechanical techniques: Using creative but tangible techniques, especially involving moving or changing something which is concrete, in order to remember new target language information Examples are writing words on cards and moving cards from one stack to another when a word is learned, and putting different types of material in separate sections of a language learning notebook (Oxford, 1990, p.43)
In this study, among ten memory strategy items classified by Oxford (1990) mentioned above, the four sub- memory strategies, namely structured reviewing, using mechanical techniques, using imagery and placing new words into a context were selected for some following reasons Firstly, within the scope of an action research project it is too challenging to train students in all ten strategies Secondly, a library search shows that many MA theses have searched other memory strategies but these four strategies remain inadequately researched
1.3.3.1 Structured reviewing Structured reviewing is scientifically based on memory principles, which highlight the importance of primacy, recency, duration, spacing, pacing, and linking, as noted by Stevick (1976) Oxford (1990b) and Brown-Azarowicz et al (1986) present illustrations of structured reviewing for L2 vocabulary expansion
Structured reviewing is an adaptable technique that can be used to reinforce any of the other techniques at any part of the contextuality continuum Structured reviewing creates a structured schedule for reviewing new words, no matter which particular technique is being used by the learner
The technique of structured reviewing entail going back over L2 vocabulary at different intervals, at first close together and then increasingly far apart For instance, the learner practices vocabulary words several times, then waits 15 minutes before practicing them again, and practices them an hour later, three hours later, the next day, two days later, the following week, and so on until the material becomes automatic (or "overlearned") In this way, the learner keeps spiraling back to these particular words, even though he or she is encountering other words in the meantime Naturally, the duration needed to make the words automatic depends on the difficulty of the words, the degree of context, and other factors
Though structured reviewing is very powerful, L2 textbooks typically fail to make any overt suggestions to learners about this technique Moreover, many such textbooks do not present L2 words in a consciously spiraled way that would implicitly lead learners to use structured reviewing Some of the best teachers tend to spiral back over previously learned L2 words to help their students review, but many teachers simply drop previously covered words as they move on to new ones
Structured reviewing is thus an important vocabulary learning technique that has not been used to its full potential
To remember what has been read, according to Oxford (1990), mechanical techniques were adjusted as a helpful technique in manipulating, flashcards
Flashcards are very popular with students, especially for vocabulary self-testing In our research using learning journals, in which students explain their L2 learning strategies, we have discovered that flashcards are among the most widely used vocabulary learning techniques Commercial flashcards are available for many languages, including both traditionally taught languages like French, Spanish, and ESL and less common ones like Russian
The flashcard technique involves at least three components: writing down (copying) the L2 word on the front of a card, writing the word's L1 meaning on the back, and then using the card to become familiar with the new word and its meaning The flashcard thus represents a glorified L2-Ll word list broken into units, each containing one new word or expression in both L2 and Ll forms The copying component (assuming that the flashcard is made by the student and not purchased as part of a set) might provide a small amount of kinesthetic benefit to some learners
METHODOLOGY
The rationale of using Action Research
The background to the study
General English 1 (GE1) makes use of the book “Starting skills 1” (Unit 1-9) GE2 and GE3 exploit “Starting skills 2” respectively first half and second half of the book In GE4, students are studying first 5 units of “Starting skills 3” GE1 is designed to help students reach A1-1 level GE2 is for A1-2 level Accordingly, after finishing GE4, students are expected to get A2 level according to CEFR The class was chosen for this study was all at beginning level, which means all the students had little knowledge about English They all met three times a week (Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday afternoon from 12.30 p.m to 4.15 p.m) for the lessons
In terms of schedule and objectives of the course, this course was conducted in 45 sessions (15 weeks) Each session lasted 100 minutes As the name of the class (GE1), this course aimed at providing students with a system of grammar points and basic vocabulary for general communication The main textbook of the course was
“Starting Skills 1” For each session, the teacher managed to help students cover one out of four skills or grammar points or vocabulary part which had been clarified in the schedule (See Appendix 2) The study room was about 20 square meters for about 30 students with such essential facilities as tables, desks and a board All the students were arranged into two rows of desks facing the teacher with an aisle which allowed the teacher to move backwards and forwards to give lectures or to be a participant with students’ group activities.
The research process
A typical action research needs to go from one step to another As suggested by Ferrance (2000), an action research cycle will be as follows:
As can be seen from the above cycle, there are six main steps to conduct an action through means of interviews, questionnaires, etc Next, the data is analyzed to find out the problems The fourth step is to design a plan of action so that the research can make a change and study that change After the intervention has been carried out, it is the researcher’s task to evaluate its effects to justify whether the action worked or not Then, if it had not been effective as expected, another method should be considered in order to improve the situation This circle of action research was adopted for this study The whole process of carrying out this action research is described below
In an attempt to identity the students’ problem with vocabulary retention, a questionnaire or otherwised called Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (Wesche &
Paribakht, 1996) was administered to the the first year students (N= 28) who were studying English as a compulsory minor subject After the questionnaires were returned (rate of returns: 100%), the students’ responses were analysed as the basis for a follow-up interview
The Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) is a 5-point self-report scale developed by Wesche & Paribakht (1996) that allows students to indicate how well they know items of vocabulary The students were given a list of words, and they were asked to choose one of the five scales that best reflects their thought These five scales are as follows (For the full VKS, see Appendix 3):
1.I don’t remember having seen this word before
2.I have seen this word before but I don’t know what it means
3.I have seen this word before and I think it means…………
4.I know this word; it means …
5.I can use this word in a sentence, e.g………
The purpose of using VKS in this study is to identify common problems the students encountered in retaining words that they had learned Results of an analysis of the students’ reponses in the VKS helped to surface the students’ problems with word retention
Fifty words included in this first VKS were taken from the book: “Tiếng Anh 12”
It was assumed that the students had learned all these words before their entry into the university Twenty-five minutes was the time the teacher allowed her students to complete this kind of test
Following the VKS, a follow-up interview was conducted with all 28 students, who had participated in the VKS survey A group interview was chosen instead of individual interviews because the number of interviewees was relatively great (n() Regrading the format, a semi-structured interview format was chosen so that more in-depth information about the students’ problems of word retention could be obtained
Admittedly, group interview (N() can run the risk of copying answers, which means some students can agree with others’ ideas without their own views
However, this way was still chosen since it was a time-saving idea and an interview’s appearance as a small free- talk also made the insiders feel comfortable and friendly, which also helped teachers get the reasons for their problems from her students The main interview question was “Why do they have those problems?”
Nevertheless, before going straight to the main problem, the teacher found some friendly ways to start her discussion and also to know something about the ways that her students often dealt with vocabulary retention at the beginning of the course
In other words, to further supplement the main question, a number of follow-up questions and prompts were included with detailed instruction to make it easier for students to answer and the teacher to collect data Finally, it was also noteworthy that quick note-taking of the teacher was of great importance for later use in the data analysis procedure
As stated in the finding problems, the first research question was answered first by the results taken from the test in the orientation session under the format of VKS test Fifty words included in this first VKS were taken from the book “Tiếng Anh 12” The test was designed to check whether students remember the experienced words or not, from then identify the obstacles that students encountered in their independent learning vocabulary
How well students know the words was described in 5 responses ranging from level
1 to level 5 The teacher then counted the number of each mark for each student
The figure was expressed as a percentage and illustrated in the table below:
Table 1: Results from VKS test
It can be derived from the results of the chart that: the students seemed to be weak at retaining the words that they have learned They could see the words familiar, that they had seen them somewhere before, but they could not give out the meanings or gave out the meanings indecisively The semi-interview was used in the next lesson helped to find out whether what students did in the test was the same as what they said in the interview Furthermore, an interview also helped the teacher to go insight the problems that her students were having when learning vocabulary
A semi-structured interview was the instrument that the researcher used to find out the answer to the second research question: Why do they have those problems?
During the interview, students gave out many reasons in Vietnamese, and teachers helped to translate and generalize so that the same ideas could be moved to the same points In this part, all students’ sayings in Vietnamese were translated into English
The information gained from the interview was analysised and put into six categories: Lack of time, Lack of skills in using dictionaries, Limited opportunities for using words productively, Teachers’ approaches to vocabulary teaching, Lack of memory strategies, Misbeliefs about vocabulary knowledge Details of these categories are presented below
The time for self-study was obviously very important, after joining classes, it is time for all students to stay at home and revise what they have learned Especially for learning English, time for vocabulary was really necessary However, as the result of the interview, some students revealed: “I have many subjects to cover, especially major subjects They took me a long time to study Despite knowing that English is very important for my future job, I do not have time for it.” Some other students admitted: “Maybe because I am lazy, I like spending time chatting with friends or surfing the net rather than sitting and learn by heart English vocabulary I’m not patient enough…”
Nevertheless, there are two students who said that they spent a lot of time studying, trying to learn words; however, in the end they still forgot when they need them
They considered that their ways of studying was not effective at all Thus, it can be seen that lack of time was just the matter of some too busy or lazy students; there were still other hard- working ones with a lot of time but an ineffective way of
Lack of skills in using dictionaries
Major findings of the study
dictionaries, Limited opportunities for using words productively, Teachers’ approaches to vocabulary teaching, Lack of memory strategies, Misbeliefs about vocabulary knowledge Among these, the lack of memory strategies seemed to take the highest consideration and worry from students
Secondly, based on the results from the initial step: identifying the problems, the teacher- researcher conducted a teaching plan, in which she provided her students with four sub-memory strategies, namely structured reviewing, using mechanical techniques, using imagery, and placing a new word into a context These strategies were introduced and implemented through the activities designed both in the in- class handouts and at –home requirements At home, students were required to write down their own diaries about their own ways they dealt with learning the given words by using four taught strategies After being collected and analyzed, the data got from these diaries revealed the interesting and happy results: All four strategies were given a comparatively equal concern from the students, among them using imagery was the most popular used by students with the percentage of 29.4%, placing the word into a context ranked the second using mechanical techniques stood at the third position and structured reviewing numbered the fourth The percentage difference was not so much among all four strategies
Thirdly, the research proved that applying the four memory strategies in teaching and learning vocabulary has improved students’ vocabulary retention Although, there was no control group to make a comparison; however, the consistent training during the scheme helped to prove the results from the tests The improvement that students displayed in the immediate post-test (post-test 1) showed better storing of material in the short-term and delayed post-test which was the sign of better retrieval in the long-term retention The better performance has not only occurred with the whole group but with almost all members of the group as well (28/28 for short term retention and 27/28 for long term retention).
Limitations of the study
Initially, in order to identify the problems from students in their independent learning vocabulary, the researcher had conducted a group interview By this way, she could save time and create a friendly and free atmosphere for students to talk, discuss and share their own ideas However, as the certain limitation of a group- interview, there appeared the state of copying ideas from each other and sometimes lack of control from teacher
In addition, the biggest limitation from this study can be the deficiency of a control group In case of a control group, the results got from the tests would be more persuasive and the way to deal with data would be easier for the teacher
Despite the shortcomings mentioned above, the effort of the researcher and the participants as well as serious work in data collection phases could assure the reliability and validity of the research.
Suggestions for further study
Firstly, arranging another control group in the research will be a good idea for researchers if they do not want to add so many methods to ensure the validity and reliability of the study Having a control group will help the researcher feel more relaxing when dealing with data and the results gained from the tests will be more reliable
Next, in the first phase of this study, identifying the problems, the researcher discovered many obstacles that students encountered when learning vocabulary
However, due to the limitation of time for the study, the researcher just selected the biggest problem Lack of memory strategies and made a plan to deal with it Thus, other researchers can entirely start their studies with other problems such as Lack of time, Lack of skills in using dictionaries, Limited opportunities for using words productively, Teachers’ approaches to vocabulary teaching, Misbeliefs about vocabulary knowledge
Finally, a collaborative action research is a good idea for next studies dealing with this kind of issue The cooperation of other teachers as co-researchers may result in deeper investigation and more useful suggestions for the future application of teaching and learning
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Hiebert, E H., & Kamil, M L (2005) Teaching and Learning Vocabulary London:
Zaid, M A (1995) Semantic Mapping In Communicative Language Teaching, Journal for the teacher of English, 33(3)
Xhaferi, B., & Xhaferi, G (2008) Vocabulary learning strategies used by students at SEEU in terms of gender and teachers' attitudes toward teaching vocabulary:
UEJL - Tetovở Tulving, F I (1975) Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words
Nemati, A (2009) Memory learning strategies and long term retention Vocational and
Griffiths, C (2004) Language Learning Strategies: Theory and Research
Ghazal, L (n.d.) Learning Vocabulary in EFL Contexts through Vocabulary Learning Strategies: Novista- Royal Vol.1(2) , 84-91
Pavlů, B I (2009) Testing Vocabulary Diploma Thesis- Masryk University Brno
Joe, A., Nation, P., & Newton, J (1996) Vocabulary Learning and Speaking
Activities Retrieved from http://eca.state.gov/forum/vols/vol34/no1/p2.htm
Paribakht, T.S & Wesche, M (1996) Enhancing vocabulary acquisition through reading: A hierarchy of text-related exercise types The Canadian Modern Language Review 52(2): 155-178
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Tran, T H N (2008) A study on the effectiveness of cognitive strategies in learning vocabulary of non- major students of English at Nghe An continuing education center Unpublished M.A thesis, Hanoi: University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University
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Tran, T N (2008) A study on the Effectiveness of Cognitive Strategies in Learning
Vocabulary of Non-major Students of English at Nghe An Continuing
Education Centre Unpublished Minor Thesis Hanoi: University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University
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Tran, T P (2008) An Action Research on the use of continuous feedback to improve the first year students' English Pronunciation at the English Department, College of Foreign Languages Unpublished M.A thesis, Hanoi: University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University.
Appendix 1: Direct and Indirect learning strategies (Oxford, 1990, p 18-20)
MEMORY STRATEGIES Creating mental linkage
Grouping Associating/ Elaborating Placing new words into a context
Using imagery Semantic mapping Using keywords Representing sounds in memory Reviewing well Structured reviewing
Using physical response or sensation
Formally practicing with sounds and writing systems
Recognizing and using formulas and patterns
Recombining Practicing naturalistically Receiving and sending messages
Getting the idea quickly Using resources for receiving and sending messages
Analyzing and reasoning Reasoning deductively
Analyzing expressions Analyzingcontrastive across languages
Translating Transferring Creating structure for input and output
COM PENS ATIO N STRA TEGI ES
Guessing intelligently Using linguistic clues
Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing
Switching to the mother tongue Getting help
Using mine and gesture Avoiding communication partially or totally Selecting the topic Adjusting or approximating the message
Coining words Using a circumlocution or synonym
Centering your learning Overviewing and linking with already known material Paying attention
Delaying speech Arranging and planning your learning
Finding out about language learning
Organizing Setting goals and objectives Identifying the purpose of a language task
Planning for your task Seeking practice opportunities Evaluating your learning
Lowering your anxiety Using progressive relaxation deep breathing or meditation Using music
Using laughter Encouraging yourself Making positive statements
Taking risks wisely Rewarding yourself Taking your emotional temperature
Listening to your body Using checklist
Writing a language learning diary Discussing your feelings with someone else
Asking questions Asking for clarification or verification
Cooperating with others Cooperating with peers
Cooperating with proficient users of the new language Empathizing with others Developing cultural understanding
Becoming aware of the others’ thoughts and feelings
Appendix 2: Schedule of Teaching GE1
38 Reading Unit 8: Art and Literature
Activity for checking Vocabulary: VKS (Vocabulary Knowledge Scale) Look at the following list of words and give each word a number rating from 1 to 5 basing in how well you know the word
1 I don’t remember having seen this word before
2 I have seen this word before but I don’t know what it means
3 I have seen this word before and I think it means…………
4 I know this word; it means …
5 I can use this word in a sentence, e.g………
(Adapted from Wesche M & Paribakht T.S (1996) “Assessing Second Language Vocabulary Knowledge)
Rude (adj) Situation (n) Project (n) Generally (adv) Suitable (adj) Rush (v) Hurry (v) Unlike (adj) Dish (n) Daughter (n)
Frankly (adv) Solution (n) Relationship (n) Share (v)
Compare (v) Describe (v) Secret (n) Decision (n) Topic (n) Permit (v) Bat (n) Speed (n) Match (n) Message (n) Lately (adv) Result (n) Realize (v) Ski (v) Slip (v) Sink (v) Twin sister (n) Encourage (v) Refuse (v) Remind (v)
Raise (v) Wave (v) Suppose (v) Signal (n) Jump (v) Instance (n) Appropriate (adj) Several (adj) Pass (v) Slightly (adv) Consider (v) Impolite (adj)
Activity for checking Vocabulary: VKS (Vocabulary Knowledge Scale) Look at the following list of words and give each word a number rating from 1 to 5 basing in how well you know the word
1 I don’t remember having seen this word before
2 I have seen this word before but I don’t know what it means
3 I have seen this word before and I think it means…………
4 I know this word; it means …
5 I can use this word in a sentence, e.g………
Adult (n) Architect (n) Architecture (n) Biographer (n) Biography (n) Boat (n) Bottom (n) Butter (n) Cheese (n) Coast (n) Court (n)
Engineer (n) Factory (n) Female (n) Grass (n) Grey (n) Island (n) Juice (n) Lawyer (n) Leisure (n) Literature (n) Mall (n) Motorbike (n) North (n) Novelist (n) Office (n) Painting (n) Plane (n) Playwright (n) Poem (n) Poet (n) Potato (n) Receptionist (n) Rice (n)
Sail (v) Sculptor (n) Sculpture (n) Secretary (n) Snow (n) South (n) Stadium (n)
Surfing (n) Teenager (n) Typist (n) Vegetable (n) Village (n) West (n) Wrong (n)
Activity for checking Vocabulary: VKS (Vocabulary Knowledge Scale) Look at the following list of words and give each word a number rating from 1 to 5 basing in how well you know the word
1 I don’t remember having seen this word before
2 I have seen this word before but I don’t know what it means
3 I have seen this word before and I think it means…………
4 I know this word; it means …
5 I can use this word in a sentence, e.g………
Complete the last column in the table by making clear which stragies did you use to learn that word: SR for “structured reviewing”/ MT for “using mechanical techniques”/ IM for “using imagery”/ PL for “Placing the word into a context” and
No for “other strategies” or “no strategies given”
Accountant (n) Adult (n) Architect (n) Architecture (n) Biographer (n) Biography (n) Boat (n) Bottom (n) Butter (n)
Cheese (n) Coast (n) Court (n) East (n) Engineer (n) Factory (n) Female (n) Grass (n) Grey (n) Island (n) Juice (n) Lawyer (n) Leisure (n) Literature (n) Mall (n) Motorbike (n) North (n) Novelist (n) Office (n) Painting (n) Plane (n) Playwright (n) Poem (n) Poet (n) Potato (n) Receptionist (n) Rice (n)
Secretary (n) Snow (n) South (n) Stadium (n) Surfing (n) Teenager (n) Typist (n) Vegetable (n) Village (n) West (n) Wrong (n)
Activity for checking Vocabulary: VKS (Vocabulary Knowledge Scale) Look at the following list of words and give each word a number rating from 1 to 5 basing in how well you know the word
1 I don’t remember having seen this word before
2 I have seen this word before but I don’t know what it means
3 I have seen this word before and I think it means…………
4 I know this word; it means …
5 I can use this word in a sentence, e.g………
Adult (n) Architect (n) Architecture (n) Biographer (n) Biography (n) Boat (n) Bottom (n) Butter (n) Cheese (n) Coast (n) Court (n)
Engineer (n) Factory (n) Female (n) Grass (n) Grey (n) Island (n) Juice (n) Lawyer (n) Leisure (n) Literature (n) Mall (n) Motorbike (n) North (n) Novelist (n) Office (n) Painting (n) Plane (n) Playwright (n) Poem (n) Poet (n) Potato (n) Receptionist (n) Rice (n)
Sail (v) Sculptor (n) Sculpture (n) Secretary (n) Snow (n) South (n) Stadium (n)
Surfing (n) Teenager (n) Typist (n) Vegetable (n) Village (n) West (n) Wrong (n)
Appendix 7: Strategies used as reported in students’ diaries
Appendix 8: Individuals’ performance in the Pre-test, Post-test 1 and Post-test 2
Individuals’ performance in pre / Individuals’ performance in post 1/Individuals’ performance in post 2
Appendix 9: Mean difference between pre-test, post test 1 and post-test 2
Student Pre-test Post-test 1 Mean Dif Student Post-test 1 Post-test 2 Mean Dif
Mean difference between pre-T and post-T1 Mean difference between Post-T1 and Post-
Appendix 10: Suggested activities for introducing and practicing memory strategies
These activities can be effectively used for teachers to introduce 4 sub memory strategies, for students to practice using the four memory strategies and learn words or review vocabulary
Activity: Build words into a picture Level Beginner to Advanced
Preparation Choose twelve words from the next unit you are going to teach in the course book They should be new words
1 Tell the group that they are going to draw a picture incorporating some of the new words from the next unit The students should work independently of each other
2 Tell them the first word, either explaining its meaning in English, paraphrasing it with a known word, miming it, or translating it They make a drawing representing it Give them the second word and explain/ translate it They continue the picture, incorporating the second word/idea In this way, they build each of the twelve words into one picture
3 Say the words again slowly, and ask them to write each word over its representation
4 Ask the students to compare their pictures
(Adopted from John Morgan and Mario Rinvolucri, 1991
Placing words into a context strategy Activity: Words to story
Preparation Choose 30-40 words that need revising
In class 1 Write the words on the board Ask the students to check any words they don’t remember the meaning of
2 Ask each student to pick 6-7 words from on the board
3 Each student then makes up a story (mentally, not on paper) suggested by the word she/he has chosen
4 The students pair off and tell each other their stories, then explain how they chose those particular words
Acknowledgement I learnt the idea from John Morgan and Mario Rinvolucri, 1991
Appendix 11: Sample of Learners’ Diaries